Nrupathunga University

Department of Computer Science

UNIT I

Introduction to Programming in C
Introduction to C
C is a programming language developed at AT & T’s Bell Laborites of USA in 1970.
It was designed and written by a man named Dennis Ritchie. In the late seventies C began
to replace the more familiar languages of that time like PL/I, ALGOL etc. No one pushed
C. it wasn’t made the official Bell Labs language. Thus, without any advertisement C’s
reputation spread and its pool of users grew. Ritchie seems to have been rather surprised
that so many programmers preferred C to older languages like FORTRAN or PL/I or the
newer ones like Pascal and APL.

Possibly why C seems so popular is because it is reliable, simple and easy to use. Out of
the dozens of languages available, the prize of purity is often given to PASCAL.

1.1 Historical Development of C Language

C is a general-purpose language which has been closely associated with the UNIX
operating system for which it was developed - since the system and most of the programs
that run it are written in C. COBOL was being used for commercial applications,
FORTRAN for Engineering and Scientific Applications and so on. At this stage people
started thinking that instead of learning and using so many languages, each for a different
purpose, why not use only one language. Which can program all possible applications.
Therefore, an international committee came out with a language called ALGOL 60.
However, ALGOL 60 never really became popular because it seemed too abstract, too
general. To reduce this abstractness and generality, a new language called combined
Programming Language (CPL) was developed at Cambridge University. CPL was an
attempt to bring ALGOL 60 down to earth. However, CPL turned out to be so big, having
so many features, that it was hard to learn and difficult to implement.

Basic Combined Programming Language (BCPL), developed by Martin Richards at

Cambridge University aimed to solve this problem by brining CPL down to its basic good
features. But unfortunately, it turned out to too less powerful and too specific. Around same
time a language called B was written by Ken Thompson at AT & T’s Bell Labs, as a further
simplification of CPL. But like BCPL, B too and BCPL, added some of his own and
developed C. Ritchie’s main achievement is the restoration of the lost generality in BCPL
and B, and still keeping it powerful.
1.2 Compiler and Interpreter
We generally write a computer program using a high-level language. A high-level
language is one which is understandable by us humans. It contains words and phrases from
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the English (or other) language. But a computer does not understand high-level language.
It only understands program written in 0's and 1's in binary, called the machine code. A
program written in high-level language is called a source code. We need to convert the
source code into machine code and this is accomplished by compilers and interpreters.
Hence, a compiler or an interpreter is a program that converts program written in highlevel
language into machine code understood by the computer.

The difference between an interpreter and a compiler is given below:

Compiler
Scans the entire program and translates it as a whole into machine code. It takes
large amount of time to analyze the source code but the overall execution time is
comparatively faster. Generates intermediate object code which further requires linking,
hence requires more memory. It generates the error message only after scanning the whole
program. Hence debugging is comparatively hard. Programming language like C, C++ use
compilers.

Interpreter
Translates program one statement at a time. It takes less amount of time to analyze
the source code but the overall execution time is slower. No intermediate object code is
generated, hence are memory efficient. Continues translating the program until the first
error is met, in which case it stops. Hence debugging is easy. Programming language like
Python, Ruby use interpreters.

1.3 Algorithm in Programming

In programming, algorithm is a set of well defined instructions in sequence to solve the
problem.

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Qualities of a good algorithm

Input and output should be defined precisely.

Each steps in algorithm should be clear and unambiguous.

Algorithm should be most effective among many different ways to solve a problem.

An algorithm shouldn't have computer code. Instead, the algorithm should be written in
such a way that, it can be used in similar programming languages.

Write an algorithm to add two numbers entered by user.

Step 1: Start

Step 2: Declare variables num1, num2 and sum.

Step 3: Read values num1 and num2.

Step 4: Add num1 and num2 and assign the result to sum.

sum←num1+num2

Step 5: Display sum

Step 6: Stop

Write an algorithm to find the largest among three different numbers entered by user.

Step 1: Start

Step 2: Declare variables a,b and c.

Step 3: Read variables a,b and c.

Step 4: If a>b

If a>c

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Display a is the largest number.

Else

Display c is the largest number.

Else

If b>c

Display b is the largest number.

Else

Display c is the greatest number.

Step 5: Stop

1.4 Flow Chart

◼ Flowchart is the diagrammatic or pictorial representation of the algorithm for

solving the problem. This is a tool used in the design of program. Flowchart consist
of pictorial symbols. Flowchart helps a programmer to plan the procedure for the
solution of a problem.
◼ Flowchart indicates the direction of flow of process, relevant operations and
computations, point of decision and other information which is part of the solution.
◼ The symbols and their meaning used in flowchart are shown in the following
table

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Flowchart are not related to any programming language. Hence they can be implemented
in any programming language.
Flowchart are easy to understand. The data flow of the program can be easily understood
by flowcharts and errors in it can be easily recovered.
When we need to incorporate some more facilities within program, then it is easy to
incorporate them through flowchart.

1.5 Structure of C Programming

1) Documentation Section
2) Header Section [link section]
3) Definition Section
4) Global Declaration
5) Main Section
6) Sub Program Section

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1) Documentation Section
We can write title of program in that section using comments line there are
two types of comment line

a) Single line comment:-it is starting with // [double slash] this type of

comment line are used for single line comment.
b) Multi line Comment /* */:-This type of comment line is used to give
additional information about the program in two or more then two lines this
type of comment line is started with /* & end with ‘*/’ there is no effect on
the program by using comment line.

2) Header Section[link section]

In this section we can use the Header file such as # ‘stdio.h’ & ‘conio.h’ ,
string.h, such as Header file are used to give c linking support to the functions
used in c program.

stdio.h stands for slandered I/O file. Which support to standard I/O function as
printf() & scanf().

Similarly conio.h is stand for console I/O hidder file which support to console
I/O functions such as clrscr(); & getch().

3) Definition Section

In definition section we define constant value by using #defines ex:-#define

pie 3.14 In above example to define constant value 3.142 variable.

4) Global Declaration Section

There are some variables that are used in more than one function such
variables are called global variable they are declared in the global declaration
section that in outside of all function.

5) Main() Section

Every C program have only one main() function is start with ({ ) & close
with ( } ) main function have main two part i.e declaration part & execution
part.
a) Declaration part:-

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In this part we declare the variables before using program. In declaration

part we declare variables with their particular data types such as int,
float, char etc.
b) Execution Part:-
In this part of main() section we use execution statements in main()
section every statement & function are terminated by (;).

6) Sub program section:-

In sub program section we can use user defined function. User defined
function are function which are defined by user.
Simple C Program

/* This is my first ‘c’ program */

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
clrscr();
printf(“Wel come C programming”);
getch();
}

//Write a program two addition of two numbers

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main() {
clrscr();
printf(“The addition of two number is %d”,20+30);
getch();
}
//Write A Program to display the name of college.

Algorithm:-

1.Start
2.Print statement “cocsit”
3.stop

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Flowchart:-

STAR

PRINT
STATEMENT
“cocsit”
Program:-
STOP
/* Write A Program to display the name of college.*/

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
clrscr();
printf(“*****out/put****”);
printf(“\nHello cocsit");

getch();
}
*****out/put****
Hello cocsit

1.6 C Tokens

The Character set

Every language has it’s own character set ex;- In English language there are 26 alphabets
are used to create word, sentence, paragraph.
Similarly ‘C’ language has it’s own character sets. The character set of ‘C’ language is
nothing but combination of alphabets, digits & special symbols ‘C’ inserts the uppercase
letter A—Z lower case latter a---z the digits 0----9 & special character. The alphabets &
digits together are called as alphanumeric character.
These characters are used as building blocks from basic program element. Following
table shows the valid alphabets, digits & special symbol allowed in ‘C’
Alphabets

Uppercase -
A B C --------------------- Z.

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Lowercase -
a b C --------- Z
Digits:- 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

, Comma Special Characters

; Semi column
: Column
? Question Mark
“ Double quotation
| Vertical Bar
\ Back Slash
/ Slash
~ Tile
_ Under score
$ Dollar sign
# Hash
% Percentage
& Ampere Sign
* Astric
- Minus
+ Plus
< Less sign/ opening angle
> Grater sign/ closing angle
( Left parentheses
) Right parentheses
[ Left Bracket
] Right Bracket
{ Left Brace
} Right Brace

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White spacious

The ‘C’ compiler ignores white space unless they are a part of string constant white
space may be used to separate words, white space include blank space, horizontal tab.

Horizontal tab - \t
New line - \n
By using this character set we can create program, function name, variable name.
‘C’ uses certain combination of characters such as, /b,/n,/t. to represent special condition
such as back space, new line & horizontal tab these characters combination are known as
escape sequence.

IDENTIFIERS AND KEYWORDS

Identifers

• Identifiers are names that are given to various program elements such as variables,
function & array name. there are certain rules we should be follow while running
& identifiers are
• Identifier consists of letters & digits in any order except the first character should
be letter
• Both uppercase & lowercase letters are permitted although lowercase letter are
commonly used.

• Uppercase & lowercase letters are not interchangeable [an uppercase letters is not
equivalent to corresponding lowercase letter
• The underscore [_] character can be included & it is considered as a letter.
• An identifiers name up to 8 characters many compilers allow an identifiers name
up to 31 characters.
• Following names are valid identifiers x, xyz, sum, nau, basic_sal.
First character must be latters.

The following names are valid identifiers

X y12 sum_1 _tempera

Names area text_rate TABLE

The following names are not valid identifiers

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7h The first character must be a letter

X” Illegal characters (“). Rder-no Illegal
charaters (-).
Rror flag Illegal characters (blank space).

C Keywords

Keywords are the words whose meaning has already been explained to the C compiler. The
keywords cannot be used as variable names because if we do so we are trying to assign a
new meaning to the keyword, which is not allowed by the computer.

auto break case char const continue

default do double else enum extern
float far for goto if int
long near register return short signed
static struct switch typedef union unsigned
void while

There are 32 keywords used in C all keywords must be written in lower case.

Some compilers may also include some or all of the following keywords.

ada far near asm fortran pascal

entry huge

Variables

A variables is data name that may be used to store the data value these variables name are
giving to location in the memory of computer where we are storing the data there are some
rules available for creation and deceleration of variables.

