Developmental biology is the science that investigates how a variety of interacting processes
generate an organism’s heterogeneous shapes, size, and structural features that arise on the
trajectory from embryo to adult, or more generally throughout a life cycle. It represents an
exemplary area of contemporary experimental biology that focuses on phenomena that have
puzzled natural philosophers and scientists for more than two millennia. Philosophers of biology
have shown interest in developmental biology due to the potential relevance of development for
understanding evolution, the theme of reductionism in genetic explanations, and via increased
attention to the details of particular research programs, such as stem cell biology. Developmental
biology displays a rich array of material and conceptual practices that can be analyzed to better
understand the scientific reasoning exhibited in experimental life science. This entry briefly
reviews some central phenomena of ontogeny and then explores four domains that represent
some of the import and promise of conceptual reflection on the epistemology of developmental
biology.
Cell Differentiation
All cells within an organism contain the same set of genetic instructions called the genome. What
drives the unique characteristics of different cells, is reading only certain sections of these
instructions. The areas of the genome which are needed are silenced in the differentiation
process.
Single-celled organisms perform all of their basic functions within a single cell. For maximum
efficiency in each process, a unique cellular structure and machinery are needed. No one cell can
provide optimal circumstances for all functions.
In single-celled organisms, the relatively inefficient operations performed by a single cell may be
adequate, but this falls short in multicellular organisms. Each cell in a multicellular organism,
from a mushroom to a human being, becomes specialized in several ways to fulfill a specific
role. And the adaptations these acquire guarantee that they are as effective as possible in
performing their functions.
Model Organisms
Fruit fly is a good example of an organism to study
Developmental biology. Fruit flies have a very
simple genetic structure, which makes them
ideal for genetic research. It is useful to study
mutant fruit flies, as their quick reproduction
rate allows scientists to observe the
advantages and disadvantages of certain
Mutations.
Case Study
Regeneration in organisms like salamanders or planarians
Planarians are free-living flatworms of the class Turbellaria, order Tricladida, which includes
hundreds of species, found in freshwater, marine, and terrestrial habitats. Planarians are
characterized by a three-branched intestine, including a single anterior and two posterior
branches.
“Having an almost unlimited capacity to regenerate tissues lost to age and injury, planarians have
long fascinated naturalists. In the Western hemisphere alone, their documented history spans
more than 200 years. Planarians were described in the early 19th century as being ‘immortal
under the edge of the knife’, and initial investigation of these remarkable animals was
significantly influenced by studies of regeneration in other organisms and from the flourishing
field of experimental embryology in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This review strives to
place the study of planarian regeneration into a broader historical context by focusing on the
significance and evolution of knowledge in this field. It also synthesizes our current molecular
understanding of the mechanisms of planarian regeneration uncovered since this animal's
relatively recent entrance into the molecular-genetic age.” (WIREs Dev Biol 2013, 2:301–326.
doi: 10.1002/wdev.82)
Importance and Significance of their Regeneration
The developing control of regenerative medicine seeks to identify ways for repairing tissues,
organs, and human body components that cannot be normally regenerated after trauma or
disease. Examples include spinal cord damage, limb loss, neuron loss from stroke, and
degenerative disorders such as Parkinson's and Alzheimer's. Given that spontaneous regeneration
of such tissues occurs frequently in both vertebrate and invertebrate creatures, it stands to reason
that if we can understand these processes, we should be able to apply what we learn to human
health. If regeneration is evolutionarily ancestral and its processes are conserved across all
species with regenerative capacities, it should be feasible to encourage mammalian tissues to
initiate a regenerative response by altering pre-existing repair and regenerative pathways. On the
other hand, if regeneration is a feature that has evolved independently several times,
understanding which components of this process are unique, species-dependent creations will
have an impact on how to apply the knowledge gained from animal regeneration research to
human health.Understanding why a specific regenerative process occurs in a model system but
not in human tissues, for example, may aid in the identification of new molecular pathways and
cellular activities that can be applied to human cells and tissues to stimulate regeneration if
endogenous mechanisms are unavailable. In any case, understanding the modalities and
mechanisms driving regeneration in many model systems will not only help us answer a
long-standing puzzle in biology and evolution, but will also have a direct impact on our
understanding of wound healing and regeneration in humans.
