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 2-1

Solutions Manual for

Heat and Mass Transfer: Fundamentals & Applications
6th Edition in SI Units
Yunus A. Çengel, Afshin J. Ghajar
McGraw-Hill, 2020

Chapter 2
HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION

PROPRIETARY AND CONFIDENTIAL

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PROPRIETARY MATERIAL. © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. Limited distribution permitted only to teachers and educators for course preparation. If
you are a student using this Manual, you are using it without permission.
 2-2

Introduction

2-1C Heat transfer is a vector quantity since it has direction as well as magnitude. Therefore, we must specify both direction
and magnitude in order to describe heat transfer completely at a point. Temperature, on the other hand, is a scalar quantity.

2-2C Yes, the heat flux vector at a point P on an isothermal surface of a medium has to be perpendicular to the surface at that
point.

2-3C Isotropic materials have the same properties in all directions, and we do not need to be concerned about the variation of
properties with direction for such materials. The properties of anisotropic materials such as the fibrous or composite
materials, however, may change with direction.

2-4C In heat conduction analysis, the conversion of electrical, chemical, or nuclear energy into heat (or thermal) energy in
solids is called heat generation.

2-5C The phrase ―thermal energy generation‖ is equivalent to ―heat generation,‖ and they are used interchangeably. They
imply the conversion of some other form of energy into thermal energy. The phrase ―energy generation,‖ however, is vague
since the form of energy generated is not clear.

2-6C The heat transfer process from the kitchen air to the refrigerated space is
transient in nature since the thermal conditions in the kitchen and the
refrigerator, in general, change with time. However, we would analyze this
problem as a steady heat transfer problem under the worst anticipated conditions
such as the lowest thermostat setting for the refrigerated space, and the
anticipated highest temperature in the kitchen (the so-called design conditions).
If the compressor is large enough to keep the refrigerated space at the desired
temperature setting under the presumed worst conditions, then it is large enough
to do so under all conditions by cycling on and off. Heat transfer into the
refrigerated space is three-dimensional in nature since heat will be entering
through all six sides of the refrigerator. However, heat transfer through any wall
or floor takes place in the direction normal to the surface, and thus it can be
analyzed as being one-dimensional. Therefore, this problem can be simplified
greatly by considering the heat transfer to be onedimensional at each of the four
sides as well as the top and bottom sections, and then by adding the calculated
values of heat transfer at each surface.

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 2-3
2-7C Heat transfer through the walls, door, and the top and bottom sections of an oven is transient in nature since the thermal
conditions in the kitchen and the oven, in general, change with time. However, we would analyze this problem as a steady
heat transfer problem under the worst anticipated conditions such as the highest temperature setting for the oven, and the
anticipated lowest temperature in the kitchen (the so called ―design‖ conditions). If the heating element of the oven is large
enough to keep the oven at the desired temperature setting under the presumed worst conditions, then it is large enough to do
so under all conditions by cycling on and off.
Heat transfer from the oven is three-dimensional in nature since heat will be entering through all six sides of the
oven. However, heat transfer through any wall or floor takes place in the direction normal to the surface, and thus it can be
analyzed as being one-dimensional. Therefore, this problem can be simplified greatly by considering the heat transfer as
being one- dimensional at each of the four sides as well as the top and bottom sections, and then by adding the calculated
values of heat transfers at each surface.

2-8C Heat transfer to a potato in an oven can be modeled as one-dimensional since temperature differences (and thus heat
transfer) will exist in the radial direction only because of symmetry about the center point. This would be a transient heat
transfer process since the temperature at any point within the potato will change with time during cooking. Also, we would
use the spherical coordinate system to solve this problem since the entire outer surface of a spherical body can be described
by a constant value of the radius in spherical coordinates. We would place the origin at the center of the potato.

2-9C Assuming the egg to be round, heat transfer to an egg in boiling water can be modeled as one-dimensional since
temperature differences (and thus heat transfer) will primarily exist in the radial direction only because of symmetry about
the center point. This would be a transient heat transfer process since the temperature at any point within the egg will change
with time during cooking. Also, we would use the spherical coordinate system to solve this problem since the entire outer
surface of a spherical body can be described by a constant value of the radius in spherical coordinates. We would place the
origin at the center of the egg.