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b,c;
clrscr();
printf(“Enter the number”);
scanf(“%d%d”,&a,&b);
c=a+b;
printf(“The addition is %d”,c);

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getch();
}

Types of variables
In C, a quantity which may change during program execution is called a variable. Variable
names are names given to locations in the memory of computer where different constants
are stored. This location can contains integer, real or character constants. This is because a
constant stored in a location with a particular type of variable name can hold only that type
of constant. Ex:- a constant stored in a memory location with an integer variable name must
be an integer constant. One stored in location with a real variable name must be a real
constant and the one stored in location with a character variable name must be a character
constant.
Rules for Constructing Variable Name.

a) A variable name is any combination of 1 to 8 alphabets, digits or

underscores. Some compilers allow variable names whose length could be
up to 40 characters.
b) The first character in the variable name must be an alphabet.
c) No commas or blanks are allowed within a variable name.
d) No special symbol other than an underscore (as in gross_sal) can be used in
a variable name.
Ex:- int I,net_sal;

float a;
char code;-
Data type

C language is rich in data type like other languages ‘C’ language has also it’s own data
types data types are used to define or declare the type [data type] of particular variable,
constant, function etc.
In C language there are three classes of data types.
1) Primary data type.
2) Derived data type.
3) User-defined data types.

Data type are always written in small letters each data types has it’s own feature depending
upon a condition the particular data types is used in the name of data type we cannot use in
valid space.

Size Format
Data Type Range Size in Bit in
Byte String

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Char -128 to 127 8 1 %c

Unsigned char 0 to 255 8 1 %c
Int -32768 to 32767 16 2 %i or %d
Unsigned int 0 to 65535 16 2 %u
-2147483648 to
long int 32 4 %ld
2147483647
Unsigned long int 0 to 4294967295 32 4 %lu
3.4e-38 to
Float 32 4 %f or %g
3.4e+38
1.7e-308 to
Double 64 8 %lf
1.7e+308
3.4e-4932 to
Long double 80 10 %lf
1.1 e+4932

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C Data Types

User Defined datatype Derived type

- structure - array
- union Built in type - function
- pointer

Integral type void Floating point

int char float double

1) Primary Data Type:- it is also known as standard of or built in data type all
compiler support fundamental data type. Primary data type is divided into 3 type.

int [integer]:-

Integer are defined by keyword ‘int’ integer are store for no we cannot store decimal point
no in that data type integer occupies one word of storage i.e 2 bytes or 16 bits.
The range of integer data type is -32768 to 32767 ‘C’ has support to classes of integer
storage namely int shor int & long int variable than they increases the range of value
as will as size of it. 32 bit word length can store an integer ranging from
2,147,483,648to 2147483647.

Ex:- int a=5; int b=6;

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{ int a,b,c;
a=10;
b=20;
c=a+b;
printf(“\n A addition of two number is %d”,c);
getch();
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}
float [Float]

The real no are known as floating value. These no contain functions part. This is defined
by keyword ‘float’ float value requires 4 bytes or 32 beats. The range of float is 3.4e-38 to
3.4e38.

Ex:- float pie=3.14;

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
{ float a,b,c;
clrscr();
a=3.2;
b=1.5;
c=a+b;
printf(“\n Addition of two number %f”,c);
getch();
}

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{ int sub1=40,sub2=50,sub3=60,sum;
float avg;
clrscr();
sum=sub1+sub2+sub3;
printf(“\n Addition of three subject is %d”,sum);
avg=sum/3;
printf(“\n average of three subject is %f”,avg);
getch();
}

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character (char)

Generally those data types are used when we have to storage a single character or string to
variable. It requires 1 byte or 8 beats to store in memory. It is defined by keyword as ‘char’
the range of char is -128 to 127.

Ex:-char name;
name=’a’;
char name[15]=”Bhosle”;

Double

It is very similar to float data type the major difference between float & double data type is
size & range of the double data type is always greater than float data type size of double
data type is 64 beats, 8 bytes range of double data type is 1.7e-308 to 1.7e +308 .

Void Type

The Void type has no value. This is usually used to specify the type of functions. The type
of a function is said to be void when it does not return any value to the calling function. It
can also play the role of a generic type, meaning that it can represent any of the other
standard types.

User defined data type

These data type are defined by using keyword ‘typedef’ it takes following format.

Syntax :- typedef type_identifier name

Ex:- typedef int mark

The example will demonstrate the use of user defined data type.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
typedef int mark
void main()
{ mark sub1,sub2,sub3,sum,avg;

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printf(“\nEnter the mark of three subject”);

scanf(“%d%d%d”,&sub1,&sub2,&sub3);
sum=sub1+sub2+sub3;
avg=sum/3;
printf(“\nThe total of three subject is%d”,sum);
printf(“\nThe average of three subject is %d”,avg);
getch();
}

here marks indicate integer data type but sub1, sub2,sub3 indirectly marks referees to
standard data type int.

Derived data type

Some time these derived data type are also called user defined data type which is derived
from fundamental data type. The derived data type are

ex:- array, pointer, function.

Escape Sequences

These are the special characters starting with ‘\’ which makes the computer to line out of
the normal sequence.
Computer has some default sequences e.g computer always prints data in a line unless we
ask the computer to create a new line etc. the following are the escape sequences.
Constant Meaning Constant Meaning
\n New line \r Carriage return
\t Horizontal tab \0 Null
\v Vertical tab \’ Single quote
\a Alert (bell) \” Double quote
\b Back space \? Question mark
\f Form feed \\ Back slash

//Write a program to swap two value by using third variable

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main() {
int a,b,c;
clrscr();
printf(“\nEnter the First number ”);
scanf(“%d”,&a);
printf(“\nEnter the Second Number ”);
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scanf(“%d”,&b);
c=a;
a=b;
b=c;
printf(“\n After swap A=%d”,a);
printf(“\n After swap B=%d”,b);
getch();
}

*****out/put****
Enter the First number 23
Enter the Second Number 55
After swap A= 55
After swap B= 23
//Write a program to swap two value by using third variable
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main() {
int a,b;
clrscr();
printf(“\nEnter the First number’);
scanf(“%d”,&a);
printf(“\nEnter the Second Number”);
scanf(“%d”,&b);
a=a+b;
b=a-b;
a-b-b;
printf(“\n After swap A=%d”,a);
printf(“\n After swap B=%d”,b);
getch();
}
*****out/put****
Enter the First number 23
Enter the Second Number 55
After swap A= 55
After swap B= 23

/*write a program to reveres the given number*/

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main() {
int no,rev,a1,a2,a3;
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clrscr();
printf(“Enter the number");
scanf("%d",&no);
a1=no%10;
no=no/10;
a2=no%10;
no=no/10;
a3=no;
rev=100*a1+10*a2+a3;
printf(“Revers number is %d",rev);
getch();
}
*****out/put****
Enter the number 123
Entered number is 321

Operators :-
An operators is a symbol which tells the computer to perform mathematic or
logical operation C supports following 8 types of operators

1) Arithmetic operators
2) Relational operators
3) Logical operators
4) Assignment operators
5) Increment & Decrement operators
6) Conditional operators
7) Bit-wise operators
8) Special operators

1) Arithmetic operators
C Language supports all arithmetic operators this operators provides same function
as in other languages this operators can operate on any built in data type in C
following list gives the arithmetic operators with meaning.
+,-,*,%

Integer division ignores frication parts in the result c doesn’t support an operators
for exponential

A+B
A and B is operands

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//Addition of two number

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{ int a;
float b,c;
clrscr();
printf(“\nEnter the two number");
scanf("%d%f",&a,&b);
c=a+b;
printf(“Addition of two number is %f",c);
getch();
}

2) Relational operators
If we want to compare two values then Relational operators are used C supports six
Relational operators
1 >
2 >=
3 <
4 <=
5 ==
6 !=
The simple format of Relational operators as follows

Expression Relational operator’s expression

The value of real expression is dissention statement if
//Write a program to use various relational operators and display their return values.

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{ clrscr();
printf(“\nCondition : Return Values \n”);
printf(“\n10!=10 : %5d”,10!=10);
printf(“\n10==10 : %5d”,10==10);
printf(“\n10>=10 : %5d”,10>=10);
printf(“\n10<=10 : %5d”,10<=10);
printf(“\n10!=9 : %5d”,10!=9);
getch();
}
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3) logical operators

C language support three logical operators

&& Logical And

|| Logical or
! Logical Not
a<b && x==30
a>b || b>c

Logical ‘AND’ (&&)

Condition1 Condition 2 Result
True False False
False True False
True True True
False False False

Logical ‘OR’ (&&)

Condition1 Condition 2 Result
True False True
False True True
True True True
False False False

Logical ‘NOT’ (!)

True False
False True

4) Assignment Operators

The assignment operators are used to assign values or result of the expression to
variables C support for the assignment operators that is

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ex:-a=10;

5) Increment and Decrement operators

Prefix Increment and Decrement operators

In the prefix operators the values of variables is Increment and Decrement First
and then assigned to the expression
Prefix operators
++a ;
--a ;
a=3 ;
y=++a
y=4

postfix operators
a post fix operators first assign the values to variables on left side and then
increment the operand
a=5;
y=a++;
y=6 ;

6) Conditional operators

Conditional operators
Expirations ? expression2 : expression3

?:
a=3; b=4;
x=(a<b)? a:b;

//write a program to find out the given number greater or not by using
conditional operators.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main() {
int a,b;
printf(“Enter two number”);
scanf(“%d%d”,&a,&b);

If(a>b)?printf(“A is greater number”):printf(“B is greater number”);

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getch();
}

in above expression a is less then b if this condition is true then value of a will be
to assign to the expression and if given condition is false then value of b it will be assign
to the expression

7) Bit-wise operators

There operators are used for manipulation of data at bit level we can use these
operators for testing the bits, sift right and left we can’t apply the bit wise operators with
float and double following list gives the operators and there meaning

This operator move bit patterns either to the left or to the right. The shift operators
are represented by Left shift << and Right shift >>.

<< Left
10
0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0
>>Right
10
0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 1 0

8) Special operators

Comma operators this operator is used to link or connect the related expression
Values(a=3,b=4,x=a+b)
x=7
3 is assign to variables a
4 will be assign to b
after that x=7 addition of two numbers

// Write a program to use of comma (,) operator

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()

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{
clrscr();
printf(“ Subtraction = %d\n Addition =%d”,5-3,5+6);
getch();
}

Input And Output Statement

Introduction

Reading the data from the input devices and displaying the results on the screen, are the
two main tasks of any program. To perform these tasks user friendly C has a number of
input and output functions. When a program needs data, it takes the data through the input
functions and sends results obtained through the output functions. The input/output
functions are the link between the user and the VDU.

