Introduction to Computers — Comprehensive Notes

Prepared for study and revision. Covers theory, components, software, networking, databases,
programming basics, cybersecurity, and applications (including healthcare).

Contents
1. Definition and Functions of a Computer
2. History and Generations of Computers
3. Classification of Computers
4. Hardware Components (in depth)
5. Memory and Storage (hierarchy)
6. Data Representation and Number Systems
7. Software: System and Application
8. Operating Systems (functions and types)
9. Computer Networks and Internet Basics
10. Databases and DBMS
11. Programming Fundamentals
12. Web and Cloud Computing Basics
13. Storage, Backup and Recovery
14. Computer Security and Privacy
15. Maintenance and Troubleshooting
16. Emerging Technologies
17. Computers in Healthcare (HIS, EMR, KHIS etc.)
18. Practical Skills and Common Tasks
19. Revision Tips and Sample Questions
20. Glossary and Further Reading
1. Definition and Functions of a Computer
A computer is an electronic device that accepts raw data (input), processes it following a set of
instructions (program), stores results for future use, and produces meaningful information
(output).
Primary functions of a computer:
- Input: capturing data (keyboard, scanner, sensors).
- Processing: calculations and logical operations (CPU).
- Storage: saving data temporarily or permanently (RAM, HDD/SSD).
- Output: presenting information (monitor, printer).
- Control: directing the sequence of operations.
2. History and Generations of Computers
A brief evolution:
- Mechanical era: early calculating machines (Pascal, Babbage designs).
- First generation (1940s–1950s): Vacuum tubes; large, power-hungry; e.g., ENIAC.
- Second generation (1950s–1960s): Transistors replaced vacuum tubes; smaller and more
reliable.
- Third generation (1960s–1970s): Integrated Circuits (ICs); further miniaturization.
- Fourth generation (1970s–present): Microprocessors (single-chip CPUs), personal computers.
- Fifth generation onwards (1980s–present): Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI), parallel
processing, AI, networking, mobile computing.
Each generation improved speed, reliability, size, and cost-effectiveness.
3. Classification of Computers
By purpose:
- General-purpose computers: perform many tasks (desktops, laptops).
- Special-purpose computers: designed for specific tasks (embedded systems, ATMs).
By data processed:
- Analog computers: process continuous data (rare today).
- Digital computers: process discrete data (most common).
- Hybrid computers: combination of analog and digital.
By size and power:
- Microcomputers: personal computers, smartphones.
- Minicomputers: mid-range servers (less common term today).
- Mainframes: large organizations for massive transaction processing.
- Supercomputers: high-performance computing for scientific simulations.
By architecture:
- Single-user vs Multi-user, Client-server, Embedded, Real-time systems.
4. Hardware Components (in depth)
Hardware are the physical parts of a computer. Important components and details:
Central Processing Unit (CPU):
- The CPU is the brain of the computer; it executes instructions.
- Key parts: Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit (CU), registers, cache.
- Instruction cycle: Fetch → Decode → Execute → Store.
- Clock speed (Hz) determines how many cycles per second; multi-core CPUs run parallel
threads.
Motherboard:
- Main circuit board connecting CPU, memory, storage, and peripherals.
- Contains chipsets, expansion slots (PCIe), sockets for CPU and RAM, buses.
Memory (brief): RAM, ROM, cache (expanded later).
Input devices (detailed):
- Keyboard types: membrane, mechanical; layouts (QWERTY, AZERTY).
- Pointing devices: mouse (optical, laser), touchpads, trackball, stylus.
- Scanners: flatbed, sheet-fed, barcode scanners.
- Specialized input: biometric scanners, ECG sensors, barcode readers, RFID readers.
Output devices (detailed):
- Monitors: LCD, LED, OLED; resolutions (HD, Full HD, 4K).
- Printers: inkjet, laser, thermal; printer languages (PCL, PostScript).