2-10C Heat transfer to a hot dog can be modeled as two-dimensional since temperature differences (and thus heat transfer)
will exist in the radial and axial directions (but there will be symmetry about the center line and no heat transfer in the
azimuthal direction. This would be a transient heat transfer process since the temperature at any point within the hot dog will
change with time during cooking. Also, we would use the cylindrical coordinate system to solve this problem since a cylinder
is best described in cylindrical coordinates. Also, we would place the origin somewhere on the center line, possibly at the
center of the hot dog. Heat transfer in a very long hot dog could be considered to be one-dimensional in preliminary
calculations.

2-11C Heat transfer to a roast beef in an oven would be transient since the temperature at any point within the roast will
change with time during cooking. Also, by approximating the roast as a spherical object, this heat transfer process can be
modeled as one-dimensional since temperature differences (and thus heat transfer) will primarily exist in the radial direction
because of symmetry about the center point.

2-12C Heat loss from a hot water tank in a house to the surrounding medium can be considered to be a steady heat transfer
problem. Also, it can be considered to be two-dimensional since temperature differences (and thus heat transfer) will exist in
the radial and axial directions (but there will be symmetry about the center line and no heat transfer in the azimuthal
direction.)

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 2-4
2-13C Heat transfer to a canned drink can be modeled as two-dimensional since temperature differences (and thus heat
transfer) will exist in the radial and axial directions (but there will be symmetry about the center line and no heat transfer in
the azimuthal direction. This would be a transient heat transfer process since the temperature at any point within the drink
will change with time during heating. Also, we would use the cylindrical coordinate system to solve this problem since a
cylinder is best described in cylindrical coordinates. Also, we would place the origin somewhere on the center line, possibly
at the center of the bottom surface.

2-14 A certain thermopile used for heat flux meters is considered. The minimum heat flux this meter can detect is to be
determined.
Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist.
Properties The thermal conductivity of kapton is given to be 0.345 W/mK.
Analysis The minimum heat flux can be determined from
T 0.1C
q  k  (0.345 W/m  C)  17.3 W/m2
L 0.002 m

2-15 Diameter, length, and mass of stainless steel rod is given. The rod is insulated on its exterior surface except for the ends.
Temperature distribution in the rod is also given. The heat flux along the rod is to be determined.

Assumptions 1 Heat conduction is steady and one-dimensional in the x-direction. 2 Thermal conductivity is constant.

Analysis The heat flux can be found from Fourier’s law

Table A-3 gives values for the thermal conductivity of stainless steels, however we are not told which type of stainless steel
the rod is made of, and the thermal conductivity varies between them. We do know the mass of the rod, and can use this to
calculate its density:

[ ]
( )

From Table A-3, with  7900 kg/m3,it appears that the material is AISI 304 stainless steel. The temperature of the rod from
the given equation for temperature distribution varies from 310 K at x=0 to290 K at x = L = 110 mm. Evaluating the
thermal conductivity at the average temperature of 300 K, from Table A-3, k = 14.9 W/mK. Thus,

̇ ( ) 14.9 W/mK( ) = 2709 W/

DiscussionIf the temperature of the rod varies significantly along its length, the thermal conductivity will vary along the rod
as much or more than the variation in thermal conductivities between the different stainless steels.