There are number of I/O functions in C based on the data types. The input/output functions
are classified in to two types

4) Formatted functions
5) Unformatted function.

1.7 Formatted Function:-

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The formatted input/output functions read and write all types of data values. They
require conversion symbol to identify the data type. They can be used for both reading
and writing of all data values. The formatted functions return the values after execution.
The return value is equal to the number of variables successfully read/ written.
1.8 Unformatted function:-

The formatted input/output functions only work with the character data type. There
is no need to convert the data. In case values of other data types are passed to these
functions, they are treated as the character data. The unformatted function also return
values, but the return value of unformatted function is always the same.

Input and Output Functions

Formatted Function Unformatted Function

Input Output Input Output

scanf() printf() getchar() putchar()
gets() puts()

Formatted Function:-

printf():-
This function is used to display result on the screen it can be used to display any
combination of numerical value as will as char or string. It requires conversion symbol and
variable names to print the data. The conversion symbol and variable names should be same
in number.
Syntax:-

printf(“<Format string>” ,arg1,arg2,….);

Ex:-
void main()
{ int a=3;
float b=5;
char c=’b’;
printf(“%d %f %c”,a,b,c);
}
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//display the ascii value

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int y=65;
clrscr()
printf(“%c %d”,y,y);
getch();
}

scanf():-
The input data or information can be enter to the computer through a standard input
device by using scanf() function. This function can be used to enter any combination of
numerical value, single char, or strings this function return the number of data item that
have been successful we can declare the scanf() function as follow.

scanf(“<Format string>” ,&arg1,&arg2,….);

In the format string various format specifies are used

Ex:- scanf(“%d”,&a);

The argument1,argument2,……are the argument at that represent that indusial data

item in the format string these argument are return of variables. The scanf() statement
requires ‘&’ operator called address operator. The address operators print the memory
location of the variable. Here in the scanf() statement the role of ‘&’ operator is to indicate
the memory location of the variable. So that value read would be placed at that location.

Ex:-

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{ int a,b,c;
clrscr();
scanf(“%d%d”,&a,&b);
c=a+b;
printf(“%d”,c);
getch();
}
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getchar(); Function:-

Single character can be entered into the computer using ‘c’ library function getchar(); the
get character function is a part of standard I/O function. It written a single character from
a standard input device [keyboard] the function does not require any argument a pair of
empty parentheses must follow the word getchar(). The getchar take following form

Variable name=getchar();

Variable name is a valid C name that has been declared as char type. When this
statement is encountered, the computer waits until a key is pressed and then assign this
character as a value to getchar function. Since getchar is used on the right-hand side of an
assignment statement,

Syntax:-
Char name;
Name=getchar();

Ex:-
void main()
{
char c;
clrscr();
c=getchar();
putchar(c);
getch();
}

putchar(); Function:-

This function prints one character on the screen at a time which is read by the standard
input device such as keyboard.

Syntax:-

putchar(name);

Ex:-
void main()
{
char c;
clrscr();
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c=getchar();
putchar(c);
getch();
}

puts() function:-

This function is used to display the string or collection of character to the output
device such as monitor.

Syntax:-

char name[20];
puts(name);

Ex:-
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
char name[20];
clrscr();
printf(“\nEnter the name”);
gets(name);
printf(“My name is %s”,name);
getch();
}

gets() function:-
This function is used to accepting any string or collection of character from input device
such as keyboard.
Syntax:-

char name[20];
name=gets();

Ex:-
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
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{
char name[20];
clrscr();
printf(“\nEnter the name”);
gets(name);
printf(“\n My name is “);
puts(name);
getch();
}

Conversion Specifiers used in c

Data type Conversion Symbol

Integer %d or %i
Unsigned %u
Long signed %ld
Long unsigned %ld
Unsigned hexadecimal %x
Unsigned octal %o
Float %f or %g
Double %lf
Char %c
Unsigned char %c
String %s

UNIT II
Controlling Statement

Introduction
The statements in a program are executed line by line similarly in the way we read
a text book. The method to read a textbook is straight forward, which starts from first
line to the end of line and from top to bottom.
Similarly, in the program the statements are read and executed sequentially lineby-
line unto the end of program. In some time, we may select one of the options from the
available options by testing some condition. Depending on the problem, the flow of the
program is fixed.

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C Language supports decision making to control the flow and execution of

statements in any order. Such statements are decision or control statements. Decision
making is one of the important aspects of the computer. For making decisions computer
needs a condition i.e. logical expression and decision-making statement. For building
conditions, we need the operators.
Expressions in decision-making statements normally consist of arithmetic,
relational, logical or conditional operators.
2.1 Decision making structures
• The if statement
• The if- else statement
• Nested if – else statement

2.1.1 The if statement

If it is an keyword, The if statement is a powerful decision making statement used
to control the flow of execution of statements. First condition is checked. If condition
is true than it execute the true statement block control transfer to statement x. If the
condition is false then without executing the true block the control is goes directly to
the next statement x. The if statement always used in conjunction with expressions.
These expressions evaluate true of false.

The general format of a simple if statement is

if (test expression)
{ body of if statement;

}
Next statement x;

The body of if may have one statement or group of statement where each statement
is separated by semicolon. If the test expression is true, the true statement block will be
executed otherwise computer will skip the block of statement and the execution will
jump to the next statement immediately after the end of if statement.

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Start

True
Text
Expression?

False Body of if statement;

Statement X

End

Simple If statement flow chart

if ( a>b)
{
printf(%d\n”,a);
}

void main()
{
int a,b;
printf(“\nEnter the Number a & b”);
scanf(“%d%d”,&a,&b);
if(a>b)
printf(“A is grater number”);
if(b>a)
printf(“B is grater number”);
getch();
}

◼ The test expression (condition) should not end with semicolon(;).

◼ The test expression without expression arguments is not acceptable.
◼ The test expression must be always enclosed within a pair of brackets().

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2.1.2 If – else statement

The if – else statement is an extension of the simple if statement. In this statement
first check the condition if condition is true then body of if (true) statement is executed
otherwise body of else (false) statement is executed. In this statement either body of if or
body of else is executed and then only the control moves to the next statement. Syntax:-

if (condition)
{
Body of true statement block;
} else
{
Body of false statement block;
}

Ex:-
if (a>b)
{
printf(“\n A is grater then B”);
}
else
{
printf(“\nA is less then B”);
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}
This statement provides the alternates in both the situations, if condition is true the
body of if is executed if condition is false the body of else is executed.
Here computer can not proceed without executing either body of if or body of else.

//Write a program to find grater number within two numbers void

main()
{ int a,b;
printf(“\nEnter the Number a & b”);
scanf(“%d%d”,&a,&b);
if(a>b)
{
printf(“A is grater number”);
}
else
{
printf(“B is grater number”);
}getch();
}
// Write a program to find given number is even or odd void
main()
{ int num;
printf(“\nEnter the any number”);
scanf(“%d”,&num);
if(num%2==0)
{
printf(“The given number is even number”);
}
else
{
printf(“The given number is odd number”);
} getch();
}

//Write a program to find given year is leap year or not

void main() {
int year;
printf(“\nEnter the year”);
scanf(“%d”,&year);

if(year%4==0)
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{
printf(“The given year is leap year”);
}
else
{
printf(“The given year is not leap year”);
}getch();
}

2.1.3 Nested if –else statement

It is perfectly all right if we write an entire if-else construct within either the body
of the if statement or the body of an else statement. This is called as nesting of if. In
this kind of statement no of logical condition are checked. For executing various
statement. Nested if-else can be chained with one another If the condition is check if
condition is false then control passes to else statement block where condition is again
checked with if statement. This process continue become condition is true if condition
is true then execute the true statement block otherwise last else statement block will be
execute.

Syntax:-

if(Condition 1)
{
if(Condition 2)
{
Body of True Statement Block
}
else
{
Body of False Statement Block
}
}
else
{
if(Condition 3)
{
Body of True Statement Block
}
else
{
Body of False Statement Block
}
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In that first check the condition. If the given condition1 is true then again check the
condition 2 if the given condition 2 is true then execute the true statement block and control
transfer to statement x. if the given condition 2 is false then without executing the true
statement block execute the false statement block of condition 2 and control transfer to
statement x. if given condition 1 is false then control transfer to else statement again check
the condition 3 if the condition 3 is true then execute the true statement and control transfer
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to statement x. if the given condition 3 is false then execute the false statement block and
control transfer to statement x.
When this structure gets executed and as soon as any one of the statement gets
executed, immediately the chain breaks & computer goes next statement. There are many
possible forms of nesting. It always depends on our problem.

Write a program that display the class obtained by student if percentage of the student
is input through the keyboard.

#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{ float per;
printf(“\nEnter the percentage : “);
scanf(“%f”,&per);
if(per<=0 || per>100)
{
printf(“Invalid input”);
exit(0);
}
if(per<40)
printf(“Fail”);
else {
if(per<50)
printf(“Pass”);
else
{
if(per<60)
printf(“Second class”);
else
printf(“First class”);
}
}
}

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Write a program find out entered key is upper case or lower case.

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main() {
char x;
clrscr();
printf(“\nEnter any char");
scanf("%c",&x);
if((x>=65&&x<=90)||(x>=97&&x<=122))
{
if(x>=65&&x<=90)
printf(“it is an upper case alphabet");
else
printf(“It is lower case alphabet");
}
else
printf(“It is not alphabet");
getch();
}

Positive number and negitive number

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main ()
{ int num;
printf(“\nenter any number");
scanf("%d",&num);
if(num>0)
{
printf(“given number is positive");
}
else{
if(num<0)
{
printf(“given num is negative");
} else
printf(“Zero");
}
getch();

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2.1.4 else—if ladder

There is a negative side to the program. Even if the first condition turns out to be true, still
all other condition are checked. This will increase the time of execution of the program.
This can be avoided using the else if clause.
When multiple decision are taken then else if is used when we used else if ladder, can else
is associated with if.
Syntax
if(Condition 1)
statement 1;
else if(condition 2)
statement 2;
else if(condition 3)
statement 3;
else if(condition n)
statement n;
else

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To find the grade

void main() {
float per;
printf(“Enter the value”);
scanf(“%f”,&per);
if(per>80)
{
printf(“grade is merit”);
}
else if(per>70) {
printf(“Distinction”);
}
else if(per>60) {
printf(“Grade A”);
}
else if(per>50) {
printf(“Grade is B”);
}
else if(per>=35) {
printf(“Grade is C”);
}
else {
printf(“Failed”);
}
printf(“try try but don’t cry, one day you will success”);
getch();
}

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Write a program to Larger number within five number.