- Other output: speakers, projectors.
Storage devices (detailed):
- Primary storage: RAM (volatile) for running programs.
- Secondary storage (non-volatile): HDD, SSD, hybrid drives, flash drives.
- Removable/archival: CD/DVD, external HDD, tapes for long-term archiving.
Buses and Interfaces:
- Data bus, address bus, control bus.
- Interfaces: USB, SATA, NVMe, HDMI, DisplayPort, Ethernet.
Power supply and cooling:
- Converts AC to DC rails; supplies power to components.
- Cooling: fans, heat sinks, liquid cooling for high-performance systems.
5. Memory and Storage (hierarchy)
Memory hierarchy explains speed, cost, and capacity trade-offs:
- Registers: fastest, smallest, inside CPU, used for immediate calculation.
- Cache (L1, L2, L3): very fast, reduces CPU access to RAM.
- Main memory (RAM): volatile, holds running programs and active data.
- Secondary storage (HDD, SSD): non-volatile, large capacity for files and applications.
- Tertiary storage (tape libraries, optical jukeboxes): used for backup and archival.
RAM types:
- DRAM (Dynamic RAM) used for main memory; must be refreshed.
- SRAM (Static RAM) used in caches; faster and more expensive.
ROM types and uses:
- ROM (Read-Only Memory): firmware storage.
- PROM, EPROM, EEPROM: programmable and rewritable variants.
6. Data Representation and Number Systems
Computers store and process data in binary form (0s and 1s).
Key concepts:
- Bit: binary digit (0 or 1).
- Byte: 8 bits. Common prefixes: KB (1024 bytes), MB, GB, TB.
- Binary, Decimal, Hexadecimal systems: conversion between them is essential.
- ASCII: 7/8-bit encoding for characters; Unicode/UTF-8 supports international scripts.
- Signed vs unsigned numbers, two's complement representation for negative numbers.
Example: character encoding and simple binary idea:
- The letter 'A' in ASCII is 65 decimal = 01000001 in 8-bit binary.
7. Software: System and Application
Software is a set of instructions that tells hardware what to do.
System software:
- Operating Systems (OS): manage hardware, provide user interface, manage files, memory,
processes, and security.
- Device drivers: allow OS to interact with hardware.
- Utility software: disk cleanup, antivirus, backup tools.
Application software:
- Productivity suites: word processors, spreadsheets, presentation tools.
- Specialized applications: hospital information systems, EMR/EHR software, accounting
packages.
- Web browsers, media players, graphics editors.
Software development lifecycle (SDLC) overview:
- Requirements → Design → Implementation → Testing → Deployment → Maintenance.
8. Operating Systems (functions and types)
Key functions of an OS:
- Process management: creating, scheduling, and terminating processes.
- Memory management: allocate/deallocate memory, virtual memory swapping.
- File system management: organization, access, permissions.
- Device management: drivers and I/O scheduling.
- Security and user management: authentication, authorization.
- Networking support: TCP/IP stack, services.
Types of operating systems:
- Single-user, multi-user, real-time OS, distributed OS, mobile OS (Android/iOS), server OS
(Linux, Windows Server).
Examples and usage scenarios:
- Windows: common for general desktops and many clinical systems.
- Linux: server environments, scientific computing, research servers.
- macOS: content creation, design, and Apple ecosystems.
9. Computer Networks and Internet Basics
Networks connect computers to share resources and information.
Network types:
- LAN (Local Area Network): within a building or campus.
- MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): city-wide.
- WAN (Wide Area Network): connects multiple locations over long distances.
- PAN (Personal Area Network): personal devices close range.
Basic components:
- Switches: connect devices on a LAN.
- Routers: forward traffic between networks and provide Internet access.
- Modems: modulate/demodulate for ISP connections.
- Access points: provide Wi-Fi connectivity.
Key protocols and services:
- TCP/IP: suite for reliable internet communication.