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 2-5
2-16 The rate of heat generation per unit volume in a stainless steel plate is given. The heat flux on the surface of the plate is
to be determined.
Assumptions Heat is generated uniformly in steel plate.
Analysis We consider a unit surface area of 1 m2. The total rate of heat
e
generation in this section of the plate is
L
Egen e V gen  e ( A  L)  (5 10 6 W/m 3 )(1 m 2 )(0.03 m)  1.5 10 5 W
plate gen

Noting that this heat will be dissipated from both sides of the plate, the heat flux on
either surface of the plate becomes
E gen 1.5 10 5 W
q    75,000 W/m 2  75 kW/m 2
Aplate 2 1 m 2

2-17 The rate of heat generation per unit volume in the uranium rods is given. The total rate of heat generation in each rod is
to be determined.
Assumptions Heat is generated uniformly in the uranium rods.

g = 7107 W/m3

D = 5 cm
L=1m
Analysis The total rate of heat generation in the rod is determined by multiplying
the rate of heat generation per unit volume by the volume of the rod
E gen  egen V rod  egen ( D 2 / 4) L  (7 10 7 W/m 3 )[ (0.05 m) 2 / 4](1 m)  1.37410 5 W = 137 kW

2-18 The variation of the absorption of solar energy in a solar pond with depth is given. A relation for the total rate of heat
generation in a water layer at the top of the pond is to be determined.
Assumptions Absorption of solar radiation by water is modeled as heat generation.
Analysis The total rate of heat generation in a water layer of surface area A and thickness L at the top of the pond is
determined by integration to be
L
L e bx Ae 0 (1  e bL )
E gen  V e gen dV  
x 0
e 0 e bx ( Adx)  Ae 0
b
0

b

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 2-6
Heat Conduction Equation

2-19C The one-dimensional transient heat conduction equation for a plane wall with constant thermal conductivity and heat
 2T egen 1 T
generation is   . Here T is the temperature, x is the space variable, egen is the heat generation per unit
x 2 k α t
volume, k is the thermal conductivity,  is the thermal diffusivity, and t is the time.

2-20C The one-dimensional transient heat conduction equation for a long cylinder with constant thermal conductivity and
1   T  egen 1 T
heat generation is r   . Here T is the temperature, r is the space variable, g is the heat generation per
r r  r  k  t
unit volume, k is the thermal conductivity,  is the thermal diffusivity, and t is the time.

2-21 We consider a thin element of thickness x in a large plane wall (see Fig. 2-12 in the text). The density of the wall is ,
the specific heat is c, and the area of the wall normal to the direction of heat transfer is A. In the absence of any heat
generation, an energy balance on this thin element of thickness x during a small time interval t can be expressed as
E element
Q x  Q x  x 
t
where
E element  E t  t  E t  mc (Tt  t  Tt )  cAx(Tt  t  Tt )
Substituting,
T  Tt
Q x  Q x  x  cAx t  t
t
Dividing by Ax gives
1 Q x  x  Q x T  Tt
  c t  t
A x t
Taking the limit as x  0 and t  0 yields
1   T  T
 kA   ρc
A x  x  t
since from the definition of the derivative and Fourier’s law of heat conduction,
Q  Q x Q   T 
lim x  x     kA 
x 0 x x x  x 
Noting that the area A of a plane wall is constant, the one-dimensional transient heat conduction equation in a plane wall with
constant thermal conductivity k becomes
 2T 1 T

x 2 α t
where the property   k / c is the thermal diffusivity of the material.

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 2-7
2-22 We consider a thin cylindrical shell element of thickness r in a long cylinder (see Fig. 2-14 in the text). The density of
the cylinder is , the specific heat is c, and the length is L. The area of the cylinder normal to the direction of heat transfer at
any location is A  2 rL where r is the value of the radius at that location. Note that the heat transfer area A depends on r in
this case, and thus it varies with location. An energy balance on this thin cylindrical shell element of thickness r during a
small time interval t can be expressed as
E element
Q r  Q r  r  E element 
t
where
E element  E t  t  E t  mc (Tt  t  Tt )  cAr (Tt  t  Tt )

E element  egen V element  egen Ar

Substituting,
T  Tt
Q r  Q r  r  egen Ar  cAr t  t
t
where A  2 rL . Dividing the equation above by Ar gives
1 Q r  r  Q r T  Tt
  egen  c t  t
A r t
Taking the limit as r  0 and t  0 yields
1   T  T
 kA   egen  c
A r  r  t
since, from the definition of the derivative and Fourier’s law of heat conduction,
Q  Q r Q   T 
lim r  r     kA 
r  0 r r r  r 
Noting that the heat transfer area in this case is A  2 rL and the thermal conductivity is constant, the one-dimensional
transient heat conduction equation in a cylinder becomes
1   T  1 T
r   egen 
r r  r   t
where   k / c is the thermal diffusivity of the material.

