2011

ELECTROMECHANICAL CONVERSION
OF ENERGY

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF THE SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR

 SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR

Summary

INTRODUCTION
CONSTRUCTIVE ASPECTS.................................................................................................................. 3
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS ........................................................ 6
OPERATION MODES– PARAMETERS ........................................................................................... 8
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF THE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE............................................................................10
THE INFINITE DAM ................................................................................................................12
SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR CONNECTION TO THE INFINITE BUS......................................................16
The Automatic Generation Control - AGCG ...............................................................................25
CHARGING MECHANISM FREQUENCY............................................................................................28

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INTRODUCTION

Three types of synchronous machines are used in electric power systems: generators, motors.
synchronous condensers. Practically all the active power consumed in the Electric System of
Power is generated through synchronous generators. The use of synchronous motors is less
spread. Synchronous compensators are used in reactive power compensation because
These machines operate with zero active power, that is, they are neither generators nor motors.

Synchronous machines are primarily used as electric power generators. In this case
they are called 'synchronous generators' or 'alternators'. They are usually large
electric power generating machines installed in hydroelectric, nuclear or
thermal power plants.
Synchronous generators are driven by hydraulic or steam turbines. In the case of turbines
In hydraulics, the primary source of energy is the potential energy stored in reservoirs. In the
steam turbines, the primary source of energy, usually chemical potential energy, is used in
steam production, which can be done by burning fuel (coal, oil, gas, renewable or
nuclear).
Hydroelectric plants use dams to raise the water level and ensure the necessary pressure.
to move the turbines. The dams can also play the role of forming a reservoir of
accumulation and can have long periods of operation (multi-year cycles of uptake and depletion,
as is the case of the Ilha Solteira reservoir, for example). There are also the so-called plants
"water thread" type, in which the water storage capacity is limited (daily cycles of
operation, for example). There is, however, no direct relationship between the generation capacity
installed in a plant and the energy storage capacity in its reservoir: Itaipu, by
example, one of the largest power plants in operation, has a 'water-flood' type reservoir.
The operating cost of hydroelectric plants is relatively cheap compared to most.
of other types of plants that burn some type of fuel. The necessary investments
are relatively high, and considering that 'capital' is a scarce and costly asset,
one can assess the difficulties of developing a system of this type of utilization. The
synchronous generators driven by hydraulic turbines are usually salient pole and
operate at relatively low rotations when compared to steam turbines, which
it reflects a high number of poles in some salient pole generators.
Thermal power plants use steam produced in boilers that burn some type of fuel.
In the case of coal, for example, the primary energy is originally in the form of potential energy.
chemistry is transformed, by burning, into thermal energy of heated steam and at high pressure
which, in turn, produces rotational mechanical energy as it passes through the turbine blades. From that point
From a standpoint, there is no significant difference between the various types of primary sources used in production.
of steam, since, even in the case of nuclear power plants, this basic mechanism remains valid. The
synchronous generators driven by steam turbines typically have smooth poles and operate at
relatively high rotations compared to hydraulic turbines, and consequently
making the number of poles relatively smaller than in the case of turbines
hydraulic.
The mechanical torque on the shaft of a synchronous machine is due to the interaction of two fields.
rotating magnetic fields. One of these fields is produced by the current in the field winding that
moves at a constant speed (located in the rotor of the synchronous machine), and the other field
The rotor is produced by the three-phase currents in the windings of the armature (fixed in the stator).

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Mechanical power on the axis of a machine is measured by the product of the angular velocity of the rotor.
by torque [P = ω. T]. In the case of the generator, the mechanical torque is provided by the turbine. In the case of the
the motor or machine shaft provides torque to a mechanical load connected to its shaft.
The generation of electric power in large blocks takes place through the action of rotary machines that
mechanically driven by a primary machine (hydraulic turbine, steam, gas, or machine
of internal combustion, or wind turbine) produce through electromagnetic induction fields,
a sine wave of voltage with a fixed frequency and amplitude defined by the voltage class of
generator. A synchronous machine rotates at a constant speed under steady-state conditions
permanent. Unlike asynchronous machines, the rotating field in the air gap and in the rotor
they rotate at the same speed, and it is called "synchronous speed."

The word 'synchronous' means that the rotating field in the air gap has the same angular velocity.
that of the rotor. The frequency of the induced voltage is directly proportional to the number of poles and the
rotor rotation speed. The frequency is determined by:

Where:
f: electrical frequency [Hz]
n: synchronous speed [RPM]
p: number of poles of the machine.

CONSTRUCTIVE ASPECTS

Basically, a synchronous machine consists of two parts: stator, or armature, and rotor.
the stator of a three-phase synchronous machine has a distributed three-phase winding, similar to a
three-phase induction machine.
The stator winding, which is connected to an AC supply system, is called
"armature winding" or "stator winding", intended for voltages and currents
elevated alternates.
The rotor is equipped with a winding excited with direct current (DC), called
field winding, which acts as an electromagnet, that is, produces a magnetic flow
constant per pole. When the rotor spins and the field winding is excited with current
continuously, through sliding rings and brushes, a rotating magnetic field appears in the
machine air gap, between the rotor and the armature. Since the armature is made up of a
three-phase winding a time-variable electromotive force (EMF) is generated by the field
magnetic, based on the principles of Faraday's Law.

