Basic SQL Interview Q&As (Part 1)

🔹 Section 1: Fundamentals
Q1. What is SQL, and why is it used?
Answer: SQL (Structured Query Language) is the standard language
for working with relational databases. It allows users to create, read,
update, and delete (CRUD) data stored in tables. SQL is widely used
because it provides a powerful, declarative way to interact with large
datasets, making data management simple and efficient.
Example:

SELECT * FROM employees;

💡 Tip: Always mention — “SQL is the universal language for RDBMS

like MySQL, PostgreSQL, Oracle.”

Q2. What are the main types of SQL dialects? Give examples.
Answer: SQL dialects are vendor-specific implementations of SQL.
Although all follow the SQL standard, each adds unique features.

MySQL → open-source, widely used for web apps

PostgreSQL → advanced features, strong ACID compliance
SQLite → lightweight, file-based, used in mobile apps
Oracle SQL → enterprise-focused, powerful security & scalability
T-SQL (SQL Server) → Microsoft’s SQL extension
💡 Tip: If asked, always name the dialect you’ve actually worked
with.

Q3. What is the difference between SQL and NoSQL databases?

Answer:

SQL databases are relational, use predefined schemas, and store

data in structured tables. They follow ACID properties, making
them ideal for financial, transactional, and enterprise systems.
 NoSQL databases are non-relational, schema-less, and handle
unstructured/semi-structured data. They provide flexibility and
scale horizontally, commonly used in big data and real-time apps
(e.g., MongoDB, Cassandra).
💡 Tip: Mention that SQL = structured, consistent data; NoSQL =
flexible, scalable systems.

Q4. What is a database and why do we need it?

Answer: A database is an organized collection of structured
information stored electronically. It helps in efficient storage,
retrieval, management, and security of data. Databases are essential
because manual file-based systems are inefficient and prone to
redundancy and inconsistency.
💡 Tip: Relating this to real-world systems (e.g., online shopping cart,
student records) makes your answer stronger.

Q5. What is DBMS? What are its types?

Answer: A Database Management System (DBMS) is software that
manages data in databases. It provides tools to define, manipulate,
and secure data.

Relational DBMS (RDBMS): stores data in tables (MySQL, Oracle,

PostgreSQL)
Hierarchical DBMS: organizes data in tree structures (IBM IMS)
Network DBMS: data represented as records connected by links
Object-oriented DBMS: handles complex objects (db4o)
Graph DBMS: focuses on relationships (Neo4j)
💡 Tip: Interviewers often expect you to highlight RDBMS first.

Q6. What is RDBMS? Give examples.

Answer: RDBMS (Relational Database Management System) is the
most common type of DBMS. It organizes data into related tables
linked by keys (primary and foreign). SQL is the language used to
interact with RDBMS. Examples include MySQL, PostgreSQL, Oracle,
and MariaDB.
Q7. What is a table, row, and column in SQL?
Answer:

Table: collection of related data stored in rows and columns.

Row (Record/Tuple): a single entry in a table (e.g., one student’s
details).
Column (Field/Attribute): a vertical structure representing data
type (e.g., Name, Age).

Q8. What is an SQL statement? Give examples.

Answer: SQL statements are commands executed by the SQL engine
to perform specific tasks. Examples:

SELECT → retrieve data

INSERT → add records
DELETE → remove records
CREATE → create a new table
💡 Tip: Mention that statements fall under categories like DDL,
DML, DQL, DCL, TCL.

Q9. What are the different types of SQL commands?

Answer:

DDL (Data Definition Language): defines structure → CREATE,

DROP, ALTER
DML (Data Manipulation Language): manipulates data → INSERT,
UPDATE, DELETE
DCL (Data Control Language): controls access → GRANT, REVOKE
TCL (Transaction Control Language): manages transactions →
COMMIT, ROLLBACK
DQL (Data Query Language): queries data → SELECT

Q10. Give examples of SQL commands for each type.

DDL:

CREATE TABLE students (id INT, name VARCHAR(50));

DML:
INSERT INTO students VALUES (1,'Aman');

DCL:

GRANT SELECT ON students TO user1;

TCL:

COMMIT;

DQL:

SELECT * FROM students;

🔹 Section 2: Querying Data

Q11. What is an SQL query? What are select and action queries?
Answer: An SQL query is a request to the database to perform a task.

Select queries: used to fetch data (SELECT * FROM employees;)

Action queries: modify data (INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE).
💡 Tip: Always explain with one simple select + one action example.

Q12. How do you select all columns from a table?

SELECT * FROM employees;

Q13. How do you select specific columns from a table?

SELECT name, salary FROM employees;

Q14. What is the DISTINCT keyword and why is it used?

Answer: DISTINCT eliminates duplicate rows and returns only unique
values from a column. Useful for analyzing unique categories.

SELECT DISTINCT department FROM employees;

💡 Tip: Mention that DISTINCT helps clarity but adds overhead on

large datasets.

Q15. How do you filter rows using WHERE?

SELECT * FROM employees WHERE salary > 50000;

Q16. What are comparison, logical, and set operators in SQL?

Comparison: =, !=, <, >

Logical: AND, OR, NOT
Set: IN, BETWEEN, EXISTS

Q17. How do you use BETWEEN, IN, and LIKE for filtering?