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 2-8
2-23 We consider a thin spherical shell element of thickness r in a sphere (see Fig. 2-16 in the text).. The density of the
sphere is , the specific heat is c, and the length is L. The area of the sphere normal to the direction of heat transfer at any
location is A  4 r 2 where r is the value of the radius at that location. Note that the heat transfer area A depends on r in this
case, and thus it varies with location. When there is no heat generation, an energy balance on this thin spherical shell
element of thickness r during a small time interval t can be expressed as
E element
Q r  Q r  r 
t
where
E element  E t  t  E t  mc (Tt  t  Tt )  cAr (Tt  t  Tt )
Substituting,
T T
Q r  Q r  r  cAr t  t t
t
where A  4 r 2 . Dividing the equation above by Ar gives
1 Q r  r  Q r T  Tt
  c t  t
A r t
Taking the limit as r  0 and t  0 yields
1   T  T
 kA   ρc
A r  r  t
since, from the definition of the derivative and Fourier’s law of heat conduction,
Q  Q r Q   T 
lim r  r     kA 
r  0 r r r  r 

Noting that the heat transfer area in this case is A  4 r 2 and the thermal conductivity k is constant, the one-dimensional
transient heat conduction equation in a sphere becomes
1   2 T  1 T
r 
r 2 r  r  α t
where   k / c is the thermal diffusivity of the material.

 2T 1 T
2-24 For a medium in which the heat conduction equation is given in its simplest by  :
x 2  t
(a) Heat transfer is transient, (b) it is one-dimensional, (c) there is no heat generation, and (d) the thermal conductivity is
constant.

 2T  2T 1 T
2-25 For a medium in which the heat conduction equation is given by   :
x 2
y 2  t
(a) Heat transfer is transient, (b) it is two-dimensional, (c) there is no heat generation, and (d) the thermal conductivity is
constant.

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 2-9

1 d  dT 
2-26 For a medium in which the heat conduction equation is given in its simplest by  rk   egen  0 :
r dr  dr 
(a) Heat transfer is steady, (b) it is one-dimensional, (c) there is heat generation, and (d) the thermal conductivity is variable.

1   T    T 
2-27 For a medium in which the heat conduction equation is given by  kr   k   egen  0 :
r r  r  z  z 
(a) Heat transfer is steady, (b) it is two-dimensional, (c) there is heat generation, and (d) the thermal conductivity is variable.

d 2T dT
2-28 For a medium in which the heat conduction equation is given in its simplest by r 2
2  0:
dr dr
(a) Heat transfer is steady, (b) it is one-dimensional, (c) there is no heat generation, and (d) the thermal conductivity is
constant.

1   2 T  1 T
2-29 For a medium in which the heat conduction equation is given by r 
r 2 r  r  α t
(a) Heat transfer is transient, (b) it is one-dimensional, (c) there is no heat generation, and (d) the thermal conductivity is
constant.

1   2 T  1  2T 1 T
2-30 For a medium in which the heat conduction equation is given by  r   
r 2 r  r  r 2 sin 2   2  t
(a) Heat transfer is transient, (b) it is two-dimensional, (c) there is no heat generation, and (d) the thermal conductivity is
constant.