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The basic structure of a synchronous machine is illustrated in figure 1 below:

Figure 01 - basic structure of a three-phase synchronous machine.

The armature windings of a three-phase generator can be connected in star or

triangle. The 'star' connection is used in most generators of electrical power systems.
Usually, the neutral is grounded in this type of connection, and this grounding is done through a
resistance or reactance whose purpose is to reduce the short circuit current.
Regarding their rotor, synchronous machines are constructed with two types of rotors: 'rotor
cylindrical or smooth pole, which are driven by steam turbines at a speed of 3,000 rpm
at 3,600 rpm (50 or 60Hz, respectively), and the 'screw rotor' which are usually
driven by hydraulic turbines, at low speed, a few hundred RPM, as
shown in figure 02 below:

Figure 02 - elementary three-phase generator a) two-pole cylindrical rotor, and b) four-pole salient pole rotor.
The black dot indicates that the positive direction of the current is directed out of the plane of the paper.
The cross indicates that the positive direction of the current is directed into the plane of the paper.

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The "cylindrical rotors", or "smooth poles", have a field winding distributed in grooves.
built axially along the length of the rotor, and an air gap essentially
uniform.
These rotors, made with two or four poles, are used in high power generators.
(several hundred MW) and are generally powered by high-speed steam turbines (turbine-
Generators). They are long rotors and have a small diameter, usually between 1 and 1.5 meters, and this
return to the suitable machine to operate at a speed of 3,000 rpm (50 Hz) or 3,600 rpm (60 Hz),
according to figure 03.

Figure 03 - synchronous generators with smooth pole rotor of high speed.

The high rotation speed of the rotor produces a high centrifugal force, which imposes a limit.
superior to the rotor diameter. In the case of a rotor spinning at 3600 rpm, the elastic limit of steel
it imposes a maximum diameter of 1.5m. On the other hand, to build high-power generators
(1.000MVA to 1.500MVA) the volume of the rotor must be large. For this, high-power rotors,
high speed are quite long.
The ' salient pole' rotors have windings concentrated on the poles and a non-air gap.
uniform. Due to operating at low rotational speed, they have a large number of
poles, generally with more than 50 to ensure a frequency of 60 Hz, which implies a large
diameter to provide the necessary space for the accommodation of the poles, as shown in figure 04.

Figure 04 - salient pole rotor of low speed.

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The salient pole rotors are generally driven by hydraulic turbines (hydro-generators) of
low speed (between 50 and 300 rpm) in order to extract the maximum power from a waterfall.

Data of the Synchronous Generator of the Xingó Plant-CHESF:

Type: ..................................................Vertical Synchronous.

Quantidade: ......................................................6
Manufacturer; ........................................................Siemens
Installed power of each unit: ................527 MW
Rotor insulation class: ..............................F
Stator insulation class: ......................F
Nominal current: ............................................16.679 A
Power factor: ............................................0.95
Frequency: ......................................................60 Hz
18,000 V
Nominal speed:........................................109.1 rpm
Número de polos:.............................................66

The efficiency of generators is very important. Synchronous generators in power plants can
achieving 99% efficiency. This means that for a 600 MW machine that has this efficiency,
it produces 6 MW of heat, therefore, this machine needs to be cooled.
Large turbo-generators in thermal power plants are cooled using hydrogen or water. The
hydrogen has seven times the cooling capacity compared to air, and water twelve times. The
hydrogen or water flows through specific cavities inside the windings of the
stator.
The cooling equalizes the temperature distribution in the generator because hot spots of
temperature affects the life cycle of electrical insulation. The evolution of large turbo-generators has
has been determined by better materials and sophisticated cooling techniques.
Low-speed generators in hydro plants are always larger than high-speed machines.
speed of equal power in thermal plants, and a good air conditioning system with
heat exchangers are usually used in these generators.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS

According to figure 05a, assuming that a field current (Ifflows through the winding of
rotor field, and the rotor is driven by a primary machine (turbine or diesel engine or
DC, or induction motor), a sinusoidal flux will be established in the air gap, that is, a
the rotating field established by a flux is produced in the air gap. This field is called
"excitation field," because it is produced by a continuous excitation current (I.f) The flow
turning, it would then produce variations through the windings of the stator aa ’, bb ’ and cc ’, and as
As a consequence, there would be the induction of voltages at its terminals. These induced voltages (Eg),
according to figure 05b, they have the same magnitude but are phase-shifted by 120° electrical.

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Figure 05–excitation voltage in synchronous machines.

As already mentioned, the rotor speed and the frequency of the induced voltage are related.
by

where: "n" is the rotor speed [rpm], "p" is the number of poles, and "f" is the frequency.
[Hz].
The effective value of the excitation voltage is given by:

Where: “Øf" is the flow porpolopara an excitation current; "N" is the number of turns of the
enrollment for each phase, and 'Kwit is the winding factor.
From the previous equations, it follows that:

And how, NeKware constants, therefore:

The excitation voltage is proportional to the speed of the machine and the excitation flux, which
it depends on the excitation current (IfThe variation of the excitation voltage with the field current is
shown in figure 06. The induced voltage for If It is due to residual magnetism.
Initially, the voltage increases linearly with the field current, but if the current of
field will continue to be increased will reach a point where the flowfwill stop increasing
linearly with the field current (Ifdue to the saturation of the magnetic circuit.
If the machine's terminal is kept open, the excitation voltage is the same as the voltage of
terminal, and can be measured using a voltmeter. The curve shown in figure 06 is known as
open circuit characteristic curve - CCA or machine magnetization characteristic
synchronous.

