COMPATIBILITY FUNCTIONS

In Excel 2010 or later, these functions have been replaced by new functions that provide improved accuracy.
and they have names that better reflect their use. You can still use them for compatibility with earlier versions of Excel,
but, if backward compatibility is not mandatory, I should start using the new features in your
place. For more information about the new features, seeStatistical functions
(referencia) yMathematical and trigonometric functions (reference).

Function Description
[Link] function Returns the cumulative beta distribution function.
[Link] Function Return the inverse function of the cumulative distribution function
from a specified beta distribution.
[Link] function Returns the probability of a discrete random variable following
a binomial distribution.
[Link] function Returns the probability of a chi-square distribution tail.
[Link] function Returns the inverse probability function of a queue
chi-square distribution.
[Link] function Return the proof of independence.
CONCATENATE function Combine two or more text strings into one.
Function Returns the confidence interval of the mean of a population.
CONFIDENCE INTERVAL
COVAR function Returns the covariance, which is the average of the products of the
deviations for each pair of data points.
[Link] function Returns the smallest value whose cumulative binomial distribution is
less than or equal to a criterion value.
[Link] function Returns the exponential distribution.
DISTR.F function Returns the probability distribution F.
[Link] function Return the inverse function of the probability distribution F.
Forecast Function Returns a value in a linear trend.

Note: In Excel 2016, this function is replaced by the new [Link] of

forecast, but it is still available for backward compatibility
previous.

Function Round a number down, towards zero.

LOWER_MULTIPLE
TEST.F function Returns the result of an F test.
[Link] function Returns the gamma distribution.
[Link] function Return the inverse function of the cumulative gamma distribution.
CUBE FUNCTIONS IN EXCEL
Thecube functions in Excelthey help us obtain information from an OLAP cube and place the information
directly into an Excel sheet. In this way, we can combine the potential of Excel functions and its engine
of calculation along with the benefits of a multi-dimensional data repository. With cube functions we can
search for data from an OLAP cube such as members, sets, properties, or values and mix them with other calculations and
Excel formulas.
Consult the syntax of each function by clicking on its name.

FUNCTION ENGLISH DESCRIPTION

CUBESET CUBESET Define a set of

members or tuples
calculated by sending a
established expression
to the cube of the server,
what creates the set and
returns it to Microsoft
Excel.

MEMBERCUBE CUBEMEMBER Returns a member

of an OLAP cube.

MEMBERSHIP CUBE CUBEKPIMEMBER Returns a

KPI property and
show the name of
KPI in the cell.

MEMBERORANGECUBE CUBERANKEDMEMBER Return the member

Nth in order of a
set.

PROPERTYMEMBERSCUBE CUBEMEMBERPROPERTY Returns the value of

a property of
member in the cube.

RECOUNTSETCUBE CUBESETCOUNT Returns the number of

elements of a
set.

CUBEVALUE CUBEVALUE Returns a value

cube aggregate.
DATABASE FUNCTIONS IN EXCEL
Thedatabase functions in Excelthey facilitate our work with information that is organized
like a database, that is, it is located in a range of cells where the first row contains the titles of each
column. These functions allow us to count, sum, multiply the values of a column that meet the
specified criteria and we will even be able to extract a record that meets certain conditions.
Check the syntax of each function by clicking on its name.

FUNCTION ENGLISH description

BDCOUNT DCOUNT Count the cells that contain numbers in the field
(column) of records from the database that meet the
specified conditions.

BDCONTARA DCOUNTA Count the number of cells that are not blank in the
field (column) of the database records that
meet the specified conditions.

BDDESEAL DSTDEV Calculate the standard deviation based on a sample of

las entradas seleccionadas de una base de datos.

BDDESVESTP DSTDEVP Calculate the standard deviation based on the total population.
from the selected entries of a database.

BDEXTRACT DGET Extract a single record from a database that matches

the specified conditions.

BDMAX DMAX Returns the maximum number in the field (column) of records
from the database that match the conditions
specified.