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 2-10
2-31 We consider a small rectangular element of length x, width y, and height z = 1 (similar to the one in Fig. 2-20). The
density of the body is and the specific heat is c. Noting that heat conduction is two-dimensional and assuming no heat
generation, an energy balance on this element during a small time interval t can be expressed as
 Rate of heat   Rate of heat conduction   Rate of change of 
     
 conduction at the    at the surfaces at    the energy content 
 surfaces at x and y   x + x and y  y   of the element 
     
E element
or Q x  Q y  Q x  x  Q y  y 
t
Noting that the volume of the element is V element  xyz  xy  1 , the change in the energy content of the element can
be expressed as
E element  E t  t  E t  mc (Tt  t  Tt )  cxy (Tt  t  Tt )
T  Tt
Substituting, Q x  Q y  Q x  x  Q y  y  cxy t  t
t
Dividing by xy gives
 
1 Q x  x  Q x 1 Q y  y  Q y T  Tt
   c t  t
y x x y t
Taking the thermal conductivity k to be constant and noting that the heat transfer surface areas of the element for heat
conduction in the x and y directions are Ax  y 1 and A y  x 1, respectively, and taking the limit as x, y, and t  0
yields
 2T  2T 1 T
 
x 2
y 2 α t
since, from the definition of the derivative and Fourier’s law of heat conduction,
1 Q x  x  Q x 1 Q x 1   T    T   2T
lim     kyz    k   k 2
x 0 yz x yz x yz x  x  x  x  x
 
1 Q y  y  Q y 1 Q y 1   T    T   2T
lim     kxz     k   k
y 0 xz y xz y xz y  y  y  y  y 2
Here the property   k / c is the thermal diffusivity of the material.

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 2-11
2-32 We consider a thin ring shaped volume element of width z and thickness r in a cylinder. The density of the cylinder is
and the specific heat is c. In general, an energy balance on this ring element during a small time interval t can be
expressed as
E element
(Q r  Q r  r )  (Q z  Q z  z )  z
t
But the change in the energy content of the element can be expressed as
E element  E t  t  E t  mc (Tt  t  Tt )  c(2 rr )z (Tt  t  Tt )
rr r+r
Substituting,
Tt  t  Tt
(Q r  Q r  r )  (Q z  Q z  z )  c(2 rr )z
t
Dividing the equation above by (2 rr )z gives

1 Q r  r  Q r 1 Q z  z  Q z T  Tt
   c t  t
2 rz r 2 rr z t
Noting that the heat transfer surface areas of the element for heat conduction in the r and z directions are
Ar  2 rz and Az  2 rr , respectively, and taking the limit as r, z and t  0 yields

1   T  1   T    T  T
 kr  2  k    k  c
r r  r  r     z  z  t
since, from the definition of the derivative and Fourier’s law of heat conduction,
1 Q r  r  Q r 1 Q 1   T  1   T 
lim     k (2 rz )   kr 
r 0 2 rz r 2 rz r 2 rz r  r  r r  r 
1 Q z  z  Q z 1 Qz 1   T    T 
lim     k (2 rr )    k 
z 0 2 rr z 2 rr z 2 rr z  z  z  z 
For the case of constant thermal conductivity the equation above reduces to
1   T   2 T 1 T
r  
r r  r  z 2  t
where   k / c is the thermal diffusivity of the material. For the case of steady heat conduction with no heat generation it
reduces to
1   T   2 T
r  0
r r  r  z 2

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 2-12
2-33 Consider a thin disk element of thickness z and diameter D in a long cylinder. The density of the cylinder is , the
specific heat is c, and the area of the cylinder normal to the direction of heat transfer is A  D 2 / 4 , which is constant. An
energy balance on this thin element of thickness z during a small time interval t can be expressed as
 Rate of heat   Rate of heat   Rate of heat   Rate of change of 
       
 conduction at    conduction at the    generation inside    the energy content 
 the surface at z   surface at z + z   the element   of the element 
       
or,
E element
Q z  Q z  z  E element 
t
But the change in the energy content of the element and the rate of heat generation within the element can be expressed as
E element  E t  t  E t  mc (Tt  t  Tt )  cAz (Tt  t  Tt )
and
E element  egen V element  egen Az
Substituting,
T  Tt
Q z  Q z  z  egen Az  cAz t  t
t
Dividing by Az gives
1 Q z  z  Q z T  Tt
  egen  c t  t
A z t
Taking the limit as z  0 and t  0 yields
1   T  T
 kA   egen  c
A z  z  t
since, from the definition of the derivative and Fourier’s law of heat conduction,
Q  Q z Q   T 
lim z  z     kA 
z 0 z z z  z 
Noting that the area A and the thermal conductivity k are constant, the one-dimensional transient heat conduction equation in
the axial direction in a long cylinder becomes
 2T egen 1 T
 
z 2 k  t
where the property   k / c is the thermal diffusivity of the material.