Figure 06 - open circuit characteristic (OCC) or magnetization curve of a synchronous machine.

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If the terminals of the machine's stator (figure 01c) are connected to a three-phase load, a current will flow.
currentathrough the stator. The frequency of Iait will be the same as the excitation voltageg. As
stator currents will flow in the three-phase windings, which will establish a field
rotating magnetic in the air gap. The flux in the air gap is the result of the fluxes produced by the
rotating currentIfand by the estoric currenta.
SendoØfthe flow resulting from IfeØathe flow resulting fromaknown as reaction flow of
armor, then:
Ør=Øf+Øa= resulting flux in the air gap (under non-saturation condition of the core).
It can be noted that the resultant and the component of the flows in the air gap rotate at the same speed.
given by n = 120.f/p. The phasor diagram for these flows is shown in figure 07. The Fmm of
rotor fieldf(resulting from I)f) and the flowØf produced by FmmFfare represented at the
long of the same line. The induced tension Egis delayed by 90° relative to the flowfit is the current
historicalIais delayed θ degrees in relation to the tension Eg.
A FmmFa(resulting fromIa) and the flowØaproduced by FmmFaare along the same axis,
just like the currentIaConsidering that the core will not saturate the resulting flux Ørit's a
vector sum of the flowsf eØa.

Figure 07 - phasor diagram

OPERATION MODES – PARAMETERS

A machine like this, as mentioned, has a series of parameters to be specified,

during your construction project. Among the various aspects that accompany such a procedure, we can
mention here some of the main ones, such as:
Nominal power [ kVA ].
Nominal voltage [ kV].
Insulation Class [kV].
Nominal frequency [Hz].
Nominal current [A].
Rated power factor.
Nominal excitation current [A].
Nominal excitation voltage [V].
Nominal synchronous reactance for the different operating modes (Permanent - RP,
Transitory - RT and Sub-transitory - ST.
Operational limits: stator (thermal), rotor (excitation), mechanical (turbine), etc.

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Thus, this synchronous machine can operate under conditions such that the load it serves
be defined in Permanent Regime (RP), in accordance with its nominal values and,
therefore the reactance that will represent it in this case will be the nominal synchronous reactance (Xs). This
the procedure will be adopted in the representation of the synchronous machine during the Power Flow studies
Power in Steady State (SS).
If eventually, this synchronous machine is operating in parallel (same voltage level)
with others in a common bus (power plants), or interconnected through a bus bar
synchronization with other external sources (utilities industries) establishing situations of
remote parallelism, where significant value loads can occur in inputs and outputs, this
can induce small oscillations in the operation of the synchronous machine and in this case, the reactance that the
it represents, no longer the synchronous but rather a transient value, called transient reactance
(X’s), slightly lower than the previous one Xsand that will be used in the dynamic simulations of systems
involving transient oscillations in networks. This action is characterized as Transient Regime
(RT).
However, if during such operation a short circuit occurs near the machine's terminals
synchronous, a sudden cut of the load will cause an instantaneous rise in the current to values
much greater than the nominal. This is justified by a sudden variation in the internal flow of the machine
synchronous, implying a reduction in the level of magnetic permeability of iron and consequent
results in a decrease in the value of inductance, therefore leading to a reduction in the value of reactance that the
it represents in these conditions. This reactance is called sub-transient reactance (X" s) to which
represents the synchronous machine under critical short-circuit conditions, operating in the Sub- regime
transitory (RS).
Thus, during the studies of machine representations for stability calculation purposes,
load flow, of short-circuits, whether terminal or not, the representative parameters of the
synchronous machines are different.
There are several models that allow such representations, like the classical modeling.
for phase components for smooth pole synchronous machines, or by modeling the two
reatânciasXd eXqfor the salient pole synchronous machines, or even, by the relationships
established through the theory of symmetric components (positive, negative, zero sequence)
widely used in studies of unbalanced operation of the synchronous machine.
In a simplified form, this modeling can be summarized as shown in Figure 08,
below

Figure 08 - schematic diagram of a synchronous machine - generator.

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EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF THE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE

If the armature circuit is closed through a load, a current will flow through it that
it will produce losses due to the Joule effect in the resistance of the winding itself, as well as due to the existence
of magnetic leaks around the conductors. These effects, similar to those that were observed
for other types of machines, they lead us to the equivalent circuit model.

Figure 09 - the equivalent circuit by phase of a synchronous generator under steady-state condition.