BDMIN DMIN Return the smallest number from the field (column) of records
the database that matches the conditions
specified.

BDPRODUCT DPRODUCT Multiply the values of the field (column) of records in the
databases that match the specified conditions.

BDAVERAGE DAVERAGE Get the average of the values of a column, list, or database.
of data that meets the specified conditions.

BDSUMA DSUM Sum the numbers in the field (column) of the records that
match the specified conditions.

BDVAR DVAR Calculate the variance based on a sample of the entries

selected from a database.

BDVARP DVARP Calculate the variance based on the total population of the
selected entries from a database.
DATE AND TIME FUNCTIONS
Thedate and time functionsMicrosoft Excel is used to search for specific dates, to know
the current time, to find the difference in working days between two dates and many more things that will be very useful
usefulness when working with this type of data.
Find the details and examples of each function by clicking on its name.
FUNCTION ENGLISH DESCRIPTION

NOW NOW Return the current date and time in date and time format.

YEAR YEAR Returns the year, an integer in the range 1900-9999.

DAY DAY Returns the day of the month (a number from 1 to 31).

[Link] WORKDAY Returns the serial number of the date before or after a number.
specified working days.

[Link] [Link] Return the serial number of the date before or after a number
specified working days with weekend parameters
customized.

[Link] NETWORKDAYS Returns the total number of working days between two dates.

[Link] [Link] Returns the number of complete working days between two dates with
custom weekend parameters.

DIAS360 DAYS360 Calculate the number of days between two dates based on a 360-day year.
(twelve months of 30 days).

DAYS WEEKDAY Return a number from 1 to 7 that identifies the day of the week.

DATE DATE Return the number that represents the date in date and time code of
Microsoft Excel.

[Link] EDATE Return the serial number of the date that is the indicated number of months
before or after the initial date.

CLOSE NUMBER DATEVALUE Convert a date in text form into a number that represents the date
in Microsoft Excel date and time code.

[Link] EOMONTH Returns the serial number of the last day of the month before or after the
specified number of months.

YEAR YEARFRAC Return the fraction of the year that represents the number of complete days between
initial_date

HOUR HOUR Return the hour as a number from 0 (12:00 a.m.) to 23 (11:00 p.m.).

HORN NUMBER TIMEVALUE Convert an hour of text into an Excel serial number for an hour, a
number from 0 ([Link] a.m.) to 0.999988426 ([Link] p.m.). Format it
number with a time format after entering the formula.

TODAY TODAY Return the current date in date format.

MES MONTH Returns the month, an integer from 1 (January) to 12 (December).

ENGINEERING FUNCTIONS IN EXCEL

Theengineering functions in Excelthey are of great usefulness for performing calculations related to the
engineering field as the solution to wave propagation problems with the Bessel function, calculations with
complex numbers and conversions between different numbering systems such as binary, octal, decimal and
hexadecimal.
Check the syntax of each function by clicking on its name.

FUNCTION ENGLISH DESCRIPTION

BESSELI BEAUTIFUL Returns the modified Bessel function In(x).

BESSELJ BESSELJ Return the Bessel function Jn(x).

BESSELK BESSELK Returns the modified Bessel function Kn(x).

BESSELY BESSELY Returns the Bessel function Yn(x).

[Link] BIN2DEC Convert a binary number to decimal.

[Link] BIN2HEX Convert a binary number to hexadecimal.

[Link] BIN2OCT Convert a binary number to octal.

COMPLEX COMPLEX Convert the real and imaginary coefficients into a complex number.

CONVERT CONVERT Convert a number from one decimal system to another.

[Link] DEC2BIN Convert a decimal number to binary.

[Link] DEC2HEX Convert a decimal number to hexadecimal.

[Link] DEC2OCT Convert a decimal number to octal.

DELTA DELTA Check if the two numbers are equal.

[Link] ERF Returns the error function between a lower and upper limit.

[Link] ERFC Return the complementary error function.

[Link] [Link] Return the complementary error function between x and infinity.

