NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF

Jaén

PROFESSIONAL CAREER OF ENGINEERING

MECHANICS AND ELECTRICAL

HEAT TRANSFER

FUNDAMENTALS OF THERMAL RADIATION

WORK PRESENTED BY:

SALDAÑA BECERRA Carlos Alberto
CORDOVA BELLASMIN Yordinio
SILVA COTRINA Nilson Meier
TORO CASTILLO Cristian Geyser
PAREDES BURGA Yojan
Luis Vasquez Vasquez
ANTON BAZAN Kervin
OCCUPY GONZALES Arnold
SANCHEZ QUINTOS Ronald
Gian Carlos Villalobos Gonzales
SILVA ACUÑA Alfred
DAVILA CAYATOPA Osmar

JAÉN–PERU
2017
 FUNDAMENTALS OF THERMAL RADIATION

This chapter begins with a discussion of electromagnetic waves and the

electromagnetic spectrum, emphasizing particularly on radiation
thermal. Next, the black body and the radiation of the body are presented.
black and the radiation function of the idealized black body, along with the law of
Stefan-Boltzmann, Planck's law, and Wien's displacement law. The
radiation is emitted by every point on a flat surface, in all
directions to the hemisphere that is above it. The amount that describes
the magnitude of the radiation emitted or incident in a specified direction in
space is the intensity of radiation. Several flows of radiation, such as power
of emission, irradiation, and radiance, are expressed in terms of intensity.
This is followed by a discussion of the radiation properties of the
materials, such as emissivity, absorptivity, and transmissivity, and their
dependence on wavelength, direction, and temperature.

OBJECTIVES
When the reader finishes studying this chapter, they should be able to:
Classify electromagnetic radiation and identify thermal radiation
Understand the idealized black body and calculate the emission power of
black body, total and spectral.
Calculate the fraction of radiation emitted in a specified wavelength band.
of wave, applying the functions of black body radiation.
Understand the concept of radiation intensity and define the quantities.
spectral directionals, applying the intensity.
Develop a clear understanding of the properties of emissivity.
absorbance, reflectivity and transmittance on a spectral, directional basis
and total.
Apply Kirchhoff's law to determine the absorptivity of a surface
when its emissivity is known, and
Model the atmospheric radiation using an effective temperature.
from the sky and appreciate the importance of the greenhouse effect.
 INTRODUCTION

Consider a hot object that is suspended

in a chamber where a vacuum has been created and
whose walls are at the temperature
environment. There will come a time when the object
hot will cool down and reach thermal equilibrium
with its surroundings. That is, it will lose heat until
that its temperature reaches that of the walls of the
camera. The heat transfer between the object and the chamber could not have
taken place by conduction or convection, because these two mechanisms do not
they can develop in a vacuum. Therefore, heat transfer must
have occurred through another mechanism that includes the issuance of the
internal energy of the object. This mechanism is radiation.

The theoretical foundation of radiation was established in 1864 by the physicist James
Clerk Maxwell, who postulated that accelerated charges or currents
changing electric fields give rise to electric and magnetic fields. These
Fields that move quickly are called electromagnetic waves.
electromagnetic radiation and represent the energy emitted by matter
as a result of changes in the electronic configurations of atoms
or molecules. In 1887 Heinrich Hertz experimentally demonstrated his
existence.
Electromagnetic waves carry energy in the same way as others.
waves travel at the speed of light in a vacuum, which is:
= . ∗ /

Electromagnetic waves are characterized by their frequency or their wavelength.

wave These two properties in a medium are related by:
 Where c is the speed of wave propagation in that medium.

It has proven useful to conceive electromagnetic radiation as propagation

from a collection of discrete packets of energy called photons or quanta,
as proposed by Max Planck in 1900, in conjunction with his quantum theory. In
in this conception, each photon of frequency n is considered to have an energy

where 6.6256 *10-34J · sit is the Planck constant.

 FUNDAMENTALS OF THERMAL RADIATION

1st THERMAL RADIATION

Even though all electromagnetic waves have the same characteristics

generally, waves of different lengths differ significantly in their
behavior. The electromagnetic radiation that is found in practice
covers a wide range of wavelengths, which vary from less than
1010mm, for cosmic rays, even more than1010mm, for the waves of
electric energy. The electromagnetic spectrum also includes rays.
gamma, X-rays, ultraviolet radiation, visible light, infrared radiation
thermal radiation, microwaves, and radio waves, as shown in
the figure:

The type of electromagnetic radiation that

is relevant for heat transfer
it is the thermal radiation emitted as
result of the energy transitions of the
molecules, atoms, and the electrons of a
Substance.
The electromagnetic radiation emitted by the
The sun is known as solar radiation
all of it falls into the wavelength band
from 0.3-3 µm.
Almost half of solar radiation is light.
radiation emitted by bodies to the
ambient temperature drops in the region
infrared of the spectrum, which extends from
0.76 up to 100 µm.
Ultraviolet radiation includes the extreme of
low wavelength of the radiation spectrum
thermal and is found between wavelengths of 0.01 and 0.40 µm.
That is to say, radiation is a volumetric phenomenon. However, for the
opaque solids (non-transparent), such as metals, wood, and rocks, are
consider that radiation is a superficial phenomenon, since that emitted by
the inner regions can never reach the surface and the one that impacts
about those bodies is usually absorbed within a few microns of the
surface. Note that the characteristics related to the radiation of the surfaces
they can be completely changed by the application of thin layers of
coating over them.

2° BLACK BODY RADIATION

At a specific temperature and wavelength, no surface can

emit more energy than a black body. A black body absorbs all the
incident radiation, regardless of wavelength or radiation.
Similarly, it emits radiation energy uniformly in all directions,
per unit area normal to the direction of emission. That is, a black body
it is a diffuse emitter, which means it is 'direction-independent'.
radiation energy emitted by a black body per unit time and by
surface area unit was determined experimentally by Joseph
Stefan, in 1879, expressed it as:
 wheres = 5.670 *10-8W/m2K4 is the Stefan constant-
Boltzmann and T is the absolute temperature of the surface in K.

Sometimes we need to know the spectral emissive power of a black body,

which is the amount of radiation energy emitted by a black body at a
absolute temperature T per unit of time, per unit of surface area and
per unit of wavelength around the wavelength For example,
we are more interested in the amount of radiation emitted by a bulb
incandescent in the visible spectrum of wavelengths that in the quantity
total issued.
The relationship for the power of spectral emission of a black body was
developed by Max Planck in 1901, in conjunction with his famous theory
quantum. This relationship is known as Planck's law and is expressed as:

Where:

Likewise, T is the absolute temperature of the surface, l is the wavelength

from the emitted radiation andk = 1.38065 *10−23Just kiddingit is the Boltzmann constant.
As the temperature increases, the wavelength at which it occurs
Wien's displacement law:

It is left as an exercise to demonstrate the integration of the power of emission.

black body spectrum above all the spectrum of wavelengths gives
the total black body emission power Eb:

Therefore, we obtained the Stefan-Boltzmann law by integrating the

Planck's law about all wavelengths. Note that in a diagram
- corresponds to the area under the entire curve for a specific temperature.
Similarly, the term totalsignifies 'integrated over all lengths of
wave.

The radiation energy emitted by a black body per unit area over
a band of wavelengths, from =0 up to l is determined based on:
Therefore, we define a dimensionless quantity. function call of
black body radiation, as:

The function represents the fraction of radiation emitted from a black body
at temperature T, in the wavelength range of = 0 until .
 NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF
Jaén

PROFESSIONAL CAREER OF ENGINEERING

MECHANICS AND ELECTRICAL

HEAT TRANSFER

FUNDAMENTALS OF THERMAL RADIATION

WORK PRESENTED BY:

SALDAÑA BECERRA Carlos Alberto
CORDOVA BELLASMIN Yordinio
SILVA COTRINA Nilson Meier
TORO CASTILLO Cristian Geyser
PAREDES BURGA Yojan
Luis Vasquez Vasquez
ANTON BAZAN Kervin
OCCUPY GONZALES Arnold
SANCHEZ QUINTOS Ronald
Gian Carlos Villalobos Gonzales
SILVA ACUÑA Alfred
DAVILA CAYATOPA Osmar

JAÉN PERU
2017
In general, the differential solid angle d subtended by a surface area
differential dA when viewed from a point at a distance r from dA is expressed
as:

3.2° Intensity of the emitted radiation

The intensity of radiation ( , )is defined as the ratio at which energy

of radiation dQe is emitted in the direction( , )per unit of normal area to
that direction and per unit solid angle around this same direction;
that is to say,

Since the hemisphere above the surface intercepts all rays.

of radiation emitted by it, the emission power towards the hemisphere that
Rodea can be determined by integration as:
3.3 Incident Radiation
It is defined as the rate at which the radiation energy dG incident from the
direction (u, f) per unit area of the receiving surface normal to it
direction and by unit of solid angle around the latter:

3.4° Radiosity
The calculation of heat transfer by radiation between surfaces includes
the total energy of radiation that emanates from a surface, regardless of its origin.
Therefore, we need to define an amount that represents the rate at which the
radiation energy leaves a unit area of a surface in all directions
directions. This amount is called laradiosidadJ and is expressed as:

3.5 ° Spectral quantities

The spectral intensity for the emitted radiationIλ,eλ, θ, ϕ it (can be) defined
as the reason why the radiation energy dQe is emitted at the wavelength of
wave l in the direction (u, f) per unit of area normal to this direction, per unit
of solid angle around the latter, and it can be expressed as:

where h = 6.626069 x10-34J is the Planck constant, k = 1.38065x10−23

J/K is the Boltzmann constant and c0 = 2.9979 x108m/s is the speed of the
light in the vacuum.
4° RADIATION PROPERTIES
Most of the materials found in practice, such as the
metals, wood, and bricks are opaque to thermal radiation, and they
consider that radiation is a superficial phenomenon for that type of
materials. That is, thermal radiation is emitted or absorbed at less than
a few of the first microns of the surface and, as a consequence,
we talk about properties related to the radiation of surfaces for the
opaque materials.

4.1 °Emissivity
The emissivity of a surface represents the ratio of the radiation emitted
through the surface at a given temperature and the radiation emitted by a body
black at the same temperature. The emissivity of a surface is denoted by ε
and varies between 0 and 1, 0<Ɛ< 1. Emissivity is a measure of how close it is
it approximates a surface to a black body, for which ε = 1.

The most basic emissivity of a surface at a given temperature

it is the directional spectral emissivity, which is defined as the ratio
between the intensity of the radiation emitted by the surface at a length
of specific wave, in a specific direction, and the intensity of the
radiation emitted by a black body at the same temperature, at the same
wavelength; that is,

Total directional emissivity is defined similarly, using

total intensities (integrated intensities over all wavelengths
of wave) such as:
 hemispheric spectral emissivity can be expressed as

Finally, the total hemispherical emissivity is defined in terms of the

radiation energy emitted over all wavelengths in all
the addresses, such as:

4.2 °Absorptivity, reflectivity and transmissivity

Everything around us emits radiation constantly and the emissivity
it represents the emission characteristics of those bodies. This means that
every body, including ours, is constantly bombarded by
radiation coming from all directions, in a range of wavelengths
wave. Remember that the flow of radiation that hits a surface is called
irradiation and is denoted by G.
When radiation strikes a surface, part of it is absorbed,
part of it is reflected and the remaining part, if any, is transmitted. The fraction
the irradiation absorbed by the surface is called absorptivity, the fraction
reflected by the surface is called reflectivity, and the fraction
transmitted is the transmissivity; that is,
In a similar way, hemispheric spectral absorptivity and reflectivity
spectral hemispherical of a surface are defined as:

4.3 °Kirchhoff's Law

Consider a small body with surface area As, emissivity ɛ, and absorptivity
at the temperature T, contained in a closed isothermal chamber at the same
temperature. Remember that a large isothermal closed chamber forms a
black body cavity, regardless of the properties related to radiation of
the surface of the enclosure, and the body that is in it is too small
to interfere with the nature of the black body of the cavity. Therefore,
the radiation that strikes any part of the surface of the small body
is equal to that emitted by a black body at temperature T; the radiation
absorbed by the small body per unit area of its surface is:

The radiation emitted by the small body is:

4.4° The greenhouse effect

On a larger scale, the greenhouse effect is also experienced.

about. The surface of this heats up during the day as a result of the
absorption of solar energy and cools down at night by radiating its energy towards
deep space as infrared radiation. The gases from combustion, such as
the CO
2 and water vapor, which are found in the atmosphere, transmit the great
amount of solar radiation, but absorb the infrared emitted by the surface
from the Earth. As a consequence, there is concern that the time will come
in which the trapped energy on Earth causes global warming and, for
Hello, drastic changes in atmospheric patterns.
In humid places, such as coastal areas, there is no change.
great between daytime and nighttime temperatures because humidity acts as
a barrier in the trajectory of the infrared radiation coming from the Earth
and, as a consequence, slows down the cooling process at night. In areas
with clear skies, like the deserts, there is a great oscillation between the
daytime and nighttime temperatures due to the absence of that type of barriers
for infrared radiation.