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{ int n1,n2,n3,n4,n5,larg,small;
clrscr();
printf(“\nEnter the number");
scanf("%d%d%d%d%d",&n1,&n2,&n3,&n4,&n5);
larg=n1;
if(n1>larg) larg=n1;
if(n2>larg) larg=n2;
if(n3>larg) larg=n3;
if(n4>larg) larg=n4;
if(n5>larg) larg=n5;
printf(“\nthe largest number within five number is %d",larg);
small=n1;
if(n1<small) small=n1;
if(n2<small) small=n2;
if(n3<small) small=n3;
if(n4<small) small=n4;
if(n5<small) small=n5;
printf(“\nthe smallest number within five number is %d",small);
getch();
}
2.1.5 Switch statement

By using switch statement, which have multiple collection but (alternative increases)
complexity increase and program become easy to read and debug. Switch statement is
multi-case statement. The keyword switch statement value of condition match with label .

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Syntax :

switch(expression){
case 1 :
statement(s);
break;
case 2 :
statement(s);
break;
case n :
statement(s);
break;
default :
statement(s);
}

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Switch flow chart

If

condition is doesn’t match with label of case (1) than it checks condition value is match
with label of case (2). If that value is match than execute statement block of case (2) and
control transfer to statement x and so on---
We have to remember that, case labels are single character constants.

Explanation of switch statement

Expression: it is an integer expression or character.

Value1, value 2 : this are constants or constants expression known as case label.
Block 1, block 2: this are statement which may content one or more statement. Case label
must be end with colon(:). default: the default is an optional case which it will execute
expression value, doesn’t match with any case value.
• In a switch there can be either variable or expression If it is a variable it must
be either integer or character If it is an expression it must be an arithmetic
expression.
• There can be any number of cases.
• Every case should have an unique value.
• These cases can be written in any sequence.
• In a case there can be any number of statement.
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• It is possible to have the nested switch.

• After every case break statement is compulsory.
• Default is a case which gets selected when none of the case value matches with
the result of expression.
• Default case is optional.

Write a program that reads a number between 1 to 7 and display the day name

main() {
int day;
printf(“Enter a number between 1 to 7 \n”);
scanf(“%d”,&day);
switch(day)
{
case 1:printf(“Monday\n”);
break;
case 2:printf(“Tuesday\n”);
break;

case 3:printf(“Wednesday\n”);
break;

case 4:printf(“Thursday\n”);
break;

case 5:printf(“Friday\n”);
break;
case 6:printf(“Saturday\n”);
break;
case 7:printf(“Sunday\n”);
break;
default:printf(“Monday\n”);
}

Write a program add,sub,multi & division of two number

void main() { int a,b,n,p;

flat c;
clrscr();
xyz : printf(“\nenter two number”);
scanf(“%d%d”,&a,&b);
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printf(“\n 1 addition of two number”);

printf(“\n 2 subtraction of two number”);
printf(“\n 3 multiplication of two number”);
printf(“\n 4 division of two number”);
printf(“\nenter your choice”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);

switch(n) {
case 1: c=a+b;
printf(“\naddition of two number is%f”,c);
break;
case 2: c=a-b;
printf(“\subtraction of two number is%f”,c);
break;
case 3 : c=a*b;
printf(“\multiplication of two number is%f”,c);
break;
case 4: c=a/b;
printf(“\division of two number is%f”,c);
break;
default:
printf(“\nentered choice incorrect”);
}
printf(“\nDo you want to continue”);
printf(“\nEnter 6 yes 7: no”);
scanf(“%d”,&p);
swatch(p) {
case 6:
goto xyz;
break;
case 7:exit();
}
getch();
}

The output of the following code is ____________

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int c=1;
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switch( c ){
case 1:printf(“1”);
break;
default: printf(“0”);
}
return(0);
}
Answer: 1

2.2 Looping Control Structures

In the program so many times we come across the situation where we want to
execute some part of the program again and again. For some particular number of time. In
such situations we make use of loop statements. These are the statements which can execute
a block of statements for some particular number of time.
The loops are used for repetitive execution of statement in block of loop as long as
the condition is true, all statements in a block of loop are executed repeatedly. When
looping condition become false. The control moves to the next statement immediately after
the end of loop block. Here the condition is a valid logical statement. The logical statement
determines the condition under which the loop should continue repeating.
So when we want to repeat some part or procedure for some particular number of
times then we use loops.

In this language there are three loops

• while loop
• do-while loop
• for loop
• break statement, continue statement, goto statement

Entry control loop

In this loop, first condition is checked, if the condition is true, than it executes the
body of loop. Again the condition is checked, if the condition is true, it execute body of
loop . So on , this processes continues until the given condition become false. Once
condition become false, than it transfer control to statement x without executing the body
of loop

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Ex : while loop, for loop

Exit control loop

In this loop, first body of loop is executed, then the condition is checked. If the condition
is true, than it execute body of loop. Again condition is checked, if it is true the body of
execute. So on this process continue until the given condition become false. Once condition
become false. It control transfer to statement x without executing the body of loop.
In exit control loop, the condition may true or false, at least once the body of loop is
executed

Ex : do-while

For loop

This statement is used when calculations are to be carried out between initial and
final value with step. The for loop condition consist of three actions namely initialization,
testing and incrementing/ decrementing. Each action should be separated by semicolon(;)
also this loop statement is used when number of execution time is known in advance.

It is an entry control loop having syntax as follow.

Syntax-
for(initial value ; condition ; increment/decrement)
{
body of for loop;
}

In this loop the initial value, condition, increment/decrement is specified in the same
line. Here computer starts with the initial value, checks the condition. If the condition is
true computer executes the body and automatically goes up, it takes the increment or
decrement automatically and it continues. Remember, if the body of for continue a single
statement, no need of brackets. But if there are more than one statement in the body then
they must be enclosed between brackets.

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Here every thing is specified in the same line and hence we can tell the number of
repetitions it can take. When we know the number of repetitions in advance than we should
go for the for loop.

Start
Flow Chart

Initialization

False

Conditio
n

True Stop

Body of loop

Increment

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i;
for(i=1;i<=10;i++)
{ printf(“%d”,i); }
getch()
}

While loop

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the while loop is one of the entry control loop. In this loop the condition is given at the top.
First the check condition and if the condition is true then execute body of loop. The body
of while may have one statement or more than one statement, if there is a single statement
no need of brackets’{‘’}’. If there are more one statement then brackets are compulsory.
Again the check condition and if it is true then execute body of loop this process still
continues of condition become false if condition become false does not execute the body
of loop and control goes to statement x. This loop should be used when condition is more
important.
Syntax:
while(conditio n)
{
Body true statement block;
}
Start

Initialize

Text False
Condition

True End
Body of loop

Increment
flow chart for while loop

Ex:- void main()

{
int i=1;
clrscr();
while(i<=100)
{
printf(“%d\n”,i);
i=i+1;
}getch();

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Department of Computer Science

void main()
{
int i=2;
clrscr();
while(i<=100)
{
printf(“%d\n”,i);
i=i+2;
}
getch();
}
Do while
There is a minor difference between the working of while and do-while loops this
difference is the place where the condition is tested. The while tests the condition before
executing any of the statements within the while loop. The do-while tests the condition
after having executed the statements within the loop.

Syntax:-

do
{
Body of the loop
}
while(test-condition);

Since the test condition is execute at the bottom of the loop, the do –while construct
provides an exit controlled loop and therefore the body of the loop is always executed
at least once.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<math.h>

void main()
{
int n,k,m;
clrscr();
scanf("%d",&k);
n=1;
do
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{
m=pow(n,2);
printf(“%d\n",m);
n++;
} while(m<=(pow(k,2)));
getch();
}

//display 5,10,15----
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{ int n,k;
clrscr();
scanf("%d",&k);
n=5;
while(n<=k)
{
printf(“%d\n",n);
n=n+5;
}
getch();
}

//display 7,14,21----
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n=7;
clrscr();
while(n<=70)
{
printf(“%d\n",n);
n=n+7;
}
getch();
}

//display 10,20,30----
#include<stdio.h>
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#include<conio.h>
void main()
{ int n,k;
clrscr();
scanf("%d",&k);
n=10;
while(n<=k)
{
printf(“%d\n",n);
n=n+10;
}
getch();
}

//display 1,2,4,7,11----
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n,k,d;
clrscr();
scanf("%d",&k);
n=1;
d=1;
while(n<=k)
{
printf(“%d\n",n);
n=n+d;
d=d+1;
}
getch();
}

//display 1,2,4,8----
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{ int n,k;
clrscr();
scanf("%d",&k);
n=1;
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while(n<=k)
{
printf(“%d\n",n);
n=n*2;
}
getch();
}

//sum of 1 to 10 number
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i=1,sum=0;
clrscr();
while(i<=10)
{
printf(“%d\n",i);
sum=sum+i;
i++
}
printf(“sum of I to 10 number%d”,sum);
getch();
}

//multiplication table
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
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int i=0,j,sum=0;

clrscr();
while(i<=10)
{
j=1;
while(j<=10)
{
printf(“%d\t",i*j);
j++ ;
sum+=i;
}
printf(“\n”);
i++;
}
getch();
}

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Difference between while and do-while

While Do—while

Condition is at the top Condition is at the bottom.

No necessity of brackets if there is Brackets are compulsory even if there

single statement in body. is a single statement.

There is no semicolon at the end of The semicolon is compulsory at eh

while. end do-while.

Computer executes the body if and Computer executes the body at least
only if condition is true. once even if condition is false

This should be used when condition This should be used when the process
is more important. is important.