[Link] [Link] Return the error function.

[Link] HEX2BIN Convert a hexadecimal number to binary.

[Link] HEX2DEC Convert a hexadecimal number to decimal.

[Link] HEX2OCT Convert a hexadecimal number to octal.

[Link] IMABS Returns the absolute value (magnitude) of a complex number.

FINANCIAL FUNCTIONS
Thefinancial functionsExcel will help you with calculations such as amortization, the annual interest rate.
effective, the accrued interest, the nominal rate among other calculations that will help you in your financial models.
Find the details and examples of each function by clicking on its name.
FUNCTION ENGLISH DESCRIPTION

Straight-line depreciation AMORLINC Returns the amortization of each accounting period.

[Link] AMORDEGRC Returns the amortization of each accounting period by using a coefficient of
amortization.

QUANTITY RECEIVED RECEIVED Returns the amount received at maturity for a fully valued security.
inverted.

[Link] COUPDAYS Returns the number of days in the nominal period that contains the settlement date.

[Link].L1 COUPDAYBS Returns the number of days from the start of the nominal period to the settlement date.

[Link].L2 COUPDAYSNC Returns the number of days from the settlement date to the next nominal date.

[Link].L1 COUPPCD Returns the previous coupon date before the settlement date.

[Link].L2 COUPNCD Return the next nominal date after the settlement date.

[Link] COUPNUM Returns the number of coupons payable between the settlement date and the date of
expiration.

DB DB Returns the depreciation of an asset over a specific period using the method
of fixed balance depreciation.

DDB DDB Returns the depreciation of an asset over a specific period using the method of
depreciation by double declining balance or another method specified.

DURATION DURATION Returns the annual duration of a security with periodic interest payments.

[Link] MDURATION Returns the modified duration of Macauley for a bond with a nominal value
assumed of $100.

DVS VDB Returns the depreciation of an asset for any specified period, including
partial periods, using the double declining balance depreciation method
another method that specifies.

[Link] Accrued Interest Returns the accrued interest of a security that pays periodic interest.

[Link].V ACCRINTM Returns the accrued interest for a security that pays interest at maturity.

[Link] EFFECT Returns the effective annual interest rate.

[Link] ISPMT Returns the interest of a direct payment loan.

PRICE LETTER TBILLPRICE Returns the price of a nominal value of $100 for a treasury bill.

[Link] TBILLYIELD Returns the yield of a treasury bill.

LETTER OF TEST FOR BOND EQV TBILLEQ

A Returns the yield for a bond equivalent to a treasury bill.
[Link] DOLLARDE Convert a price in dollars, expressed as a fraction, into a price in dollars.
expressed as a decimal number.

[Link] DOLLARFR Convert a price in dollars, expressed as a decimal number, into a price in dollars,
expressed as a fraction.

NPER NPER Returns the number of payments of an investment, based on constant payments and
periodicals and a constant interest rate.

PAYMENT PMT Calculate the payment of a loan based on constant payments and interest rate.

[Link] CUMIPMT Returns the accrued interest payment between two periods.

PRINCIPAL PAYMENT BETWEEN CUMPRINC Returns the cumulative principal payment of a loan between two periods.

PAYPOINT IPMT Returns the interest paid on an investment over a specified period, based on
in periodic and constant payments and a constant interest rate.

PAYFIRST PPMT Returns the capital payment of a given investment, based on constant payments
and newspapers, and a constant interest rate.

PRICE PRICE Returns the price per $100 of nominal value of a security that pays a rate of
periodic interest.

[Link] PRICEDISC Returns the price per $100 of a nominal value of a discounted stock.

[Link].1 ODDFPRICE Returns the price of a nominal value of $100 of a stock with an initial period
odd.

[Link].2 ODDLPRICE Returns the price of a nominal value of $100 of a stock with a final period
odd.

[Link] PRICEMAT Returns the price per $100 of a nominal value that generates interest at maturity.

RENDTO YIELD Returns the yield of a stock that earns periodic interest.