This model is used to analyze the operation in Steady State both in motor and
in generator. As it is a permanent regime, the transients that occurred both in the circuit of
Excitation like in the damping winding is disregarded. It is a phase-neutral model.
(single-phase).
The tensionginduced by the field winding flow (often referred to as tension
internal tension generation) can be obtained from the derivative of the flow with respect to time, multiplied
by the number of turns of the winding, remembering that the magnetic flux has a
sine wave behavior [Ø(t) = Ømaxyou t], logo:

Consequently, as already discussed, the effective value of the induced voltage is given by:

where: “Øf" is the flow for an excitation current; "N" is the number of turns of the
enrollment for each phase, and 'Kwit's the winding factor.
Thus, an equivalent circuit in complex notation is shown in the figure below, with its
respective phasor diagram. It should be noted that the figure and the equation below were written with the
sense of reference of "I"ataken as positive when the current is entering the terminals of
machine. This is known as the reference sense of the type motor to the current. As
figure 10.

Figure 10 - Equivalent circuit of a synchronous machine with the reference direction of the motor type respective phasor diagram.

Alternatively, the referential meaning of the type generator is defined as the meaning of
current phasor reference (Iataken as positive when the current is flowing out of the terminals
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of the machine, according to figure 11, below. With this choice of reference current directions
for the stator current the equation becomes:

Figure 11 - equivalent circuit of a synchronous machine with the reference direction of the respective phasor diagram.

Note that these two representations are equivalent, as when analyzing a given
operating condition in particular of a synchronous machine, the real current is the same. The signal of
Iawill be determined simply by the choice of the reference point. Both operations are
acceptable, regardless of whether the synchronous machine under analysis is operating as a motor or as
generator.
However, in analyzing the operation of an engine, how power tends to flow inward
It is intuitively more reasonable to choose the reference direction in which the current flows.
inside the machine. The opposite is also true when analyzing the machine operating as
generator. In this case, the power tends to flow out of the machine.
For the most part, the analysis techniques for synchronous machines presented were developed
initially to analyze the performance of synchronous generators in electric power systems.
As a result, the reference sense of the 'generator' type is more common.
For the sake of ease of calculation, the resistance of the winding itself is usually disregarded.
(Ra) without significant alterations being made to the result of the analysis, as shown in figure 12.

Figure 12. Simplified equivalent circuit per phase of Synchronous Generator for Ra= 0 .

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THE INFINITE DAM

Synchronous generators are rarely used as a source of individual load supply. These
generators, in general, are connected to a power supply system known as
Infinite Bus. Due to a large number of synchronous generators being connected
together, the voltage and frequency of the infinite bus rarely change.
Loads are derived from the infinite bus to various load centers. An infinite bus
typical is shown in figure 13.

Figure 13 - part of an infinite bus

The transfer of energy produced in power plants (hydroelectric plants, for example) up to the
final consumer is carried out through transmission lines at a high voltage level,
typically in the order of hundreds of kV, in order to achieve greater efficiency in the process of
transmission. However, the generation of electrical power at high capacity is carried out through
synchronous generators at a relatively low voltage level, around 15 kV.
A high-power transformer is used to increase the output voltage level of the generator.
in order to match it to the voltage level of the infinite bus, so that the energy can be
transmitted to the consumption centers, where the voltage level would be reduced to levels
compatible with residential, commercial, and industrial consumption.
In power plants, synchronous generators are connected or disconnected from the bus.
infinite depending on the power demand requested by the system (consumption). The operation of
connection of a synchronous generator to the infinite bus is known as "parallelism with the
infinite bus." Before the synchronization of the synchronous generator with the bus is established.
infinite, it is necessary for both to be at the same voltage level and phase angle, as well as
with the same frequency and phase sequence.
In power plants, these conditions are verified by an instrument known as
synchronoscope, as shown in figure 14 below:

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Position of
null lag

Figure 14–synchronoscope

The pointer position of the instrument shows the difference between the phase angle of the voltage of
generator to be connected is of the infinite bus. The direction of the pointer's movement indicates whether the
the rotor of the synchronous generator to be connected is spinning at a fast or slow speed, that is, if the
Is your frequency greater or less than that of the infinite bus.
The correct phase sequence is predetermined, as if the correct connection does not occur, it could
produce a disastrous situation. When the indicator needle moves slowly (that is, almost the
the same frequency) and passes through the zero phase point (upper vertical position) the circuit breaker is closed
and the synchronous generator is connected to the infinite bus.
A panel of properly connected lamps can be used to check if the condition of
the parallelism of the generator with the infinite bus is satisfied. In a laboratory such a setup of
lamps can be used to demonstrate what happens if these conditions are not fully met
satisfied.

Figure 15 – schematic diagram for the parallel operation of a synchronous generator with a
infinite dam using synchronization lamps

Figure 15 shows the wiring diagram assembled in the laboratory for this purpose. The machine
primary can be a DC motor, or an induction motor. It can be adjusted to a
speed such that the frequency of the synchronous generator is the same as that of the infinite bus.
For example, if the synchronous generator has 4 poles, the primary machine must be set to 1,800 rpm.
so that the frequency is 60 Hz, the same as the infinite bus.