This loop is also refered as entry This loop is also refered as exit
controlled loop. controlled loop.

while(n<=10) do{
{ printf(“%d\n”,n); printf(“%d\n”,n);
n++; n++;
} }while(n<=100);

void main()
{
int i=1;
clrscr();
do
{
printf(“%d\n”,i);
i=i++;
} while(i<=100);
getch();
}
//display 5,10,15----
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#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n,k;
clrscr();
scanf("%d",&k);
n=5;
do
{
printf(“%d\n",n);
n=n+5;
} while(n<=k);
getch();
}

//display 7,14,21----
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n=7;
clrscr();
do
{
printf(“%d\n",n);
n=n+7;
} while(n<=70);
getch();
}

//display 10,20,30----
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n,k;
clrscr();
scanf("%d",&k);
n=10;
do
{
printf(“%d\n",n);
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n=n+10;
} while(n<=k);
getch();
}

//display 1,2,4,7,11----
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n,k,d;
clrscr();
scanf("%d",&k);
n=1;
d=1;
do
{
printf(“%d\n",n);
n=n+d;
d=d+1;
} while(n<=k);
getch();
}

//display 1,2,4,8----
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n,k;
clrscr();
scanf("%d",&k);
n=1; do
{
printf(“%d\n",n);
n=n*2;
} while(n<=k);
getch();
}

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//display 1,2,4,8----
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n,km;
clrscr();
scanf("%d",&k);
n=1;
do
{
m=pow(n,2);
printf(“%d\n",m);
n++;
} while(m<=(pow(k,2)));
getch();
}

//multiplaction table
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{ int i=1,j;
clrscr();
while(i<=5)
{
j=1;
while(j<=5)
{
printf(“%d\t",i*j);
j++;
}
printf(“\n\n");
i++;
}
getch();
}

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//Display pyramids using asterisk

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{ int i=1,j;
clrscr();
while(i<=5)
{
j=1;
while(j<=i)
{
printf(“*\t");
j++;
}
printf(“\n\n");
i++;
}
getch();
}

Output:

*
**
***
****

Break Statement
The break statement is used for two different purpose it can be used to terminated a case in the
switch statement that is to terminate the given loop immediately and it by pass the normal loop
condition test.
we often come across situations where we want to jump out of a loop instantly, without wetting to
get back to the conditional test, the keyword break allows us to do this. when break is encountered
inside any loop, control automatically passes to the first statement after the loop. A break is usually
associated.
Ex:-
switch()
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{
case 1:
break;
case 2:
break;
default:
}
ex:- void main()
{
int i;
for(i=1;i<=10;i++)
{ if(i==5)
{ break;
}
printf(“%d\t”,i);
}
getch();
}

Continue Statement:-

This statement is used to when execution of further statement. This stops execution of next
statement ?& transfer control to the start of loop for further execution of loop. This statement
should be used only within the loop.

Ex:- program to determine continue statement.

void main()
{
int i;
for(i=1;i<=10;i++)
{ if(i==5)
{ continue;
}
printf(“\n%d”,i);
getch();
}

In the above ex. 'i' is initialized to 1 then it will check (i==5) if it is true it will execute printf()
statement. After execution I is incremented by 1 & again executes printf() statement. This process
continues till the condition i<=10 becomes true.
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Goto Statement:
This statement transfers the control from one statement to other statement in the program which
may not be in the sequence. The general form of the goto statement is

goto label;
-------- ------
label:statement

towards jump

label: statement
____________

--------- ---------
goto label;

backward jump

where goto requires a level in order to identify the place where the branch is to be made
label. It is an valid variable name & must be followed by a (:) the program either before or
after the goto label statement as shown below.

Forward jump:

If the label is placed after goto label statement will be skipped such a jump is known as
forward jump.

Backward jump:

If the label is before the goto statement a loop will form & some statement will be executed
repeatedly such a jump is known as backward jump.

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#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<process.h>
void main ()
{ int a,b;
clrscr();
xyz:printf(“enter the number");
scanf("%d",&a);
if(a%2==0)

{
printf(“given num is even ");
}
else
{ printf(“\nthe given num is odd");
} printf(“\nif you want to
continue");
printf(“\n Enter 6 to yes 7 to no");
scanf("%d",&b);
if(b==6)
goto xyz;
if(b==7)
exit(0);
getch();
}

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UNIT III

Function in C
Introduction function in C
Functions are a useful way of referring to blocks of code, allowing the code to be called
many times. Functions take some input information (the input parameters), do something with that
information and then return a result (the return value). We are familiar with the predefined
functions, such as gets(), puts(), getch( ), printf( ) and scanf( ). We call them Library Function or
Built-In Functions. It is possible to define your own functions in C. Being able to do this allows
powerful programs to be developed in a modular manner that makes the development and
debugging stages significantly easier than would otherwise be the case.
The basic philosophy of function is divide and conquer by which a complicated tasks are
successively divided into simpler and more manageable tasks which can be easily handled. A
program can be divided into smaller subprograms that can be developed and tested successfully.
A function is a complete and independent program which is used (or invoked) by the main
program or other subprograms. A subprogram receives values called arguments from a calling
program, performs calculations and returns the results to the calling program.
Need For User-Defined Function
Every program must have main function to indicate where the program has to begin its
execution. While it is possible to code any program utilizing only main function, it leads to a
number of problems. The program many become too large and complex and as a result the task of
debugging, testing, and maintaining become difficult. If a program is divided into functional parts,
then each part may be independently coded and later combined into a single unit, these
independently coded programs are called subprograms that are much easier to understand, debug,
and test.
We already know that C support the use of library functions and use defined functions. The
library functions are used to carry out a number of commonly used operations or calculations. The
user-defined functions are written by the programmer to carry out various individual tasks.
There are many advantages in using functions in a program they are:

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1. It facilitates top down modular programming. In this programming style, the high level
logic of the overall problem is solved first while the details of each lower level functions
is addressed later.
2. The length of the source program can be reduced by using functions at appropriate
places.
This factor is critical with microcomputers where memory space is limited.
3. It is easy to locate.
4. A function may be used by many other programs this means that a c programmer can
build his own function.
5. A program can be used to avoid rewriting the same sequence of code at two or more
locations in a program.
6. Programming teams does a large percentage of programming. If the program is divided
into subprograms, each subprogram can be written by one or two team members of the
team rather than having the whole team to work on the complex program.

Main Program

Function A Function B Function C

B1 B2

Top-Down modular Programming using function.

Functions are used in c for the following reasons:

1. Many programs require that a specific function is repeated many times instead of writing
the function code as many times as it is required we can write it as a single function and
access the same function again and again as many times as it is required.
2. We can avoid writing redundant program code of some instructions again and again.
3. Programs with using functions are compact & easy to understand.
4. Testing and correcting errors is easy because errors are localized and corrected.
5. We can understand the flow of program, and its code easily while using the functions.
6. A single function written in a program can also be used in other programs also.

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Defining Functions
A function is defined as follows:

Data type function_name(parameter_list)

{
Local variable declaration
Statement 1
---------------
Return statement;

Type
Functions return a value. The type of this value (int, float, char etc) has to be specified. All
of the standard C types met so far may be used as a function type. Sometimes a return value is not
required, for example if the function prints an error message and then returns, in which case a
return type of void should be used.
function name
This is a label that is used to refer to the function from other code blocks. The rules for
valid names are the same as those for variables.
Parameter list
Values are passed to a function via its parameter list. This is a comma separated list of the
values that the function takes. Each item in the list has a type specification. The parameter list can
be blank, i.e. the function takes no parameters, in this case the keyword void should be used instead
of a list (as is the case with "int main(void)". The names used for the parameters can be different
from those used in the block of code that calls the function.
Code block
The code block contains the operations that constitute the function. The parameters
declared in the parameter list can be used as standard variables within this block. Temporary
variables may also be declared for use within the block. Unless the function has a return type of
void then the function needs to return a value of the correct type. This is done via the return
command (see below).
A simple example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
float product(float x, float y)
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{ float result; // a local variable

result = x*y;
return(result); // returning the value
}
int main(void)
{ float a;
float b;
float answer;
printf(“Please input two values to be multiplied:");
scanf("%f %f",&a,&b);
// call the function product
answer=product(a,b);
// calling the function
printf(“The product of %f and %f is %f\n",a,b,answer);
system("pause");
return 0;
}
Notes
1. This example is rather too simple to be useful, but does illustrate how functions are
defined and used.
2. The function product is defined here. It has two input parameters and returns a value of
type float.
3. result is a variable declared within the product code block. It can only be used in this
block.
4. The function returns the value stored in result (which is of type float).
5. The values of a and b are passed to the function product, the result is stored in the
variable answer. Notice that different parameter names are used in the function and main
block. * Simple function - with prototype
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
float product(float x, float y);
int main(void)
{ float a;
float b;
float answer;
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// prompt user for values

printf(“Please input two values to be multiplied:");
scanf("%f %f",&a,&b);
// call the function product
answer=product(a,b);
printf(“The product of %f and %f is %f\n",a,b,answer);
system("pause");
return 0;
}
float product(float x, float y)
// function to return the product of two numbers
{ float result; // a local variable
result = x*y;
return result; // returning the value
}

Passing Values between Functions

The functions that we have used so far haven’t been very flexible. We call them and they
do what they are designed to do. Like our mechanic who always services the motorbike in exactly
the same way, we haven’t been able to influence the functions in the way they carry out their tasks.
It would be nice to have a little more control over what functions do, in the same way it would be
nice to be able to tell the mechanic, “Also change the engine oil, I am going for an outing”. In
short, now we want to communicate between the ‘calling’ and the ‘called’ functions.
The mechanism used to convey information to the function is the ‘argument’. You have
unknowingly used the arguments in the printf( ) and scanf( ) functions; the format string and the
list of variables used inside the parentheses in these functions are arguments. The arguments are
sometimes also called ‘parameters’.
Consider the following program. In this program, in main( ) we receive the values of a, b and c
through the keyboard and then output the sum of a, b and c. However, the calculation of sum is
done in a different function called calsum( ). If sum is to be calculated in calsum( ) and values of
a, b and c are received in main( ), then we must pass on these values to calsum( ), and once
calsum( ) calculates the sum we must return it from calsum( ) back to main( ).

/* Sending and receiving values between functions */

main( )
{ int a, b, c, sum ;
printf( "\nEnter any three numbers " );
scanf( "%d %d %d", &a,&b,&c );
sum = calsum ( a, b, c ) ;
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printf ( "\nSum = %d", sum ) ;

}
calsum (int x, int y, int z )
{
int d ;
d=x+y+z;
return ( d ) ;
}

Out Put:-
Enter any three numbers 10 20 30
Sum = 60

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Return Types

As pointed out earlier, a function may or may not send back any value to the calling
function. If it does, it is done through the return statement. While it is possible to pass to the
called function any number of values, the called function can only return one value per call, at
the most.
The return statement can take one of the
following forms. return; or
return(expression);
the first, the ‘plain’ return does not return any value, it acts much as the closing brace of the
function. When a return is encountered, the control is immediately passed back to the calling
function. An example of the use of a simple return is as follows.

if(error) Return;
The second form of return with an expression returns the value of the expression.
Ex:-
int mul(int x, int y)
{
int p;
p=x*y;
return(p);
}
Returns the value of p which is the product of the values of x and y. the last two statements
can be combined into one statement as follows.

return(x*y);
A function may have more than one return statements. This situation arises when the value
returned is based on certain conditions ex
if(x<=0)
return(0);
else
return(1);

Types of functions: (user defined and built-in functions)

A function may belong to any one of the following categories:
1. Functions with no arguments and no return values.
2. Functions with arguments and no return values.
3. Functions with arguments and return values.
4. Functions no arguments and with return values.