SELECT * FROM students WHERE age BETWEEN 18 AND 22;

SELECT * FROM students WHERE city IN ('Delhi','Mumbai');

SELECT * FROM employees WHERE name LIKE 'A%';

💡 Tip: LIKE with % and _ is very frequently asked in interviews.

% is used for flexible pattern searches (start, end, contains).

_ is used for strict length-based matches (character-by-character).

Q18. What is a NULL value? How is it different from zero or blank?

Answer:

NULL = unknown/missing value

Zero = numeric value
Blank (‘ ’) = empty string of length zero
💡 Tip: NULL is not equal to anything, even another NULL.
SELECT * FROM students WHERE city = NULL; -- No results
SELECT * FROM students WHERE city IS NULL; -- Correct
Always stress the difference:
NULL → unknown / missing
0 → number
'' → empty text

Q19. How do you sort records using ORDER BY?

SELECT * FROM employees ORDER BY salary DESC;

Q20. How do you limit the number of rows returned (LIMIT/TOP)?

 MySQL/PostgreSQL:

SELECT * FROM employees LIMIT 5;

SQL Server:

SELECT TOP 5 * FROM employees;

🔹 Section 3: Aggregate Functions & Grouping

Q21. What are aggregate functions in SQL? Give examples.
Answer: Aggregate functions perform calculations on a set of values
and return a single result. Common examples:

COUNT() → counts rows

SUM() → total of a column
AVG() → average value
MIN() & MAX() → lowest and highest values

📌 Example Table: employees

emp_id name department salary

1 Aman IT 60000

2 Riya HR 40000

3 Kabir IT 65000

4 Neha Finance 55000

5 Arjun HR 42000

1. COUNT() → counts rows

SELECT COUNT(*) AS total_employees

FROM employees;
Output:

total_employees

💡 COUNT(column) ignores NULL values, while COUNT(*) counts all rows.

2. SUM() → total of a column

SELECT SUM(salary) AS total_salary

FROM employees;

Output:

total_salary

262000

3. AVG() → average value

SELECT AVG(salary) AS avg_salary

FROM employees;

Output:

avg_salary

52400

4. MIN() & MAX() → lowest & highest values

SELECT MIN(salary) AS lowest, MAX(salary) AS highest

FROM employees;
Output:

lowest highest

40000 65000

5. Aggregate with GROUP BY

SELECT department, COUNT(*) AS emp_count, AVG(salary) AS avg_salary

FROM employees

GROUP BY department;

Output:

department emp_count avg_salary

IT 2 62500

HR 2 41000

Finance 1 55000

🔑 Quick Cheat Sheet

 Function Purpose Example Output

COUNT() Count rows COUNT(*) 5

SUM() Total values SUM(salary) 262000

AVG() Average AVG(salary) 52400

values

MIN() Lowest value MIN(salary) 40000

MAX() Highest value MAX(salary) 65000

Q22. How do you count rows in a table?

SELECT COUNT(*) FROM employees;

Q23. How do you calculate sum, average, minimum, and maximum?

SELECT SUM(salary), AVG(salary), MIN(salary), MAX(salary)

FROM employees;

Q24. What is GROUP BY and why is it used?

Answer: Groups rows that have the same values in specified columns,
often used with aggregate functions.

SELECT department, AVG(salary)

FROM employees

GROUP BY department;

Q25. What is HAVING and how is it different from WHERE?

Answer:

WHERE filters rows before grouping.

HAVING filters groups after aggregation.

SELECT department, COUNT(*)

FROM employees

GROUP BY department

HAVING COUNT(*) > 5;

Q26. How do you find the nth highest or lowest value in a column?

Answer: You can find the nth highest/lowest value using:

1. ORDER BY + LIMIT + OFFSET (MySQL, PostgreSQL, SQLite).

2. ROW_NUMBER() or RANK() window functions (SQL Server, Oracle,
PostgreSQL).
3. Nested subqueries.

1. Using LIMIT + OFFSET (MySQL, PostgreSQL, SQLite)

Find the 3rd highest salary:

SELECT salary

FROM employees

ORDER BY salary DESC

LIMIT 1 OFFSET 2;

Output:

salary

60000

💡 OFFSET 2 skips the top 2 rows, then LIMIT 1 fetches the 3rd row.
2. Using Subquery (Works in most SQL dialects)
Find the 2nd highest salary:

SELECT MAX(salary)
FROM employees

WHERE salary < (SELECT MAX(salary) FROM employees);

Output:

max

65000

💡 You can nest further to get 3rd, 4th highest, but it gets messy.
3. Using ROW_NUMBER() (SQL Server, Oracle, PostgreSQL)
Find the 3rd highest salary:

SELECT salary

FROM (

SELECT salary, ROW_NUMBER() OVER (ORDER BY salary DESC) AS

row_num

FROM employees

) ranked

WHERE row_num = 3;

Output:

salary

60000

4. Using RANK() (handles duplicates properly)

SELECT salary

FROM (
 SELECT salary, RANK() OVER (ORDER BY salary DESC) AS rank_num

FROM employees

) ranked

WHERE rank_num = 3;

If two employees share the same salary, RANK() will give them the same
rank.
ROW_NUMBER() does not allow ties (each row gets a unique number).