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The field currentf It can then be adjusted so that both voltmeters (V1eV2) show the
same level of tension.
If the phase sequence is correct, all the lights will have the same brightness, and if the frequencies
they are not exactly the same, the lamps will turn on and off in steps.
Examining the effect of the lamps when the appropriate conditions are not met is possible
perform an analysis of the behavior of the synchronous generator parameters against the bus
infinite. The phenomenon can be explained through the phasor diagrams of the generator's voltages.
to be connected and to the infinite bus, as follows:
EA, EB, ECrepresent the phasor voltage of the infinite bus.
Ea, Eb, Ecthey represent the phasor voltage of the synchronous generator to be connected.
EAa, EBb, ECcrepresent the phasor voltage of the synchronization lamps. The magnitude of these
tensions represent the brightness of the corresponding lamps.
According to the diagram in figure 15, different situations between the synchronous machine to be can be analyzed.
connected and the infinite bus, with effects on the synchronization lamps, which will be
described below.

a) Different voltages, but equal frequencies and phase sequences.

Regarding the figure below, both voltage phasors (EAEBECe Ea, Eb, Ec) spin with the same
speed. The tensions in the lamps (EAa, EBb , ECchave the same magnitude and, consequently, the
Three lamps shine with the same intensity. To make the voltages equal, the field current
If it must be adjusted, until the lamps remain off (EAa= EBb= ECc= 0V).

Different frequencies, but equal voltages and phase sequences.

The two phasor tension diagrams rotate at different speeds, as the frequencies are
different. Assuming that at the instant1the voltages are in phase, so the voltages in the lamps
they correspond to zero volts, and as a consequence, they are off. Sef1f2at the moment
next (t2) the phasors EA, EBeECwill be ahead in relation to the phasorsa, EbeEc ,implying
if equal voltages appear across the three lamps, they will shine with the same
intensity. Therefore, it is evident that if the frequencies are different, the lamps will shine and
they will turn off in step (stair).

To make the frequencies equal, the rotor speed of the synchronous machine to be connected to
The infinite dam must be adjusted until the lights turn on and off very often.
slowly, in step. This can be noticed as the speed of the machine is adjusted, its
voltage will change simultaneously. Therefore, simultaneous adjustments of the field current Ifalso
they will be necessary so that the tensions are equal.

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c) Sequences of different phases, but equal tensions and frequencies.

The sequence of phases of the tension of the infinite bus (EA, EBeECand from the synchronous machine to be
connected (Ea, EbeEcThe voltages across the lamps are shown in the figure below.
different and, therefore, they will shine with different intensities. If the frequencies are slightly
different, one set of phasorial tensions will pass to the other set of phasorial tensions, and the
lights will turn on and off in step.
To make the phase sequences equal, it is necessary to swap two connection terminals; for
example, do the sequence of phase A-B-C (direct or positive sequence) both on the machine and
infinite dam (figure 15).

d) Different phases, but equal voltages, frequencies, and phase sequences.

In both sets of phasor tensions, the phase differences will be kept constant, and the
light bulbs will shine with the same intensity. To equalize the phases of the voltages, that is, to make the
difference equal to 0°, the frequency of the machine that will be connected should be slightly adjusted
until the phase difference is null. This can be observed when all the lamps stretch
turned off, and if the circuit breaker is closed, the machine will be safely connected to the bus.
Therefore, simultaneous adjustments of the field currentfwill also be necessary so that the
tensions shall be equal.

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Once the synchronous machine is connected to the infinite bus, its speed will not be able to
may be altered again. However, the transfer of active power from the machine to the bus
infinity can be controlled by adjusting the power of the primary machine (turbine–
control of the flow of water or steam, for example). The reactive power (and consequently the factor
The generator's power can be controlled by adjusting the field current..

SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR CONNECTION TO THE INFINITE BUS

As already mentioned, before a synchronous generator is connected to the bus (system),

Four conditions must be met. The generator voltage must:
a) have the same sequence of phases as the bus voltage;
b) to have the same frequency as that of the bus;
c) to have the same amplitude at its terminals as the busbar voltage; and
d) to be in phase with the bus voltage.
When the generator is connected to large systems, its output voltage and frequency are
"tied" to the values of the system and cannot be altered by any action on the generator. It is said,
so, the generator is connected to an 'infinite bus', that is, an ideal voltage source
with fixed voltage amplitude and frequency.
The equivalent circuit of a synchronized generator is represented in the figure below. The reactance
"Xs" is called "synchronous reactance", and in the case of generators with cylindrical pole rotors.
(smooth) this parameter is constant under the normal operating condition of the machine (steady state
permanent). The resistance of the stator winding is eliminated in the equivalent circuit.
Immediately after synchronization and coupling (connection to the infinite bus), the generator does not
does not supply, nor even absorbs power from the infinite bus (systems). The steam that enters the
the turbine is the same as that existing prior to the coupling action, and it is exactly the amount
necessary to activate the rotor and supply the losses of the turbine and the generator.

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Figure 16 - equivalent circuit of a synchronous generator connected to an infinite bus (system) with the corresponding diagram
fascicular; the generator is coupled to the system, but does not provide power.