- HTTP/HTTPS: web protocols.
- FTP/SFTP: file transfer.
- SMTP/IMAP/POP3: email.
- DNS: domain name resolution.
IP addressing and subnetting basics, IPv4 vs IPv6, NAT concept, and basics of network security
(firewalls, VLANs).
10. Databases and DBMS
A database stores organized collections of data; DBMS is software to manage databases.
Types of databases:
- Relational (RDBMS): tables with rows and columns; SQL for querying (MySQL, PostgreSQL,
SQL Server).
- NoSQL: document, key-value, wide-column, graph (MongoDB, Redis, Cassandra).
Core DB concepts:
- Tables, records (rows), fields (columns).
- Primary keys, foreign keys, indexes.
- Normalization: organizing data to reduce redundancy (1NF, 2NF, 3NF).
- Transactions and ACID properties (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability).
Basic SQL examples (conceptual):
- SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, CREATE TABLE, JOINs.
11. Programming Fundamentals
Programming is creating instructions for computers to perform tasks.
Languages and paradigms:
- Low-level vs high-level languages.
- Procedural (C), Object-oriented (Java, Python), Functional (Haskell), Scripting (Python,
JavaScript).
Compiler vs Interpreter:
- Compiler translates whole code into machine language before running (e.g., C).
- Interpreter translates and executes code line by line (e.g., Python).
Basic programming concepts:
- Variables and data types (integer, float, string, boolean).
- Control flow (if, else, switch, loops).
- Functions/procedures, parameters, return values.
- Data structures: arrays, lists, stacks, queues, trees, dictionaries/maps.
- Algorithms: sorting, searching; complexity (Big O notation) overview.
Flowcharts and Pseudocode:
- Flowcharts visualize logic with symbols (start/end, process, decision, input/output).
- Pseudocode is plain-language description of an algorithm.
12. Web and Cloud Computing Basics
Web basics:
- Client-server model: browser (client) requests resources from web server.
- HTML: structure of web pages; CSS: styling; JavaScript: behavior.
- APIs and RESTful services: exchange data via JSON or XML.
Cloud computing models:
- IaaS (Infrastructure as a Service): VMs, storage (e.g., AWS EC2).
- PaaS (Platform as a Service): app platforms (e.g., Heroku).
- SaaS (Software as a Service): hosted applications (e.g., G Suite).
Benefits: scalability, cost-efficiency, managed services, rapid deployment.
Common providers: AWS, Azure, Google Cloud, and regional providers.
13. Storage, Backup and Recovery
Backup strategies:
- Full backup: copies everything; longer and larger.
- Incremental backup: copies changes since last backup; efficient storage but restore chain
needed.
- Differential backup: copies changes since last full backup; simpler restore than incremental.
Offsite and cloud backups recommended for disaster recovery.
RAID overview (basic):
- RAID 0: striping (performance, no redundancy).
- RAID 1: mirroring (redundancy).
- RAID 5: striping with parity (balance of performance and redundancy).
Develop a backup schedule and test restores regularly.
14. Computer Security and Privacy
Security threats and malware types:
- Viruses, worms, trojans, ransomware, spyware, adware, rootkits.
- Phishing, social engineering, credential theft.
Best practices:
- Use strong, unique passwords; consider passphrases and a password manager.
- Keep systems and software updated (patch management).
- Use antivirus/endpoint protection and enable firewalls.
- Principle of least privilege: give users only the access they need.
- Encrypt sensitive data at rest and in transit (TLS, HTTPS, disk encryption).
- Regular backups and incident response planning.
Legal/ethical considerations and data protection (health data):
- Patient confidentiality and data privacy principles.
- Follow local laws and facility policies when handling personal health information.
15. Maintenance and Troubleshooting
Preventive maintenance:
- Keep equipment clean and dust-free; ensure good ventilation.
- Regular software updates and patching.