[Link] YIELDDISC Return the annual yield for the discounted stock value. For example, a
letter from the treasury.

[Link].1 ODDFYIELD Returns the performance of a stock with an odd first period.

[Link].2 ODDLYIELD Returns the amortization of a security with an odd final period.

RENT DUE YIELDMAT Returns the annual interest of a value that generates interest at maturity.

SLN SLN Returns the depreciation by direct method of an asset in a given period.

SYD SYD Returns the depreciation by annuity method of an asset over a period
specific.

RATE RATE Returns the interest rate per period of a loan or an investment. For example,
use 6%/4 for quarterly payments at 6% APR.

[Link] DISC Return the discount rate of the stock value.

[Link] INTRATE Return the interest rate for the total investment in a securities asset.

NOMINAL RATE NOMINAL Return the nominal annual interest rate.

INFORMATION FUNCTIONS
Theinformation functionsExcel is useful for obtaining information about worksheets and their
content such as its location within the sheet, its format, the type of value contained in a cell or even if the
cell has the error value.
Find the detail and examples of each function by clicking on its name.
FUNCTION ENGLISH DESCRIPTION

CELL CELL Returns information about the format, location, or content of the first cell.
according to the reading order of the sheet, in a reference.

[Link] ISODD Return TRUE if the number is odd.

[Link] ISEVEN Returns TRUE if the number is even.

ESBLANCO ISBLANK Checks if it refers to an empty cell and returns TRUE or FALSE.

ESERR ISERR Check if a value is an error (except #N/A) and return TRUE or
FALSE.

IT'S AN ERROR ISERROR Check if a value is an error (including #N/A) and return TRUE or
FALSE.

ISLOGICAL ISLOGICAL Check if a value is a logical value (TRUE or FALSE) and return
TRUE or FALSE.

ESNOD ISNA Check if an error value is #N/A and return TRUE or FALSE.

THISISNOTTEXT ISNONTEXT Check if a value is not text and return TRUE or FALSE.

ISNUMBER ISNUMBER Check if a value is a number and return TRUE or FALSE.

ESREF ISREF Check if a value is a reference and return TRUE or FALSE.

THIS TEXT ISTEXT Check if a value is text and return TRUE or FALSE.

INFO INFO Returns information about the operating environment in use.

N N Convert non-numeric values into numbers, dates into serial numbers.

TRUE in 1 and anything else in 0 (zero).

NOD NA Returns the error value #N/A

TYPE TYPE Returns an integer that represents the data type of a value: number = 1; text = 2;
valor lógico = 4; valor de error = 16; matriz = 64.

[Link] [Link] Returns a number that matches an error value.

LOGICAL FUNCTIONS
Thelogical functionsIn Excel, they are used in decision making. Based on the result of a function
we will decide whether to carry out a certain required action or not.
Find the details and examples of each function by clicking on its name.

FUNCTION ENGLISH DESCRIPTION

FALSE FALSE Returns the logical value FALSE.

NO NOT Change FALSE to TRUE and TRUE to FALSE.

O OR Check if any of the arguments is TRUE and return

TRUE or FALSE. Return FALSE if all arguments are
FALSE.

YES IF Check if a condition is met and return a value if it is evaluated

as TRUE and another value if evaluated as FALSE.

[Link] IFERROR Returns one value if the expression is an error and another value if it is not.

TRUE TRUE Returns the logical value TRUE.

Y AND Check if all the arguments are TRUE and return

TRUE or FALSE. Returns FALSE if any of the arguments is
FALSE.
SEARCH AND REFERENCE FUNCTIONS IN EXCEL
The search and reference functions in Excel allow us to find values within our sheet according to the
criteria established in the search. They also help us obtain reference information from the cells.
Check the syntax of each function by clicking on its name.
FUNCTION ENGLISH DESCRIPTION

AREAS AREAS Returns the number of areas in a reference. An area is a range of cells.
contiguous or a single cell.

SEARCH LOOKUP Search for values from a range of a column or a row or from a matrix.