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Functions no arguments and no return values:

In the above example there is no data transfer between the calling function and the called function.
When a function has no arguments it does not receive any data from the calling function. Similarly
when it does not return value the calling function does not receive any data from the called
function. A function that does not return any value cannot be used in an expression it can be used
only as independent statement.

No argument
Function1() Function2()
{ {
----------- -----------
----------- -----------
----------- -----------
No return value }
}

Let us consider the following program

/* Program to illustrate a function with no argument and no return values*/
/* #includes go here followed by the three prototypes */
void statement1();
void statement2();
void starline();
void main()
{ staetement1();
starline();
statement2();
starline();
}
/*function to print a message*/
void statement1()
{ printf(“\n Sample subprogram output”);
}
void statement2()
{
printf(“\n Sample subprogram output two”);
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}
void starline()
{
int a;
for (a=1;a<60;a++)
printf(“%c”,’*’);
printf(“\n”);
}

Functions with arguments but no return values:

The nature of data communication between the calling function and the arguments to the
called function and the called function does not return any values to the calling function.
The no of formal arguments and actual arguments must be matching to each other suppose
if actual arguments are more than the formal arguments, the extra actual arguments are discarded.
If the number of actual arguments is less than the formal arguments then the unmatched formal
arguments are initialized to some garbage values. In both cases no error message will be generated.
The formal arguments may be valid variable names, the actual arguments may be variable
names expressions or constants. The values used in actual arguments must be assigned values
before the function call is made.
When a function call is made only a copy of the values actual argument is passed to the
called function. What occurs inside the functions will have no effect on the variables used in the
actual argument list.
Both the arguments actual and formal should match in number type and order. The values
of actual arguments are assigned to formal arguments on a one to one basis starting with the first
argument as shown below:

Function1() with argument

{ Function2(b)
Function2(a) {
----------- -----------
----------- -----------
----------- -----------
No return value }
}

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main()
{ function1(a1,a2,a3……an)
}
function1(f1,f2,f3….fn);
{ function body;
}
here a1,a2,a3 are actual arguments and f1,f2,f3 are formal
arguments.

/*Program to find the largest of two numbers using function*/

/* #include */
void largest(int, int);
main()
{
int a,b;
printf(“Enter the two numbers”);
scanf(“%d%d”,&a,&b);
largest(a,b) ;
}
/*Function to find the largest of two numbers*/
void largest(int a, int b)
{ if(a>b)
printf(“Largest element=%d”,a);
else
printf(“Largest element=%d”,b);
}
In the above program we could make the calling function to read the data from the terminal
and pass it on to the called function. But function foes not return any value. So the return type of
the function is void.

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Functions with arguments and with return values:

The function of the type Arguments with return values will send arguments from the calling
function to the called function and expects the result to be returned back from the called function
back to the calling function.
In the above type of function the following steps are carried out:
1. The function call transfers the controls along with copies of the values of the actual
arguments of the particular function where the formal arguments are creates and assigned
memory space and are given the values of the actual arguments.
2. The called function is executed line by line in normal fashion until the return statement is
encountered. The return value is passed back to the function call is called function.

3. The calling statement is executed normally and return value is thus assigned to the calling
function.

Function1() with argument

{ Function2(b)
{
----------- -----------
C=fun(a) -----------
---------- Return(c)
With return value }
}

Return value data type of function:

A C function returns a value of type int as the default data type when no other type is
specified explicitly. For example if function does all the calculations by using float values and if
the return statement such as return (sum); returns only the integer part of the sum. This is since we
have not specified any return type for the sum. There is the necessity in some cases it is important
to receive float or character or double data type. To enable a calling function to receive a noninteger
value from a called function we can do the two things:
1. The explicit type specifier corresponding to the data type required must be mentioned in
the function header. The general form of the function definition is
Type_specifier function_name(Type_specifier1 Argument1, Type_specifier2 Argument2, …)
{

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function statement;
}
The type specifier tells the compiler, the type of data the function is to return.
2. The called function must be declared at the start of the body in the calling function, like
any other variable. This is to tell the calling function the type of data the function is
actually returning. The program given below illustrates the transfer of a floating-point
value between functions done in a multiple function program.
float add(float,float);
double sub(double,double);
main()
{
float x,y;
x=12.345;
y=9.82;
printf(“%f\n” add(x,y));
printf(“%lf\n”sub(x,y);
}
float add(float a, float b)
{ return(a+b);
}
double sub(double p, double q)
{ return(p-q);
}

Function no arguments and with return types:

In the above example there is no data transfer between the calling function and the called
function. When a function has no arguments it does not receive any data from the calling function.
But when it does return value the calling function receives the data from the called function and
we store it in a variable. Here the variable sum receives the summation of two numbers returned
from the function add().

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Function1() No argument
{ Fun2()
----------- {
A=Fun2() -----------
------------ -----------
} Return(a)
With return value }

/* Program to illustrate a function with no argument and return values*/

/* #includes go here */
int add();
void main()
{ int sum;
sum=add();
printf(“Sum of two nos:%d”,sum);
}
int add() {
int a,b,sum;
printf(“Enter two nos:”);
scanf(“%d%d”,&a,&b);
sum=a+b;
return(sum);
}

Nesting of functions:
C permits nesting of two functions freely. There is no limit how deeply functions can be
nested. Suppose a function a can call function b and function b can call function c and so on.
Consider the following program:

void add(int, int);

void sub(int, int);
void main()
{

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int a,b,c;
scanf(“%d%d”,&a,&b);
add(a,b);
}
void add(int x, int y)
{
int z;
z=x+y;
printf(“\nAdd=%d”,z);
sub(x,y);
}
void sub(int p, int q)
{
int z;
z=p-q;
printf(“\nSub=%d”,z);
}

} the above program calculates the ratio a/b-c; and prints the result. We have the following
three functions: main(), ratio() and difference() main reads the value of a,b,c and calls the function
ratio to calculate the value a/b-c) this ratio cannot be evaluated if(b-c) is zero. Therefore ratio calls
another function difference to test whether the difference(b-c) is zero or not.

Recursion
In C it is possible for a function to call itself, a process known as recursion. A function that
calls itself is said to be recursive. A recursive function requires a call to itself and a test to see if
some stop condition has been met bringing to an end the recursion.

Consider for example the calculation of a factorial.

int factorial (int n)
{
int i;

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int fact=1;
if (n>=1)
for (i=1;i<=n;i++)
fact=fact*i;
return fact;
}
The use of unsigned int in order to ensure that only positive integers are used. Another
way of calculating a factorial comes out of realizing that: i.e. n factorial is n times (n-1) factorial.

main( )
{
int a, fact ;
printf ( "\nEnter any
number " ) ; scanf ( "%d",
&a ) ; fact = rec ( a ) ;
printf ( "Factorial value = %d", fact ) ;
}
rec ( int x )
{
int f ;
if ( x == 1 )
return ( 1 ) ;
else
f = x * rec ( x - 1 ) ;
return ( f ) ;
}
Notest
1. This line terminates the recursion process.
2. This is the recursive call to factorial
3. This function has two return statements. This is allowed in C
Recursion is not just for moderately obscure mathematical functions. It turns out that many
problems when considered properly can be written in terms of recursion. The reading/writing of
lists from/to a file can readily be implemented in a recursive manner. Another example is the
Towers of Hanoi problem that was very popular as a toy in Victorian times.

UNIT IV
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Arrays and Structure

What is an Array?
So far we have used only the fundamental data types. Namely char, int, float, double. Although
these types are very useful, they are constrained by the fact that a variable of these types can only on
value at any given time. Therefore, they can be used only to handle limited amounts of data. In many
applications, however, we need to handle a large volume of data in terms of reading, processing and
printing. To process such large amounts of data items. C supports a derived data type known as array
that can be used for such application.
An array is a group of similar type of data elements stored in contiguous memory location.
These data element are addressed by common name. an array is declared by writing the data
types. Followed by the name, followed by the size in brackets.

Ex-int a[2]

For understanding the arrays properly, let us consider the following program:
main( )
{ int x ;
x=5;
x = 10 ;
printf ( "\nx = %d", x ) ;
}
This program will print the value of x as 10. Why so? Because when a value 10 is assigned to x, the
earlier value of x, i.e. 5, is lost. Thus, ordinary variables are capable of holding only one value at a
time. There are situations in which we would want to store more than one value at a time in a single
variable.
Suppose we wish to arrange the percentage marks obtained by 100 students in ascending order. In such
a case we have two options to store these marks in memory:
Construct 100 variables to store percentage marks obtained by 100 different students, i.e. each variable
containing one student’s marks.
Construct one variable (called array or subscripted variable) capable of storing or holding all the
hundred values.
A simple reason for this is, it would be much easier to handle one variable than handling 100
different variables. There are certain logics that cannot be store without use of an array. An array
is a collective name given to a group of ‘similar quantities’. These similar quantities could be
percentage marks of 100 students, or salaries of 300 employees, or ages of 50 employees. What is
important is that the quantities must be ‘similar’. Each member in the group is referred to by its
position in the group.
Ex: per = { 48, 88, 34, 23, 96 }

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In C the fourth number is referred as per[3]. This is because in C the counting of elements begins
with 0 and not with 1. Thus, in this example per[3] refers to 23 and per[4] refers to 96. In
general, the notation would be per[i], where, i can take a value 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4, depending on the
position of the element being referred. Here per is the subscripted variable (array), whereas i is
its subscript.
Thus, an array is a collection of similar elements. These similar elements could be all ints, or all
floats, or all chars, etc. Usually, the array of characters is called a ‘string’, whereas an array of ints
or floats is called simply an array. Remember that all elements of any given array must be of the
same type. i.e. we cannot have an array of 10 numbers, of which 5 are ints and 5 are floats.

void main ( )
{ int avg, sum = 0 ;
int i ;
int marks[30] ;
/* array declaration */
for ( i = 0 ; i <= 29 ; i++ )
{ printf ( "\nEnter marks " ) ;
scanf ( "%d", &marks[i] ) ;
/* store data in array */
}

for ( i = 0 ; i <= 29 ; i++ )

sum = sum + marks[i] ;
/* read data from an array*/
avg = sum / 30 ;
printf ( "\nAverage marks = %d", avg ) ;
getch();
}
Array Declaration
To begin with, like other variables an array needs to be declared so that the compiler will know
what kind of an array and how large an array we want. In our program we have done this with
the statement:
Int marks[5];

Here, int specifies the type of the variable, just as it does with ordinary variables and the word
marks specifies the name of the variable. The [5] however is new. The number 5 tells how many
elements of the type int will be in our array. This number is often called the ‘dimension’ of the
array. The bracket ( [ ] ) tells the compiler that we are dealing with an array.