- Check backups and verify restore procedures.
Basic troubleshooting steps:
1. Identify and define the problem.
2. Reproduce the issue if possible.
3. Check recent changes (updates, installations, connections).
4. Use logs and error messages to diagnose (Event Viewer on Windows, syslog on Linux).
5. Test hardware connections and replace faulty cables/peripherals.
6. Restore system from last known good configuration or backup if needed.
Document problems and resolutions for future reference.
16. Emerging Technologies
Short overviews of key trends:
- Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML): pattern recognition, predictive analytics.
- Internet of Things (IoT): networked sensors and devices; healthcare sensors and wearables.
- Big Data: large datasets with analytics and visualization.
- Blockchain: distributed ledgers for tamper-evident records.
- Edge computing and 5G: lower latency and real-time processing for devices.
17. Computers in Healthcare (HIS, EMR, KHIS etc.)
Health information systems commonly used in facilities:
- EMR/EHR (Electronic Medical/Health Records): patient clinical data, medication, lab results.
- HIS: Hospital Information Systems that integrate administrative, clinical, and financial modules.
- KHIS/DHIS2: national-level reporting and aggregation platform used in Kenya for routine health
data.
- RIS/PACS: Radiology Information Systems and Picture Archiving and Communication Systems
for imaging.
- LIMS: Laboratory Information Management Systems.
Interoperability standards:
- HL7 and FHIR: standards for exchanging healthcare information between systems.
- DICOM: medical imaging standard used by PACS.
Key considerations for healthcare IT:
- Data privacy and patient consent.
- Access control and role-based permissions.
- Data quality, timeliness, and validation rules.
- Backup, uptime, and disaster recovery for critical systems.
- Training for clinical and administrative staff.
18. Practical Skills and Common Tasks
Useful everyday skills for students and HRIOs:
- File management: organize folders, use meaningful filenames, back up important files.
- MS Word: creating, formatting documents, headers/footers, styles, tables.
- MS Excel: basic formulas (SUM, AVERAGE), sorting, filtering, pivot tables for summary
statistics.
- Converting images to PDF: use scanner apps, 'Print to PDF', or in MS Office 'Insert > Picture'
then 'Save As PDF'.
- Scanning patient records: scan at 300 dpi for legibility; name files consistently (patientID_date).
- Email best practices: professional subject lines, attachments, secure sending of PHI.
- Simple troubleshooting: restart application/PC, check cables, ensure network connectivity.
- Data entry tips: double-check entries, use drop-downs where possible, keep a data validation
checklist.
19. Revision Tips and Sample Questions
Study strategies:
- Make summary notes and flashcards for key terms and commands.
- Practice hands-on: install a Linux VM, write small scripts, work with spreadsheets.
- Teach others: explaining concepts is a strong way to reinforce learning.
- Timebox practice sessions and focus on weak areas.
Sample short questions and MCQs:
1. What does CPU stand for?
2. Name three types of secondary storage devices.
3. True/False: RAM is non-volatile.
4. What protocol is used to send email between servers?
5. Give one advantage of cloud storage.
Sample MCQ:
Q: Which device is an output device?
A) Keyboard B) Mouse C) Monitor D) Scanner
Answer: C) Monitor
20. Glossary and Further Reading
Glossary (selected):
- ALU: Arithmetic and Logic Unit.
- API: Application Programming Interface.
- BIOS: Basic Input Output System.
- CPU: Central Processing Unit.
- DBMS: Database Management System.
- DNS: Domain Name System.
- DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol.
- GUI: Graphical User Interface.
- HTTP/HTTPS: HyperText Transfer Protocol (Secure).
Further reading and resources:
- Official ICD/WHO resources for health coding (for clinical students).
- Khan Academy, Coursera, freeCodeCamp for programming practice.
- Official documentation for Linux, Windows, and major DBMSes.
- Local MOH and KHIS guidance for reporting and health data management.