5 ° ATMOSPHERIC AND SOLAR RADIATION

The Sun is our main source of energy. The energy that comes from it,
called solar energy, reaches us in the form of electromagnetic waves
after experiencing considerable interactions with the atmosphere. The
radiation energy emitted or reflected by the constituents of the atmosphere
atmospheric radiation formation.
The Sun is an almost spherical body that has a diameterD ≈ 1.39x109mand a
dough
m ≈ 2x1030 , and it is located at an average distanceL = 1.50x1011m
from the Earth. It emits radiation continuously at a rate ofEhello≈ 3.8x1026W.
Less than one billionth of this energy (around1.17x1017W)
collides with the Earth, which is enough to keep it warm and
sustain life through the process of photosynthesis. The energy from the Sun
is due to the continuous fusion reaction during which two hydrogen atoms
they fuse to form one of helium. Therefore, in essence, the Sun is a reactor
nuclear, with temperatures as high as 40,000,000 K in the region of its
core. The temperature drops to around 5,800 K in the outer region of the
Sun, called the convection zone, as a result of the dissipation of this
energy as radiation.
The solar energy that reaches the Earth's atmosphere is called irradiance. ,
whose value is:

The value of total solar irradiance can be used to estimate the temperature.
effective superficial of the Sun, based on the requirement that:

The solar energy that strikes a surface of the Earth is considered to

It consists of direct and diffuse parts. The part of the solar radiation that reaches the
the terrestrial surface without being dispersed or absorbed by the atmosphere is called
direct solar radiationGD It is supposed that the scattered radiation reaches the
earth's surface evenly from all directions and is called
diffuse solar radiationGd . So, the total solar energy that strikes on the
unit of area of a horizontal surface on the floor is:
6° SOLAR HEAT GAIN THROUGH WINDOWS
The Sun is the primary source of heat for the Earth and the solar irradiance on a
surface perpendicular to solar rays beyond the Earth's atmosphere, at
The average distance from Earth to the Sun of 149.5 million km is called solar irradiance.

total or solar constant. The accepted value of the solar constant is 1,373 W/m 2

2 but its value changes by 3.5% from a maximum of 1,418

(435.4 Btu/h ⋅ ft),

W/m,2 on January 3, when the Earth is closest to the Sun, to a minimum

of 1,325 W/m, 2on July 4, when the Earth is farthest from the Sun.
The spectral distribution of solar radiation beyond the Earth's atmosphere
it resembles the energy emitted by a black body at 5,780°C, with around
of 9% of the energy contained in the ultraviolet region (at the wavelengths
between 0.29 and 0.4 m), 39% in the visible region (0.4 to 0.7mm) and 52%
remaining in the near infrared region (0.7 to 3.5 mm). The peak radiation
It appears at a wavelength of around 0.48mm, which corresponds to
to the green portion of the visible spectrum.
The fraction of incident solar radiation that enters through the glazing is
solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC for its acronym in English)
and is expressed as:
Whereα it is Sthe solar absorptivity of the glass and f isi the fraction of the radiation
solar absorbed that flows inward through that glass.
When the SHGC of a window is known, the total solar heat gain to
through it is determined from:

Where A crystallized it is the area of the window glazing and that · solar

incident it is the solar heat flow that strikes the exterior surface of this

last, in W/m. 2

Another way to express the characteristics related to solar transmission:

Therefore, the shading coefficient of a clear glass window of

a single sheet is SC = 1.
A non-tinted window glass will let in most of the radiation.
solar incident and also dissipates part of the solar energy it absorbs by the
emission of infrared radiation into the room. The emitted radiation and light
direct solar transmission can be uncomfortable for nearby occupants.
window. In winter, the temperature of the glass is lower than that of the air.
room, causing excessive heat loss by radiation from the
occupants. A device for producing shade allows the control of the radiation
direct solar radiation and infrared, simultaneously supplying several degrees
of intimacy and outward vision. The device is also at a
higher temperature than glass in winter and, in this way, reduces the
losses due to occupant radiation. The glow of the curtains can be
minimize using colors other than white. The devices for indoors,
especially the curtains made of tightly woven fabric, are effective in the
reduction of the sounds that originate in the room, but they are not so much against
the sounds that come from outside.
The type of climate in an area usually dictates the type of windows that should be used.

in buildings. In cold climates, where the heating load is much

greater than that of cooling, the windows must have the highest transmissivity
high for the entire solar spectrum and a high reflectivity (or low emissivity) for
the far infrared radiation emitted by the walls and furniture of the room. The
low-emissivity windows are very suitable for this type of buildings
dominated by heating. The windows designed and operated in a way
adequate allow more heat to enter the building during a season
of heating than what is lost, turning them into energy contributors,
instead of losers of this. In warm climates, where the load of
Cooling is much greater than heating, the windows must
allow visible solar radiation (light) to enter, but they must block the
infrared solar radiation. These types of windows can reduce the gain of
solar heat by 60%, with no noticeable loss in daylight. It is obtained a
approximation of this behavior through window glazing
covered with a heat-absorbing film on the outside and
a low emissivity film on the inside (figure 12-51). The windows
appropriately selected can reduce the cooling load of
a 15 to a
30%, compared to those equipped with clear glass.
Note that the heat transfer by radiation between a room and its window
is proportional to the emissivity of the glass surface facing the room,
eglass , and it can be expressed as:
APPLICATION EXAMPLE:
EXAMPLE 1: Light emitted by the sun and a bulb
Image sensors with interconnected charge devices (CCD),
are common in modern digital cameras and have different responses to
the light sources with different spectral distributions. Daylight and the
incandescent light can approximate as a black body to the
effective surface temperatures of 5800 K and 2800 K, respectively.
Determine the fraction of radiation emitted within the wavelength of
visible spectrum from 0.40 µm (violet) to 0.76 µm (red), for each of the
light sources.