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One-Dimensional Arrays:-
A list of items can be given one variable name using only one subscript and such a variable is
called a single-subscripted variable of a one-dimensional array.

For ex- if we want to represent a set of five numbers, say(33,55,66,77,88)by an array variable
number, then we may declare the variable number as follow

int marks[5] ; the computer reserves five storage locations

as shown below.

33 marks[0]
55 marks[1]
66 marks[2]
77 marks[3]
marks[4]
88

The vale to the array elements can be assigned as follows.

marks[0]=33; marks[1]=55;
marks[2]=66; marks[3]=77;
marks[4]=88;

Declaration of one-Dimensional Arrays

Like any other variable, arrays must declared before they are used so that the compiler can
allocate space for them in memory.
Syntax:

Type variable-name[size];

The type specifies the type of element that will be contained in the array, such as int, float, or
char and the size indicates the maximum number of elements that can be stored inside the array.

Ex-float height[50];

Declares the height to be an array containing 50 real elements. Any subscripts o to 49 are valid.

Ex- int n[12];

Here declares the n as an array to contain a maximum of 12 integer constants.

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The c language treats character strings simply as arrays of characters. The size in a character
string represents the maximum number of characters that the string can hold.

Char n[12];

Here declare the variable n as a character array variable that can hold a maximum of 10
characters. Suppose we read the following string constant into the string variable name.

“Bhosle Smita”

Each character of the string is treated as an element of the array name and is stored in the memory
as follow.
n[0] n[1] n[2] n[3] n[4] n[5] n[6] n[7] n[8] n[9] n[10] n[11] n[12]

‘B’ ‘h’ ‘o’ ‘s’ ‘l’ ‘e’ ‘’ ‘S’ ‘m’ ‘I’ ‘t’ ‘a’ ‘\0’

When the compiler sees a character string. It terminates it with an additional null character. The
element n[12] holds the null character ‘\0’. When declaring character arrays, we must allow one
extra element space for the null terminator. Initialization of one – Dimensional Arrays
After an array is declared, its elements must be initialized. Otherwise, then will contain garbage
value. An array can be initialized at either of the following stages.

We can initialize the elements of arrays in the same way as the ordinary variables when they are
declared.

Syntax:

Data type array-name[size]={list of values};

The values in the list are separated by commas

Ex-int number[3]={0,0,0};
Here declare the variable number as an array of size 3 and will assign zero to each elements. If
the number of values in the list is less than the number of elements will be set to zero
automatically.

float total[5]={0.0,15.75,-10};
Here initialize the first three elements to 0.0, 15.75 and -10 and the remaining two elements to
zero.
We also declare the array as variant. In that no need to enter the size of array.
Ex int a[]={1,3,4};

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that is called the variant in that we can store the number of element. Similar, We can also declare
the character array but we must end the string with ‘\0’ ex-char
name[]={‘b’,’h’,’o’,’s’,’l’,’e’,’\0’}’

Accessing Elements of an Array

Once an array is declared, let us see how individual elements in the array can be referred. This is
done with subscript, the number in the brackets following the array name. This number specifies
the element’s position in the array. All the array elements are numbered, starting with 0. Thus,
marks[2] is not the second element of the array, but the third. In our program we are using the
variable i as a subscript to refer to various elements of the array. This variable can take different
values and hence can refer to the different elements in the array in turn. This ability to use variables
as subscripts is what makes arrays so useful.

Entering Data into an Array

Here is the section of code that places data into an array:
for ( i = 0 ; i <= 29 ; i++ )
{ printf ( "\nEnter marks " ) ;
scanf ( "%d", &marks[i] ) ; } The for loop causes the process of asking for and receiving
a student’s marks from the user to be repeated 30 times. The first time through the loop, i has a
value 0, so the scanf( ) function will cause the value typed to be stored in the array element
marks[0], the first element of the array. This process will be repeated until i becomes 29. This is
last time through the loop, which is a good thing, because there is no array element like marks[30].
In scanf( ) function, we have used the “address of” operator (&) on the element marks[i] of the
array, just as we have used it earlier on other variables (&rate, for example). In so doing, we are
passing the address of this particular array element to the scanf( ) function, rather than its value;
which is what scanf( ) requires.
Reading Data from an Array
The balance of the program reads the data back out of the array and uses it to calculate the
average.
The for loop is much the same, but now the body of the loop causes each student’s marks to be
added to a running total stored in a variable called sum. When all the marks have been added up,
the result is divided by 30, the number of students, to get the average.
Ex: for ( i = 0 ; i <= 29 ; i++ )
sum = sum + marks[i] ;
avg = sum / 30 ;
printf ( "\nAverage marks = %d", avg ) ;

An array is a collection of similar elements. The first element in the array is numbered 0, so the
last element is 1 less than the size of the array. An array is also known as a subscripted variable.
Before using an array its type and dimension must be declared.
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However big an array its elements are always stored in contiguous memory locations. This is a
very important point which we would discuss in more detail later on.
/*Write a program to Display Given No using array */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main() {
int a[10],i;
clrscr();
printf(“\n\n\nEnter The 10 Element");
for(i=0;i<10;i++)
{
scanf("%d",&a[i]);
}
printf(“\n\nDisplay all Entred num ");
for(i=0;i<=9;i++)
{
printf(“\n%d",a[i]);
}
getch(); }
Two – Dimensional Arrays
So far we have discussed the array variables that can store a list of values. There could be situations
where a table of values will have to be stored. A two dimensional array can be used to represent of
rows and columns and is also known as a matrix. The matrix in mathematics is a two dimensional
array. Ex- rows and column. The element of two dimensional array is indicated by the row and
column number in which it is located. The element of matrix is written as a[i][j] where I stands for
row and j stands for column.
Syntax:
Data type array name[row_size][column_size];

Ex- int a[2][2]={{22,44,55},{33,55,44},{43,23,54}};

Int b[2][2];
To store the data in memory in this form.
[0][0] 22 [0][1] 44 [0][2] 55
[1][0] 33 [1][1] 55 [1][2] 44
[2][0] 43 [2][1] 23 [2][2] 54

Initializing Two-Dimensional Array:-

Like one-dimensional array, two- dimensional arrays may be initialized by following their
declaration with a list of initial values enclosed in braces.

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Example;- int table[2][3]={0,0,0,1,1,1};

Initializes the element of the first row to zero and the second row to one. The initialization is
done row by row. The above statement can be equivalently written as

int table[2][3]={{0,0,0},{1,1,1}};

By surrounding the elements of the each row by braces. We can also initialize a two-dimensional
array in the form of a matrix as shown below.

int table[2][3]={
{0,0,0},
{1,1,1}
};
Entering values to Two-Dimensional array using scanf function.

The value can be entered to a 2-d array using scanf function in the nested for statement where the
outer loop generates the row number and inner loop generate column number.

Examples:-
int a[3][3];
for(i=0;i<=2;i++){
for(j=0;j<=2;j++) {
scanf(“%d”,&a[i][j]);
}
}

Where a is two dimensional arrays the I is an different from 0 to 2 and j is different from 0 to 2.
Hence matrix of 3*3 orders is read by this statement.

Reading values to Two-Dimensional array using printf function.

The value can be read to a 2-d array using printf function in the nested for statement where the
outer loop generates the row number and inner loop generate column number.

Examples:-
int a[3][3];
for(i=0;i<=2;i++)
{ for(j=0;j<=2;j++)
{ printf(“%d”,a[i][j]);

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}
}

/*Program to find sum of two Matrices By using Array.*/

#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{ int mat1[3][3],mat2[3][3],matsum[3][3],i,j;
clrscr();
printf(“\t---------OUTPUT----------\n");
printf(“\n\t Enter Values in 3x3 Matrix-I :\n");
for(i=0;i<3;i++) {
for(j=0;j<3;j++) {
printf(“\t Enter the [%d][%d]th Element :",i,j);
scanf("%d",&mat1[i][j]);
}
}
printf(“\n \tEnter Values in 3x3 Matrix-II :\n");
for(i=0;i<3;i++) {
for(j=0;j<3;j++) {
printf(“\tEnter the [%d][%d]th Element :",i,j);
scanf("%d",&mat2[i][j]);
}
}

for(i=0;i<3;i++){
for(j=0;j<3;j++)
matsum[i][j] = mat1[i][j] + mat2[i][j];
}

printf(“\n The values in Matrix-I are :\n");

for(i=0;i<3;i++) {
for(j=0;j<3;j++)
printf(“\t [%d][%d] = %d ",i,j,mat1[i][j]);
printf(“\n");
}
printf(“\n The values in Matrix-II are :\n");
for(i=0;i<3;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<3;j++) {
printf(“\t [%d][%d] = %d ",i,j,mat2[i][j]); }

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printf(“\n");
}
printf(“\n The values in Addition of Two Matrices are :\n");
for(i=0;i<3;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<3;j++) {
printf(“\t [%d][%d] = %d ",i,j,matsum[i][j]); }
printf(“\n");
}
getch();
}

/*Write a program to Display Given No is Ascending Order*/

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a[10],i,j,k;
clrscr();
printf(“\n\n\nEnter The 10 Element");
for(i=0;i<10;i++) {
scanf("%d",&a[i]);
}
for(i=0;i<9;i++)
{
for(j=i+1;j<=9;j++)
{
if(a[i]>a[j])
{
k=a[i];
a[i]=a[j];
a[j]=k;
}
}
}
printf(“\n\nDisplay all Entred num in ascending")En
for(i=0;i<=9;i++)
printf(“\n%d",a[i]);
getch();
}

//Sub of two matrix

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#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{ int a[2][2],b[2][2],c[2][2];
int i,j,n;
clrscr();

printf(“enter your first matrix A=\n");

for(i=0;i<2;i++)
for(j=0;j<2;j++)
scanf("%d",&b[i][j]);

printf(“\n Enter your secon matrix b=\n");

for(i=0;i<2;i++)
for(j=0;j<2;j++)
scanf("%d",&b[i][j]);

for(i=0;i<2;i++)
for(j=0;j<2;j++)
c[i][j]=a[i][j]-b[i][j];

printff(“\n subtraction of matrix a & b=\n");

for(i=0;i<2;i++)
{ for(j=0;j<2;j++)
{ printf(“%d\t",c[i][j]);
} printf(“\n");
} getch();
}

String:-

A string is a sequence of characters that is treated as a single data item. We have used string in a
number of examples in the past. Any group of characters defined between double quotation
marks is a string constant.