If more steam is supplied to the turbine, one could expect the generator to speed up, but this is not the case.
possible because the generator is connected to an infinite bus. It's as if two objects
they were tied, one to the other, by means of an elastic spring. The infinite dam is in a
the end of the spring and moves at a constant speed, and the synchronous generator is connected
at the other end of the spring, as shown in the following figure, in which for situation 'a' there is no power
exchange between generator and system. What would happen if more steam was supplied to the turbine, as
show the situation "b" of the figure.

Figure 17 - generator and system (infinite bus) represented by two objects tied by a spring; a) no power
exchange between generator and system (situation of figure 16), and b) the generator injects power into the system (situation of figure 18).

The mechanical torque supplied to the generator shaft by the turbine attempts to accelerate the generator, but only
significantly expands the spring that is attached to the infinite bus, and all the extra energy is
transformed into electrical energy and absorbed by the load, that is, the machine provides power to the
system. Analogous to the extension of the spring, the internal electromotive force of the generator (Eg) leads the
terminal voltage (Vt).

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Figure 18 - equivalent circuit of a synchronous generator connected to an infinite bus (system) with the corresponding diagram
fascicular; the generator provides power to the system.

The amplitude of the internal voltage of the generatorgit is the function of the field currentfto which it is controlled
by the voltage regulator of the generator. In the previous figure, Egis ahead in relation to the tension
terminal (V) by an angle referred to as 'power angle'. As a consequence, current and
power is supplied to the system. By Kirchhoff's Law, the expression for the current is given by:
; e Vtis at reference (0°)

where:
Iacurrent [A]

Eginternal generator voltage [V]

Vtterminal tension (system) [V]

Xsmachine reactance [Ω]

The complex three-phase power supplied to the system is given by:

Starting from this expression, one can obtain the expression of active and reactive power through the
elimination of variable Vtas follows:

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The real part of the complex power (S) is the active power:

you

The imaginary part of the complex power (S) is the reactive power:

On the other hand, starting from the same expression, one can obtain the expression for active and reactive power, by
elimination of the variable Ia, as follows:

The real part of the complex power (S) is the active power:

or where:

The imaginary part of the complex power (S) is the reactive power:

you

A brief analysis of the active power equation reveals that its sign is determined solely
by the power angle ):
0 P > 0, the machine supplies active power to the system, therefore it is a GENERATOR;
a) themselves
b) if = 0 P = 0, the machine does not supply active power to the system, therefore it is a
COMPENSATOR; and
c) self <0 If P < 0, the machine absorbs active power from the system, therefore it is a MOTOR;

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From the Torque point of view, it is a sinusoidal behavior, depending on the angle
of power, one can have the synchronous machine operating as a generator = positive) or as engine (
= negative), as shown in the following figure:

Figure 19 - Torque behavior as a function of power angle for synchronous motor and generator

On the other hand, and in a similar way, a rough analysis of the reactive power equation shows
that your signal is determined by the following relation:
him the machine supplies reactive power, and is "over-excited";
himself the machine does not exchange reactive power with the system;
himself the machine absorbs reactive power, and is "under-excited".

Thus, based on these analyses it is possible to construct a phasor diagram of voltage projected in
active and reactive power axes, as per the figure below:

Figure 20 - phasor diagram projected onto active and reactive power axes.

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In the figure, the working point of the synchronous machine is indicated by the colored point.
black. Therefore, this machine injects both powers (active and reactive) into the system, and is therefore a
overexcited generator.
To convert this phasor diagram of voltage into a system of active power coordinates and
reactive, the voltage phasors need to be multiplied by according to power equations
active and reactive.

Figure 21 - phasor diagram projected in a three-phase active and reactive power coordinate system

The operating point of the synchronous machine is indicated by the black point, and the amount of power
Active and reactive power that the machine injects into the system can be easily read in the diagram.

The generator is limited in its output and is convenient for the safe operation of the machine.
diagram, given a constant terminal voltage (VtThe operating region of the synchronous generator is
limited by the maximum allowed heating in the stator (losses ) and in the winding of
field. These two limits can be constructed for the phasor diagram as shown in the figure below.

Figure 22 - heating limit of the synchronous generator

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The length of the two phasors indicating the operating point corresponds to the maximum current.
allowed in the stator winding (Ia) and to the maximum current allowed in the field winding
(If) becauseIf .

Thus, one can find the heating limit by rotating the two phasors around their respective
point of origin, as well as the circles described in the diagram, as illustrated in the previous figure.
In the area confined by the semicircle, the maximum heating allowed in the stator and in the winding
of the field, cannot be exceeded.
Furthermore, the operating range of the synchronous generator is not only restricted by the maximum.
heating in the stator and in the field winding, but also due to various other factors,
for example, by the stability limit in a steady state of operation.
How the active power varies sinusoidally with the angle , logo, the generator can be loaded up to
the limit value (Pmax), known as the 'stability limit in steady state'. When the
angle if it exceeds 90°, the generator would lose synchronization.

Figure 23 - active power of the synchronous generator as a function of the angle

For an operation at a certain working point, as shown in figure 24 below, the angle of
power ) and the power factor angle (Ø) are determined. The various circles shown
correspond to the various excitation voltage values (EgThe point of maximum power
representing the stability limit in steady state is a horizontal line, in which =90°.