Key Findings and breakthroughs in research
Cellular Plasticity
Studies have revealed that both salamanders and planarians possess remarkable cellular
plasticity, allowing them to regenerate entire body parts. This plasticity involves the ability of
cells to dedifferentiate, re-enter the cell cycle, and then redifferentiate into various cell types
needed for regeneration.
Cellular plasticity defines the capacity of cells to adopt distinct identities during development,
tissue homeostasis and regeneration. Dynamic fluctuations between different states, within or
across lineages, are regulated by changes in chromatin accessibility and in gene expression.
When deregulated, cellular plasticity can contribute to cancer initiation and progression. Cancer
cells are remarkably plastic which contributes to phenotypic and functional heterogeneity within
tumors as well as resistance to targeted therapies. It is for these reasons that the scientific
community has become increasingly interested in understanding the molecular mechanisms
governing cancer cell plasticity.
Ethical Guidelines
The Animal Welfare Act of 1998. Republic Act (RA) No. 8485 or The Animal Welfare Act of
1998 was signed into law on 11 February 1998 and later amended by RA 10631 on 03 October
2013. Its purpose is to protect and promote the welfare of all terrestrial, aquatic, and marine
animals in the country by supervising and regulating the establishment and operations of all
facilities that are utilized for breeding, maintaining, keeping, treating, or training all animals
either as objects of trade or as household pets. The implementing rules and regulations (IRR) of
RA 8485 specific to the conduct of scientific procedures using animals are contained in the
Department of Agriculture (DA) Administrative Order (AO) No. 40, Series of 1999 issued on 02
August 1999. AO 40 stipulates that experiments involving live vertebrate animals (e.g. mice,
frogs, and fish) are allowed only after the issuance of an official approval by the Institutional
Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) of the Animal Care and Use Program (ACUP) of the
researchers. The IACUC is composed of at least three members that include a qualified licensed
veterinarian and a concerned public member who is not affiliated with the institution. It monitors
and reviews the proper implementation of the approved ACUP and submits an annual report to
the DA Bureau of Animal Industry. The IACUC members of the University of the Philippines
Diliman are appointed to a renewable term of one year by the Chancellor. Philippine Journal of
Science 150 (4): vii-ix, August 2022 ISSN 0031 - 7683 viii Wildlife Resources Conservation and
Protection Act of 2001. RA 9147 or An Act Providing for the Conservation and Protection of
Wildlife Resources and their Habitats, Appropriate Funds Therefore, and for Other Purposes
became law on 30 July 2001. RA 9147 declares that the conservation of the country's wildlife
resources and their habitats for sustainability is a policy of the State. Its objectives are: [a] to
conserve and protect wildlife species and their habitats to promote ecological balance and
enhance biological diversity; [b] to regulate the collection and trade of wildlife; [c] to
pursue—with due regard to the national interest—the Philippine commitment to international
conventions and protection of wildlife and their habitats; and [d] to initiate or support scientific
studies on the conservation of biological diversity. RA 9147 provides that the Department of
Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) has jurisdiction over all terrestrial plant and animal
species, all turtles and tortoises, and wetland species—including but not limited to crocodiles,
waterbirds, and all amphibians and dugong. The DA, on the other hand, is responsible for all
declared aquatic critical habitats and all aquatic resources—including but not limited to all
fishes, aquatic plants, invertebrates, and all marine mammals, except dugong. The IRR of RA
9147 are stated in DENR-DA-PCSD AO No. 01—which was issued jointly by the DENR, the
DA, and the Palawan Council for Sustainable Development (PCSD) on 18 May 2004. AO No. 01
states that the collection and possession of wildlife and their by-products and derivatives is
allowed for scientific research, breeding/propagation, bioprospecting, commercial purposes, or
for other activities if duly authorized by the concerned Department Secretary or Council or their
authorized representatives—subject to compliance with duly promulgated requirements,
conditions, rules, and regulations. Specifically, the collection and utilization of biological
resources for scientific research is legal only after the execution of an Affidavit of Undertaking
by the applicant or a Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) between the Secretary or the Council
and the proponent, and the issuance of a Gratuitous Permit (GP). An applicant is required to
submit a letter of application, a brief description of the research activity or proposal, and an
endorsement letter of the Head of Institution where the proponent is affiliated—or in the case of