SEARCHH HLOOKUP Search in the first row of a table or matrix of values and return the value in it.
column from a specified row.

VLOOKUP VLOOKUP Look for a value in the first column on the left of a table and then return a
value in the same row from a specified column. By default, the
the table is sorted in ascending order.

COINCIDE MATCH Returns the relative position of an element in an array that matches a value
given in a specified order.

COLUMN COLUMN Returns the column number of a reference.

COLUMNS COLUMNS Returns the number of columns in an array or reference.

DESREF OFFSET Returns a reference to a range that is a specified number of rows and columns
from a given reference.

ADDRESS ADDRESS Create a cell reference in text form once the numbers are specified.
row and column.

CHOOSE CHOOSE Choose a value or an action from a list of values based on an index number.

FILA ROW Returns the row number of a reference.

ROWS ROWS Returns the number of rows in a reference or array.

HYPERLINK HYPERLINK Create a shortcut or link that opens a document saved on the hard drive, in a
network server or on the Internet.

IMPORTDYNAMICDATA GETPIVOTDATA Extract data stored in a pivot table.

INDEX INDEX Returns a value or reference of the cell at the intersection of a row and column in
particular, in a specified range.

INDIRECT INDIRECT Returns a reference specified by a text value.

RDTR RTD Retrieve real-time data from a program compatible with COM automation.

TRANSPOSE TRANSPOSE Returns a vertical range of cells as a horizontal range, or vice versa.
MATHEMATICAL AND TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
TheExcel mathematical functionsare used to perform various arithmetic operations such as the
sum and the product of two numbers. Thetrigonometric functions in Excelthey will allow obtaining the sine,
cosine and tangent of a specified angle.
Find the detail and examples of each function by clicking on its name.
FUNCTION ENGLISH DESCRIPTION

ABS ABS Returns the absolute value of a number, that is, a number without a sign.

ACOS ACOS Returns the arcsine of a number, in radians, within the interval of 0 to Pi.

Inverse hyperbolic cosine

ACOSH Returns the inverse hyperbolic cosine of a number.

ADD AGGREGATE Returns an aggregate from a list or database.

RANDOM RAND Returns a random number greater than or equal to 0 and less than 1.

[Link] Returns a random number between the numbers you specify.

ASENO ASIN Returns the arcsine of a number in radians, within the interval -Pi/2 to Pi/2

ASENOH ASINH Returns the inverse hyperbolic sine of a number.

ATAN ATAN Returns the arc tangent of a number in radians, within the interval -Pi/2 to Pi/2.

ATAN2 ATAN2 Returns the arctangent of the specified X and Y coordinates, as a value in radians.
understood between -Pi and Pi, excluding -Pi.

ATANH ATANH Returns the inverse hyperbolic tangent of a number.

quotient QUOTIENT Returns the integer part of a division.

COMBINE COMBIN Returns the number of combinations for a given number of elements.

COS COS Returns the cosine of an angle.

COSH COSH Returns the hyperbolic cosine of a number.

ENTERO INT Round a number down to the nearest lower integer.

EXP EXP Returns e raised to the power of a given number.

FACT FACT Returns the factorial of a number.

[Link] DOUBLE FACT Returns the double factorial of a number.

DEGREES DEGREES Convert radians to degrees.

LN LN Returns the natural logarithm of a number.

STATISTICAL FUNCTIONS
Thestatistical functions of Excelthey will allow you to perform a statistical analysis of your data. You will be able to
obtain the covariance, standard deviation, beta distribution, binomial distribution among others.
Find the details and examples of each function by clicking on its name.
FUNCTION ENGLISH description

[Link] CORREL Returns the correlation coefficient of two data sets.

Coefficient of asymmetry SKEW Returns the bias of a distribution: a characterization of the degree of
asymmetry of a distribution around its mean.

COEFFICIENT.R2 RSQ Return the square of the coefficient of the correlation moment of
Pearson product of the given points.

TO COUNT COUNT Count the number of cells in a range that contain numbers.