Figure 24–complex power per phase

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The current stability limit is, however, more difficult to determine due to the dynamics of
power system involved.
Additional restriction in the operating region of the synchronous generator is the "turbine power limit".
(primary machine) 'which refers to the maximum value of active power generated by the machine, well
as the so-called 'sub-excitation limit', which provides the limit for the lowest level of
excitement when reactive power is absorbed by the system.
Thus, based on the operational limits established for the synchronous machine, one can obtain a
curve, known as the 'Capacity Curve', which defines the limiting regions of operation of
synchronous machine (in this case as "generator"), as shown in the following figure.

Figure 25 - capacity curve of a synchronous generator

In summary, the synchronous machine cannot operate at all points inside the circle without
surpass your established limits. The restrictions are due to the:
heating of the field winding, caused by the field current (If);
heating of the winding of the armature, caused by the armature current (Ia);
primary machine power limit;
limit of sub-excitation; and
static stability limit.
The upper part of the vertical axis in Figure 25 (I quadrant) indicates the reactive power (MVAr) supplied.
to the system, while the lower part (IV quadrant) indicates the reactive power (MVAr) absorbed by the
generator. Therefore, the curve in Figure 25 shows three heating zones that affect capacity.
of equipment generation. Among the points:
A-B - Field limit curve: indicates the capacity of the generator when the field current
is at a maximum permissible value due to the thermal limitations of the windings
field.

B-C and D–E - Armature limit curve: indicates the maximum allowable armature current
due to the thermal limitations of the armature conductors; generation is limited by
heating in the stator windings.

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C-D - Power limit curve of the turbine (primary machine), which is related to
mechanical power that the generator will receive at its shaft through the turbine. The limit
the primary source only affects the active power, which is why it is treated as a parallel line
to the reactive power axis.
E-F - Sub-excitation curve: corresponds to the lowest value of excitation level (I f(minimum)e
consequently, Eg(minimum)when the machine absorbs reactive power from the system.
Horizontal line passing through the points (0; -3)t2/XsStability limit curve: indicates the
maximum reactive power absorption capacity of the generator when operating at factor of
advanced power.

The determination of the capacity curve shown in Figure 25 is obtained for the simultaneous condition.

(a) A-B operation under constant terminal voltage (V t=cyou) and field current (therefore Eg)
at its maximum thermal limit;
(b) B-C and D-E operation under constant terminal voltage (V t=cyou) and armature current in
maximum value allowed by thermal limitation.
The second condition (b) corresponds to a constant value of apparent output power given by:

S P Q2 3rd2 [Link] t

A constant apparent power corresponds to a circle centered at the origin of a plane P=f.(Q),
like that in Figure 25, whose radius is [Link] kept constant eIait is considered in its
thermal limit value, it is understood that the curve B-C and D-E defines the operating limit of the machine, in addition to
which would result in overheating of the stator.
A similar consideration can be made for the first operation condition (a). A circle
centered at P = 0 eQ = -3.Vt2/XS, and with a radius equal to 3.V.t. Eg/Xsdetermine the heating limit
of field winding in the machine operation.
It is common to specify the nominal value (apparent power and power factor) of the machine as
being the intersection point of the heating limit curves of reinforcement and field.
If a unit operates beyond its specified capacity, the excess heat in the stator and rotor
will cause the insulation of the windings to deteriorate quickly. Insulation exposed to heat
intense becomes brittle, shows cracks and can eventually turn into material
driver.
An Automatic Voltage Regulator monitors the terminal voltage of the generator and controls it.
excitation to maintain the voltage at the terminals within a specified voltage range. The generator
is protected from generating and absorbing reactive power beyond its capacity through protection of
over-excitation and under-excitation.

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THE AUTOMATIC GENERATION CONTROL - CAG

An Automatic Generation Control (AGC) regulates the speed and output power of the generator to
ensure a constant system frequency under normal operating conditions.

Figure 26 - hydraulic generation control system.

The speed regulator (SR) controls the "generator speed" to keep it constant.
acting on the register (valve) for controlling the water inflow to the turbine.
According to Figure 11, the equation of the synchronous generator operating in Steady State is given
for any current of charge by:

Depending on the load impedance, the current Iain each phase of a synchronous generator can be
delayed, on phase, or advanced of the terminal voltage Vt.

Considering a generator connected to an 'infinite bus' where Vtis kept constant, the
magnitude of the generated voltage Eg is controlled by regulating the excitation of the DC field, throughf. À
as the magnitude of the DC excitation field increases, the generated voltage Egand the power
Reactive output limits increase. A limit on the reactive power output capacity is reached.
when the DC field current(Ifreaching its allowable maximum value.
When the generator is supplying reactive power to the system, its power factor is lagging, or
thus, the generator sees the system as if it were an inductive load. If the magnitude of the induced electromotive force (Eg)
if the terminal voltage exceeds, the generator is said to be operating in the over-excited mode. Furthermore, it may
a rotor overheating occurs when operating at a lagging power factor.
As the CC(I excitation fieldfit decreases the magnitude of the induced emf (Egdecrease to
equal to the terminal voltage. Under these circumstances, the generator is said to be operating at a
normal excitation approximately to a unity power factor.
If the excitation of the DC field (Ifit
is further decreased, the generator will begin to absorb power
the reactive of the system and its power factor will be advanced. In these circumstances, the magnitude of
f.e.m generated (Egis lower than the terminal voltage, and the generator will be operating in the sub-mode.