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 2-13
Boundary and Initial Conditions; Formulation of Heat Conduction Problems

2-34C The mathematical expressions of the thermal conditions at the boundaries are called the boundary conditions. To
describe a heat transfer problem completely, two boundary conditions must be given for each direction of the coordinate
system along which heat transfer is significant. Therefore, we need to specify four boundary conditions for two-dimensional
problems.

2-35C The mathematical expression for the temperature distribution of the medium initially is called the initial condition.
We need only one initial condition for a heat conduction problem regardless of the dimension since the conduction equation
is first order in time (it involves the first derivative of temperature with respect to time). Therefore, we need only 1 initial
condition for a two-dimensional problem.

2-36C A heat transfer problem that is symmetric about a plane, line, or point is said to have thermal symmetry about that
plane, line, or point. The thermal symmetry boundary condition is a mathematical expression of this thermal symmetry. It is
equivalent to insulation or zero heat flux boundary condition, and is expressed at a point x0 as T ( x 0 , t ) / x  0 .

2-37C The boundary condition at a perfectly insulated surface (at x = 0, for example) can be expressed as
T (0, t ) T (0, t )
k 0 or  0 which indicates zero heat flux.
x x

2-38C Yes, the temperature profile in a medium must be perpendicular to an insulated surface since the slope T / x  0 at
that surface.

2-39C We try to avoid the radiation boundary condition in heat transfer analysis because it is a non-linear expression that
causes mathematical difficulties while solving the problem; often making it impossible to obtain analytical solutions.

2-40 Heat conduction through the bottom section of an aluminum pan that is used to cook stew on top of an electric range is
considered. Assuming variable thermal conductivity and one-dimensional heat transfer, the mathematical formulation (the
differential equation and the boundary conditions) of this heat conduction problem is to be obtained for steady operation.
Assumptions 1 Heat transfer is given to be steady and one-dimensional. 2 Thermal conductivity is given to be variable. 3
There is no heat generation in the medium. 4 The top surface at x = L is subjected to specified temperature and the bottom
surface at x = 0 is subjected to uniform heat flux.
Analysis The heat flux at the bottom of the pan is
Q E gen 0.90  (900 W)
q s  s  2
 2
 31,831 W/m 2
As D /4 (0.18 m) / 4
Then the differential equation and the boundary conditions for this heat conduction problem can be expressed as
d  dT 
k 0
dx  dx 
dT (0)
k  q s  31,831 W/m 2
dx
T ( L)  T L  108C

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 2-14
2-41 Heat conduction through the bottom section of a steel pan that is used to boil water on top of an electric range is
considered. Assuming constant thermal conductivity and one-dimensional heat transfer, the mathematical formulation (the
differential equation and the boundary conditions) of this heat conduction problem is to be obtained for steady operation.
Assumptions 1 Heat transfer is given to be steady and one-dimensional. 2 Thermal conductivity is given to be constant. 3
There is no heat generation in the medium. 4 The top surface at x = L is subjected to convection and the bottom surface at x =
0 is subjected to uniform heat flux.
Analysis The heat flux at the bottom of the pan is
Q E gen 0.85  (1250 W)
q s  s    33,820 W/m 2
As D2 / 4 (0.20 m) 2 / 4
Then the differential equation and the boundary conditions for this heat conduction problem can be expressed as
d 2T
0
dx2
dT (0)
k  q s  33,280 W/m 2
dx
dT ( L)
k  h[T ( L)  T ]
dx