Declaring and initializing string variable:-

C does not support string as a data type. However, it allows us to represent string as character
arrays. In c therefore, a string variable is any valid c variable name and is always declared as an
array of character. The general form of declaration of string variable is.

char string_name[size];

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The size determines the number of characters in the string_name.

Ex:- char city[10];

char name[30];
When the compiler assigns a character string to a character array, it automatically supplies a null
character (‘\0’) at the end of the string. Therefore the size should be equal to the maximum
number of character in the string plus one. Character array may be initialized when they are
declared. C supports the following two forms to initialize the character string.

Ex:- char city[9]=”Mumbai”;

char city[9]={‘M’,’u’,;m’,’b’,’a’,’i’,’\0’};

ex

main() {
char name[6]=”Bhosle”;
clrscr();
for(i=0;i<=6;i++)
printf(“My name is %s”,name[i]);
getch();
}

Reading String:-
The familiar input function scanf can be used with %s format specification to read in a string of
characters.
char address[10];
scanf(“%s”,address);
The problem with the scanf function is that it terminates its input on the first white space it finds. A
white space includes blanks, tabs and new lines.
Ex New York

Then only the string “New” will be read into the array address, since the blank space after the word
‘New’ will terminate the reading of string. The scanf function automatically terminates the string that

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is read with a null character and therefore the character array should be large then the string. In that
the ampersand (&) is not required before the variable name.
Writing String:-
We have used extensively the printf function with %s format to print strings to the screen. The format
%s can be used to display an array of characters that is terminated by the null character.
Ex:- printf(“%s”,name);
Can be used to display the entire contents of the array name.

main()
{
int c,d;
char string[]=”C programming”;
printf(“\n\n”);
for(c=0;c<=11;c++)
{
d=c+1;
printf(“|%-12.*s|\n”,string);
}
for(c=11;c>=0;c--)
{
d=c+1;
printf(“|%-12.*s|\n”,d,string);
}
printf(“------------------------“);
}
getch();
}
Standard Library String Function.

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The c library support a large number of string handling functions that can be used to carry out
many of the string manipulation discussed so far.

strcat function:-

The strcat function join two string together. It takes the following form

strcat(string1,string2)

Sstring1 and string 2 are character arrays, when the function strcat is executed, string2 is
appended to string1. It does so by removing the null character at the end of string1 and placing
string2 from there. The string at string2 remains unchanged.

Ex:- /*Program Study Charcter string Display strcat Function*/

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
char source[]="Bhosle";
char target[20]="Hello";
clrscr();
strcat(target,source);
printf(“\n\t\t---------OUTPUT----------\n");
printf(“\n\n \t\tTarget String:=%s",target);
getch();
}

Strlen
This function count numbers of character present in the string it means. it return length of the
string consider following example to understand the use of strlen function.

Integer variable=strlen(string);
Ex:- strlen function

Calculate the length of the string which return integer value. That value is assign to integer
variable.

Ex:-/* write a program to demostrate the use of

strlen() and strupr(). */

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#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h> void
main()
{ char a[20]; int
n; clrscr();
printf(“ \n\n\t Enter the string : ");
scanf("%s",&a);
n=strlen(a);
printf(“\n\n\tThe length of given string : %d ",n);
n=strupr(a);
printf(“ \n\n\t String in UPPER case : %s",a);
getch();
}
Strcpy
This string library function is used to copy one string into another string.

Syntax:-
Strcpy(source string, target string)

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h> void
main()
{ char a[6]="Bhosle";
char b[6];
clrscr();
printf(“string= %s",a);
strcpy(b,a);
printf(“string %s",b);
getch();
}
Strcmp
This function compare to different thing & finds out whether given string are some or
different the two strings are compared char offend by character until there is mismatch or end of
one of string reached it is two string are identical (same) then the function return a 0 value but if
they are not same then it returns numeric difference between the ASCII value of first non
matching pains of character.

/*Program Study Charcter string strcpy & strcmp Function

Display Given String is Palendrome or Not*/

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#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h> void
main()
{
char ab[10],ar[10];
clrscr();
printf(“\n\t\t---------OUTPUT----------\n");

printf(“\n\t\tEnter The String:=");

scanf("%s",ab);

strcpy(ar,ab);

if(strcmp(ab,strrev(ar))==0)
{
printf(“\n \t\tThis is Palendrome String");
}
else
{
printf(“\n\t\tThis is Not Palendrome string");
}

getch();
}

Strupper

This function is used to convert the string lower case letter into upper case letter. If given string is
already in the upper case letter it remains as it is.
Ex:
void main()
{
char name[15]=”smita”;
strupper(name);
printf(“name= %s”,name);
getch();}
}

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Strlwr

This function is used to convert the string upper case letter into lower case letter. If given string is
already in the lower case letter it remains as it is.
Ex:
void main()
{
char name[15]=”smita”;
strlwr(name);
printf(“name= %s”,name);
getch();
}

Strrev
This function reverse the given string and stores it at the same place.
main()
{
static char college[6]=”COCSIT”;
strrev(college);
printf(“Name of the College is %s”,college);
getch();
}

Structure Definitions
A structure definition creates a format that may be used to declare the structure variable. Let
us consider an example that a process of structure definition and the creation of structure
variable. Syntax:-
struct tag_name
{
Data_type member1;
Data_type member2;
------------------------
------------------------
};

Consider a book database consisting a book_name, author, page_no, and price. We can define
a structure to hold this information as.

struct book_bank
{

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char title[10];
char author[15];
int page;
float price;
}

The keywords struct declares the a structures to hold the details of four fields namely title,
author, pages, and price. These fields are called as structure elements or members. Each member
may be belong to a different type of data book_bank is the name of structure and is called as
structure tag. The tag name may be used subsequently to declares the variables that have the tag’s
structure.
Note that the above declaration has not declared any variables. It simply describes a format
called template to represent a information as shown below.
struct book_name
{
title array of 10 characters.
author array of 15 character.
pages integer.
price float.
}
We can declare the structure variable using the tag name anywhere in the program.
In defining a structure you may note the following syntax.
-The template is terminated with a semicolon (;)
-While the entire declaration is considered as a statement, each member is declared
independently -for its name and type in a separate statement inside the template. -The
tag name can be used to declare structure variable of its type, later in the program.

Declaring structure variable:

After defining a structure format we can declare variable of that type. A structure variable
declaration is similar to the declaration of variable of any other data types. It includes the
following elements.
1. The keyword struct.
2. The structure tag name.
3. List of variable names separated by commas.
4. A terminating semicolon.

struct book_bank
{
char title[10];
char author[15];

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int pages;
float price;
}book1,book2,boo3;
Or
struct book_bank book1,book2,book3;

Declares book1, book2 and book3 as variables of type struct book_name.

Valid. The use of tag name is optional.
Struct
{
---------
---------
}book1,book2,book3;

The book1, book2, book3 is the structure variable representing three books, but does not
includes the tage name for later use in declarations. Normally, structure definition appears at the
begging of the programming file, before any variables or functions are defined. They may also
appear before the main, along with macro definition, such as #define. In such cases, the
definition is global and can be used by other functions as well.
Structure Initialization:
Like any other data type, a structure variable can be initialized however a structure must be
declared as static if it is to be initialized inside a function. Ex
main()
{
static struct
{
int weight;
float height;
}student={60,180.65};
--------------
--------------
}
It assign the value 60 to student.weight and 180.65 to stud.height. there is one-to-one
corresponding between the members and their initializing values.
A many type of variables is possible in initialization a structure. The following statements
initialize two structure variables. In this it is essential to use tag name.

main()
{

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struct st_record
{
int weight;
float height;
};
struct st_record student1={60,180.75};
struct st_record student2={53,170.60};
-------------
-------------
}

Another method to initialize a structure variable outside the function as shown follow.

struct stud_record
{
int weight;
float height;
}student1={60,180,75};

main()
{
struct stud_record student 2={53,170.60};
-------------------------
-------------------------
}
C langue does not permits the initialization of individual structure members within the template.
The initialization must be done only in the declaration of actual variables.

Introduction to Union:
Unions are a concept borrowed from structure and therefore follow the same syntax as
structures. However, there is major distinction between them in terms of storage. In structures,
each member has its own storage location, whereas all the members of a union use the same
location. This implies that, although a union may contain many members of different types, it can
handle only one member at a time. Like structures, a union can be declared using the keyword
union as follows1.

union item
{
int m;
float x;
char c;
}code;

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This declares a variable code of type union item. The union contains three members, each
with a different data type. However, we can use only one of them at a time. This is due to the fact
that only one location is allocated for a union variable.
Storage of 4 bytes
1000 1001 1002 1004

The compiler allocates a piece of storage that is large enough to hold the largest variable type
in the union. In the declaration above, the member x requires 4 bytes which is the largest among
the members.
To access a union member, we can use the same syntax that we use for structure members.
code.m
code.x
code.c
are all valid membe variables. During accessing , we should make sure that we are accessing the
member whose value is currently stored.
Code.m=455;
Code.x=456.66;
Printf(“%d”,code.m);
In effect, an union creates a storage location that can be used by any one of its members at a
time. When a different member is assigned a new value. Ex:- main()
{
union index
{
int a;
float b;
char c;
};
union index e;
e.a=30;
printf(“%d”,e,a);
e.b=44.55;
printf(“%d”,e.b);
e.c=’A’;
printf(“%c”,e.c);
getch();
}

97
Dr. Sasikala. P