[Link] COUNTBLANK Count the number of blank cells within a specified range.

COUNTIF COUNTIF Counts the cells in the range that meet the given condition.

COUNTIFS COUNTIFS Count the number of cells that meet a certain set of
conditions or criteria.

WILL TELL COUNTA Count the number of non-empty cells in a range.

COVARIANCE.P COVARIANCE.P Returns the population covariance, the average of the products of the
deviations for each pair of data points in two sets
data.

COVARIANCE.M COVARIANCE.S Returns the covariance, the average of the products of the deviations
for each pair of data points in two datasets.

GROWTH GROWTH Returns numbers in a coincident exponential growth trend

with known data points.

[Link] [Link] Returns the quartile of a data set based on the values of the
percentile of 0..1, exclusive.

[Link] [Link] Returns the quartile of a data set based on the values of the
percentile of 0..1, inclusive.

CURTOSIS KURT Returns the kurtosis of a dataset.

UNDEVELOPED STDEV.S Calculate the standard deviation based on a sample (omit the values
logical and the text).

UNDRESS.P STDEV.P Calculate the standard deviation based on the total population provided
as arguments (omit logical values and text).

UNDRESS STDEVA Calculate the standard deviation of a sample, including logical values and
text. Logical values and the text with value FALSE have an assigned value of 0,
Those that present TRUE value have a value of 1.
TEXT FUNCTIONS
Thetext functionsin Excel allows concatenating strings, removing whitespace,
replace certain characters with others and many more things that will allow you to manipulate text strings for
obtain the desired results.
Find the detail and examples of each function by clicking on its name.
FUNCTION ENGLISH description

CHARACTER CHAR Returns the character specified by the code number from the established character set
on your PC.

CODE CODE Returns the code number of the first character of the text from the character set used by your PC.

CONCATENATE CONCATENATE Combine several text elements into one.

DECIMAL FIXED Round a number to the specified number of decimals and return the result as text with or without
commas.

RIGHT RIGHT Returns the specified number of characters from the end of a text string.

FIND FIND Returns the initial position of a text string within another text string.

SPACES TRIM Remove all spaces from the text except for individual spaces between words.

EXTRA MID Returns the characters from the center of a string, given a starting position and length.

FIND SEARCH Returns the number of characters in which a particular character or string of text is found,
reading from left to right.

SAME EXACT Check if two strings are exactly the same and return TRUE or FALSE.

LEFT LEFT Returns the specified number of characters from the beginning of a string.

LONG LEN Returns the number of characters in a string.

CLEAN CLEAN Remove all non-printable characters from the text.

UPPERCASE UPPER Convert a string of text to uppercase letters.

minus lower Convert all the letters of a string of text to lowercase.

CURRENCY DOLLAR Convert a number to text using currency format.

PROPRIETARY NAME
PROPER Convert a string of text to uppercase or lowercase, as appropriate; the first letter of
Each Word In Uppercase And The Other Letters In Lowercase.

REPLACE REPLACE Replace part of a text string with another.

REPEAT REPT Repeat the text a certain number of times.

SUBSTITUTE SUBSTITUTE Replace the existing text with new text in a string.
 USER-DEFINED FUNCTIONS INSTALLED WITH
SUPPLEMENTS (REFERENCE)
If the installed add-ons contain functions, these automation functions and
complement will be available in the user-defined category in the box of
dialogInsert function.
Note: User-defined functions (UDF) are not available in Excel Online.
To obtain detailed information about a function, click on its name in the first
column.
Function Description
Function Call a procedure from a dynamic link library or from a
CALL code resource.
Function Convert a specific number to euros; convert a specific number
EUROCONVERTfrom euros to the currency of a member state; or converts a given number of
a currency from one member state to that of another with the euro as currency
intermediate ( triangulation )

Function Return the identification number of the link library record

REGISTRATION IDdynamic link library (DLL) specified or of the previously registered code resource.
Function Establish a connection with an external data source, execute a query from
[Link] a spreadsheet and then returns the result in the form of an array
without the need to program a macro

WEB FUNCTIONS (REFERENCE)

To obtain detailed information about a function, click on its name in the first
column.
Note: The version markers indicate the version of Excel in which it has been presented.
function. For example, a version marker from 2013 indicates that this function is available
in Excel 2013 and in all subsequent versions. These functions are not available in
previous versions, neither in Excel Online nor in Excel for Mac.