2-42 The outer surface of the East wall of a house exchanges heat with both convection and radiation., while the interior
surface is subjected to convection only. Assuming the heat transfer through the wall to be steady and one-dimensional, the
mathematical formulation (the differential equation and the boundary and initial conditions) of this heat conduction problem
is to be obtained.
Assumptions 1 Heat transfer is given to be steady and one-dimensional. 2 Thermal
conductivity is given to be constant. 3 There is no heat generation in the medium.
4 The outer surface at x = L is subjected to convection and radiation while the inner
surface at x = 0 is subjected to convection only. Tsky
Analysis Expressing all the temperatures in Kelvin, the differential equation and the
boundary conditions for this heat conduction problem can be expressed as T1 T2
2 h1 h2
d T
0
dx2
dT (0)
k  h1[T1  T (0)]
dx

 
dT ( L) L x
k  h1 [T ( L)  T 2 ]   2 T ( L) 4  Tsky
4
dx

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 2-15

2-43 Heat is generated in a long wire of radius ro covered with a plastic insulation layer at a constant rate of egen . The heat
flux boundary condition at the interface (radius ro) in terms of the heat generated is to be expressed. The total heat generated
in the wire and the heat flux at the interface are
Egen e V gen  e ( r 2 L)
wire gen o
D egen
Q s E gen e gen ( ro2 L) e gen ro
q s    
A A (2 ro ) L 2 L

Assuming steady one-dimensional conduction in the radial direction, the heat flux boundary condition can be expressed as
dT (ro ) egen ro
k 
dr 2

2-44 A long pipe of inner radius r1, outer radius r2, and thermal conductivity
k is considered. The outer surface of the pipe is subjected to convection to a h, T
medium at T with a heat transfer coefficient of h. Assuming steady one-
dimensional conduction in the radial direction, the convection boundary r1 r2
condition on the outer surface of the pipe can be expressed as
dT (r2 )
k  h[T (r2 )  T ]
dr

2-45 A 2-kW resistance heater wire is used for space heating. Assuming constant thermal conductivity and one-dimensional
heat transfer, the mathematical formulation (the differential equation and the boundary conditions) of this heat conduction
problem is to be obtained for steady operation.
Assumptions 1 Heat transfer is given to be steady and one-dimensional. 2 Thermal conductivity is given to be constant. 3
Heat is generated uniformly in the wire.
Analysis The heat flux at the surface of the wire is
Q E gen 2000 W
q s  s    53.05 W/cm 2
As 2 ro L 2 (0.15 cm)(40 cm)
Noting that there is thermal symmetry about the center line and there is uniform heat flux at the outer surface, the differential
equation and the boundary conditions for this heat conduction problem can be expressed as
1 d  dT  e gen
r  0 2 kW
r dr  dr  k
dT (0) D = 0.3 cm
0
dr L = 40 cm
dT (ro )
k  q s  53.05 W/cm 2
dr

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Section 1: Assessment criteria and rubrics

Learning Objective 1: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 2: Experimental procedures and results
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 3: Ethical considerations and implications
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 3: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 4: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 5: Practical applications and examples
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Experimental procedures and results
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 7: Literature review and discussion
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 9: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Abstract 2: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
Example 10: Historical development and evolution
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 11: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 13: Practical applications and examples
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 14: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Historical development and evolution
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 15: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 16: Study tips and learning strategies
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Current trends and future directions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 18: Experimental procedures and results
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Summary 3: Learning outcomes and objectives
Example 20: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 21: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 23: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 26: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 27: Experimental procedures and results
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Key terms and definitions
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 29: Key terms and definitions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Part 4: Research findings and conclusions
Note: Study tips and learning strategies
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Experimental procedures and results
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 32: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 38: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 39: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Test 5: Case studies and real-world applications
Definition: Practical applications and examples
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 41: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 42: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 43: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 43: Historical development and evolution
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 45: Literature review and discussion
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Research findings and conclusions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Background 6: Ethical considerations and implications
Key Concept: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Experimental procedures and results
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Research findings and conclusions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 54: Ethical considerations and implications
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 56: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 56: Best practices and recommendations
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Module 7: Theoretical framework and methodology
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
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