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excited. The generator's ability to maintain synchronization under these conditions is weakened given
that the excitation current is small.
Therefore, the ability to produce or absorb reactants is controlled by the level of excitation.
As excitement increases, the produced reactants increase.
By reducing the excitation, the reactive power produced decreases and the generator will begin to absorb reactive power.
of the system. By convention, the reactive power supplied by the generator receives a positive signal, while the
Absorbed reactives receive a negative signal.
The conditions set forth above can be graphically represented in Figure 27.

Figure 27 - synchronous generator connected to infinite bus operating

over-excited, normal, and under-excited, respectively.

Therefore, there is the following rule of great importance:

a synchronous machine over-excited, operating as a motor or as a generator, produces

reactive power and acts as if the system were an inductive load (absorber); under the point
from the system's point of view, the generator is like a capacitor in parallel; and
a sub-excited synchronous machine, on the contrary, consumes reactive power from the system and,
consequently, it behaves as if the system were a capacitor; from the point of view of
system, the generator is like a coil in parallel.
All equipment has a capacity limit for transporting energy.
determining the power limitations of a piece of equipment, it is necessary to take into account both the
active power production (MW), as well as reactive power (MVAr). The generators have curves
of capacity that delimit their operating region.
On the other hand, as has already been mentioned, a machine, as such, can operate as a generator.
synchronous or as a synchronous motor, depending on the power supply conditions and its drive,
that is, if powered by a turbine, then it will be a generator, while if supplied by a
electric system, it will provide torque on the axis and will therefore be an operation like that of a
motor.

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Figure 28 - Power diagram "P-Q" for synchronous machines.

These considerations highlight and are only concerned with the Active Power part that involves operation.
of these machines. However, the magnetic flux created in the field is directly linked to the
the value of the Reactive Power provided by the machine, and the relationship between these two powers, is
fundamental for the purpose of analysis and determination of threshold levels that guide the adjustments of
protection relays of the same.

So that these procedures can clarify and assist in the interpretation of the operational conditions
From these machines, we then refer to the P-Q diagrams (figure 28), as well as to the curves of
synchronous machine capacity. Note that in quadrants I and IV the synchronous machine is present
operating as generator, over-excited and under-excited respectively, while in II and III
the quadrant has the synchronous machine operating as an over-excited and under-excited motor,
respectively.
Therefore, the transition of operation from the I to the II quadrant may represent a process of
motorization of a generator, putting it into operation as an overexcited motor (situation
analogous to a capacitor - generator of capacitive reactive power for the system), while a
the transition from the II to the IV quadrant may represent a loss of excitation of this machine
synchronous, for example, a short circuit in the field, an opening of the field circuit breaker, a
problem in the exciter (voltage regulator), etc.
It is also observed that in this condition represented by quadrant IV, the synchronous machine still
continues operating as a generator, but the operational nature is now capacitive, since with
the loss of one's own field, there is a need to seek the reactive in the system; others
implications arise with the loss of the machine ’s field, such as the increase in current
historical and consequent increase in its temperature, and also, it is observed that the machine has
tendency to shoot up, through the opening of the rotor angle, that is, the synchronous machine loses the
synchronization with the system and as a consequence, it becomes an induction generator, until
the speed protection commands your system shutdown.

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FREQUENCY LOAD MECHANISM

Here, it is intended to examine the reasons why the frequency of a system tends to vary.
frequency is closely related to the balance of active power in the entire system. Under
under normal operating conditions, the system generators run in synchronism, and together
the power that is being consumed by all the loads at every moment, plus the losses
transmission losses. These consist of ohmic losses in the various transmission components,
in losses due to corona effect on the lines, and in losses in the cores of transformers and generators.

It should be remembered that energy is being transmitted at the speed of light, and, once it
is not being stored anywhere in the system, we concluded that the production rate of
Energy must be equal to the consumption rate plus the losses of the system.

It should be emphasized that the synchronized operation of the generators represents a stable state of the
system. With the speed of the generator 'tied' to that of the rest of the system, it is possible to control the
generation of active power, controlling the torque applied to the generator, by the driving machine.

Opening the water inlets (in the case of hydraulic generation) and, therefore, increasing the pressure on the
turbine blades, a greater torque is applied to the generator, tending to accelerate it. However, its
speed is in a hurry compared to the rest of the system, and what happens is that the rotor advances its angle of
rotation of a few degrees. This results in an increase in the current and the power supplied and, to
at the same time, the current creates a deceleration torque inside the machine, which is
exactly opposite to the increase in acceleration torque.
Inside each generator, there is a delicate automatic balancing mechanism.
of torque. If this balancing were perfect in all generators, their speeds and,
therefore, the frequency would remain constant. The ideal way to operate the system would be the
regulation of all water inputs, at values that correspond exactly to the demand of
load.
But still, the system load can only be predicted within certain limits. Its fluctuations
are such that it becomes truly impossible to achieve a perfect instant balance between the
generation and demand, and this constant imbalance will cause frequency fluctuations.

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