Function Description
ENCODEURL function Returns a URL-encoded string.

FILTERXML Function Returns specific data from the XML content with the specified XPath.

WEBSERVICE function Returns data from a web service.

Chemical structure
The chemical structure of achemical substanceprovides information on how they are linked
differentatomsoionswhat fThey form amolecule, oratomic aggregate. Includes themolecular geometry,
theelectronic configurationand, where applicable, thecrystal structure.
Molecular geometry refers to the spatial arrangement of atoms in a molecule (includingdistances
of linkybonding angles) and thechemical bondsthat hold atoms together. Molecular geometry
it should explain the shape of the simplest molecules such as those ofoxygenonitrogendiatomic, to the most
complex, like a molecule ofproteinor ofDNA. With this term we can also refer to structures
where proper molecules do not exist. Ionic or covalent compounds do not form molecules but
three-dimensional networks, huge aggregates of atoms or ions, with a regular, symmetric, and periodic structure.
Once the chemical structure of a molecule is known or assumed, it is possible to represent it.
by means ofmodelslike themodel of bars and spheresor thefull space model.

Molecule Atomic network IoT network Metal red

Thioacetic acid3-COSH Diamond, Cn Copper(I) iodide, CuI2 Metal

Molecular covalent bond Network covalent bond Ionic bond Metallic bond

Nucleotide
Nucleotides areorganic moleculesformed by the unioncovalentof amonosaccharideof
fivecarbons(pentose), anitrogenous baseand aphosphate group. Thenucleosideit is the part of the nucleotide
formed solely by thenitrogenous baseand thepentose.
They are themonomersof thenucleic acids(DNAyARN) in which they form linear chains of thousands or
millions of nucleotides, but they also perform important functions as free molecules (for example, theATPo
theGTP).
Structure
Each nucleotide is an assembly of three [Link]

Nitrogenous bases: derive from the compoundsheterocyclicaromaticpurinaypyrimidine.

Nitrogenous basespurines: are theadenine(A) and theguanine(G). Both are part of theDNAy
ofARN.
Nitrogenous basespyrimidines: they are thethymine(T), thecytosine(C) and theuracilThymine and cytosine
They are involved in the formation of DNA. In RNA, cytosine and uracil appear.
Nitrogenous basesisoaloxacinic: theflavina(F). It is not part of DNA or RNA, but it is part of some
important compounds such as theFAD.
Pentose: the sugar of five carbon atoms; it can beribose(ARN) ordeoxyribose(DNA). The difference
between the two is that RNA does have an OH group on the second carbon.
Phosphoric acid: of formula H3PO4Each nucleotide can contain one (monophosphate nucleotides, such as
theAMP), two (nucleotide-diphosphate, such as theADP) or three (nucleotide triphosphates, such as theATP) phosphate groups.

Nomenclature
The position of theatomsIn a nucleotide, they are specified in relation to the carbon atoms in the sugar of
ribose or deoxyribose.

The purine or pyrimidine is located on carbon 1 of the sugar.