an individual researcher, from a duly recognized expert. The Free and Prior Informed Consent of
indigenous peoples (IP) or prior clearance of the concerned local government units, Protected
Area Management Board, private landowner, and/or other relevant agencies/institutions where
the collection will be made is also required. For purposes of thesis and dissertation research of
students who are affiliated with Philippine academic institutions, the issuance of a GP by the
DENR Secretary through the Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau Director or the concerned
Regional Executive Director, the DA Secretary through the BFAR Director, or concerned BFAR
Regional Director or the Council through the PCSD Executive Director is sufficient. GP issuance
is contingent upon prior submission of a copy of a duly approved thesis proposal, endorsement
letter from the concerned Dean, and clearance from the affected entities or informed consent
certificate from the IP head. For foreign applicants or Filipino citizens affiliated with foreign
institutions, the execution of a MOA and the issuance of the GP are required together with the
formal identification of a Philippine institution as a research collaborator or counterpart. The
export or importation of wildlife species to or from another country requires the official
permission of the Secretary or the designated representative. The technical and financial
capability of the recipient to maintain the species also needs to be established beforehand and its
transport is subject to strict compliance with the provisions of RA 9147 as well as with other
pertinent rules and regulations. Philippine National Health Research System Act of 2013. RA
10532 or An Act Institutionalizing the Philippine National Health Research System (PNHRS)
was enacted on 07 May 2013. The PNHRS aims to improve the health status, productivity, and
quality of life of Filipinos by: [a] ensuring that health research is linked to the health system
needs; [b] ensuring that investments in health research yield the most benefit; [c] promoting good
governance among health research organizations through efficient, effective, transparent, and
ethical health research management system; [d] engaging in national and international
partnerships and networks for health research development; and [e] ensuring the sustainability of
resources for health research. ix CAESAR SALOMA Editor-in-Chief Mentioned particularly in
RA 10532 is the Philippine Health Research Ethics Board (PHREB), which was created under
DOST Special Order No. 091, Series of 2006 to ensure adherence to the universal principles for
the protection of human participants. The IRR of RA 10532—issued jointly by the DOST,
Department of Health (DOH), Commission on Higher Education (CHED), and the University of
Philippines Manila (UPM) on 10 July 2013—are found in the Joint DOST-PCHRD, DOH,
CHED, UPM NIH AO No. 001. All research endeavors involving human subjects must undergo
ethical review and clearance before implementation to ensure the safety, dignity, and well-being
of research participants. The PHREB is tasked to formulate and update guidelines for the ethical
conduct of human health research, as well as to develop guidelines for the establishment and
management of ethics review committees and standardization of research ethics review. The
PHREB accredits and registers the Ethics Review Committee that is authorized to facilitate an
ethics review. The 2017 edition of the National Ethical Guidelines for Health and Health-related
Research was approved on 07 June 2017. It contains specific guidelines for research in
cosmetics, environmental health, online and digital tools, mental health, military, people with
disabilities, genetic and genome, biobanks, registries, and databases. It also reckons the possible
impact of evolving developments in health and health-related science and technology, while
ensuring respect for the rights and welfare of all individuals and communities involved as
participants in health and health-related research. The standards and procedures for the
establishment and management of ethics review committees and the research ethics review are
also further clarified. The PJS and its publisher—the DOST—are duty-bound to respect the
provisions of RA 10631, RA 9147, and RA 10532, and to comply with their respective IRRs.
The PJS Editorial Office has, therefore, required the submission of a certified copy of the official
IACUC approval, the Gratuitous Permit, or the Ethics Review Committee Clearance for
manuscripts that report results of research investigations that are affected by any of the three
laws. Timely submission will prevent any unnecessary delay in the completion of the
peer-evaluation process. REFERENCES [NAST] National Academy of Science and Technology.
2009 (July). Ethical Principles and Guidelines for Filipino Scientists. Available at
http://www.nast.ph/images/pdf%20files/Ethical%20Guidelines/epgfs.pdf [PHREB] Philippine
Health Research Ethics Board. 2017. National Ethical Guidelines for Health and Health-related
Research. Available at
https://ethics.healthresearch.ph/index.php/phoca-downloads/category/4-neg