The phosphate group is on carbon 5.
The grouphydroxylis linked to carbon 3 of the sugar. It can be released in the form of water
product of the formation of the phosphodiester bond.
A group may existhydroxyladditional linked to carbon 2, if the pentose is a ribose

Chromosome
Inbiologyycytogenetics, it is called chromosome of theGreekcolor, body
body or element) to each of the highly organized structures formed byDNAand proteins, that
contains the majority of thegenetic informationof an individual.
In cell divisions(mitosisymeiosis) the chromosome presents its best-known form, well-defined bodies
outlined in the shape of an X, due to the high degree of compaction and duplication.
In theinterfacethey cannot be clearly viewed through the optical microscope as
they occupychromosomal territoriesdiscrete. In theeukaryotic cellsand in thearchaeas(unlike in
thebacteria), DNA will always be found in the form ofchromatin, that is strongly associated with
someproteinscalledhistonesand non-histones. Chromatin, organized into chromosomes, is found in the
nucleus of eukaryotic cells and is visualized as a tangle of thin strands. When the process begins
of duplication and division of the genetic material called(cariokinesis), that tangle of threads initiates a phenomenon of
progressive condensation that allows visualization of each of the chromosomes.
Structure and chemical composition of chromatin
Eukaryotic chromosomes are very long molecules ofDNAof double helix that are closely
related to proteins calledhistonesand proteins called non-histones. Chromosomes can be found
from loose or minimally compacted states, as in the nuclei of the cells ininterface, even in states
highly compacted, as happens in themetaphasemitotic.
The main components obtained when isolating thechromatinof the interphase nuclei is the DNA,
histone proteins, non-histone proteins, and RNA.

Histones
Histones are basic proteins, rich in residues oflysineyarginine, that show a high level of conservation
evolutionary and that interact with DNA forming a subunit that repeats throughout chromatin
namednucleosome. The main types of histones that have been isolated in interphase nuclei in
different eukaryotic species are: H1, H2A, H2B, H3, and H4. In addition to these histones, there are also others that
are specific to tissue like histone H5 which is very rich in lysine (25 moles%) specific to nucleated erythrocytes of
vertebrates in mammals, and the histones of the endosperma.11Likewise, the centromeric chromatin is characterized by
due to the presence of a specific isoform of histone H3, known as CENP-A in vertebrates.

The nucleosome
The chromatin of nuclei in interphase, when observed using electron microscopy techniques, can be
describe like a bead necklace or a rosary, where each bead is a spherical or globular subunit that
is callednucleosome; Nucleosomes are linked together by DNA fibers. It follows, then,
that the basic unit of the chromatin structure is the nucleosome.

Genes
You generate a unit of information.n1in alocusofdeoxyribonucleic acid(DNA) that encodes a product
functionalproteinsfor example. It is the molecular unit of thegenetic inheritance, 23well store the information
genetics and allows it to be transmitted to thedescendants.
Genes are found in thechromosomes, and each one occupies
in them a specific position calledlocus. The set of genes of a species is calledgenome.
Molecularly, the gene is a sequence ofnucleotidescontiguous in the DNA molecule (or RNA in the case of
somevirus) that contains the necessary information for the synthesis of amacromoleculewith
functioncell phoneesspecific, that is, related to the development or functioning of a physiological function.
Generally, these products are proteins, prior to going throughARN messenger(mRNA), but alsoARN no
coding, howRibosomal RNA(rRNA)Transfer ARN(tRNA) andmany otherswith functions
regulatory or whose function is becoming known little by little.

Types of genes
A gene is a sequence or segment of DNA necessary for the synthesis of functional RNA, such as RNA of
transfer or ribosomal RNA. However, these two types of RNA do not code for proteins, which is a fact.
for theARN messenger. For this, thetranscriptiongenerate an RNA molecule that subsequently
will suffertranslationin theribosomes, process by which aprotein. Many genes are found
constituted by coding regions(exons) interrupted by non-coding regions(introns) what are
removed during RNA processing (splicing). In prokaryotic cells, this does not occur because the genes of
Prokaryotes lack introns. The base sequence present in the RNA determines the sequence.
ofamino acidsfrom theproteinthrough thegenetic code.

Structure and function

Mutation
DNA replication is carried out with extreme precision; however, errors can occur.
callsmutations.3The error rate in the cellseukaryotescan only reach a rate of 10–
8mutations bynucleotidereplicado,910while in somevirusfrom ARN the rate can rise up to 10−3.11

Thus, in each generation, each human genome accumulates approximately between 1 and 2 new mutations.