SOLUTION

The fraction of visible radiation emitted by the sun must be determined and the
filament of an incandescent bulb at black body temperatures
specified.
ASSUMPTION the sun and the incandescent light filament behave like
black bodies.
ANALYSIS the visible range of the electromagnetic spectrum extends from ʎ 1= 0.40
μm a λ2= 0.76 µm. from table 12-2 and figure 12-15, the functions are determined
of black body radiation that corresponds to ʎ 1Y and T2T, for the sun at T = 5800
K.
ʎ 1T = (0.40 µm) (5800 K) = 2320 µm.K → Ƒ 1, daylight0.124509
ʎ 2T = (0.76 µm) (5800 K) = 4408 µm.K → Ƒ ʎ2 , daylight= 0.550015

Then the fraction of visible radiation emitted by the sun becomes

Ƒ 1ʎ -ʎ2, daylight0.550015 - 0.124509 = 0.426 or 42.6 percent

For an incandescent bulb at T = 2800 K. the body radiation functions

black corresponds to ʎ 1Y and T2And from table 12-2, they are determined as
ʎ 1T = (0.40 µm) (2800 K) = 1120 µm.K → Ƒ ʎ1, incandescent0.001409

ʎ 2T = (0.76 µm) (5800 K) = 2128 µm.K → Ƒ ʎ2, incandescent0.088590

Then, the fraction of radiation from the source that emits in the visible range becomes
Ƒ 1ʎ -incandescent0.088590 - 0.001409 = 0.087 8.7 percent

DISCUSSION: note that approximately half of the radiation emitted by

the sun is within the visible range, therefore, the sun is a source of
very efficient light. But less than 10% of the radiation emitted by a bulb
incandescent is within the range of visible light; therefore, light bulbs
Incandescent bulbs are inefficient light sources. Consequently, they
replace with more efficient LED and fluorescent light sources.
EXAMPLE 2° INCIDENT RADIATION ON A SMALL SURFACE
A small surface area A1= 3 cm2it emits radiation like a body
black to T1= 600 K. the part of the radiation emitted by A1collides with another
small surface area A2= 5 cm2, oriented as shown in the figure
12-23. Determine the solid angle subtended by A2when seen from A1and the
the reason why the radiation emitted by the latter collides with A2.
SOLUTION
A surface is subjected to radiation emitted by another surface. It is necessary to
determine the solid angle subtended and the rate at which radiation is received
issued.
Assumptions 1 the surface A1emits diffusely like a black body.
so much A1like A2they can be considered differential surfaces, since they are very

small compared to the square of the distance between them.

Analysis making the approximation of A1y A2as differential surfaces,

the solid angle subtended by A can be determined2when viewed from A1,
from equation 12-12, how

(5 2) cos40°
,2 2cos 2
2-1≅ 2 = 2 = (75 ) 2
= 6.81 × 10-4

Since the normal of A2it forms an angle of 40° with the direction of vision.
Note that the solid angle subtended by A2it would be the best if the position of
is outside normal to the line of sight. Likewise, the point of view on A1
It is taken as a midpoint, but it can be any other since it is supposed to be.
what A1it is very small.
The radiation emitted by A1that collides with A2it is equivalent to radiation
emitted by that through the solid angle 2−1 The intensity of the radiation
issued by A is
10-8 4 (600 K)4
( 1 ) 4
1
(5.67 × 2 .
1= = = = 2339 W/m²2

This intensity value is the same in all directions, since a

A black body is a diffuse emitter. The intensity represents the ratio of the
radiation emission per unit area normal to the direction of emission, by
solid angle unit. Therefore, the ratio of the emitted radiation energy
by A in the direction of 1through the solid angle 2−1 , it is determined at
multiply I1through the area of A1normal 1and by the solid angle 2−1 that is to say,
̇
1−2= 1( 1cos 1 ) 2−1

(2339W/°C2 )(3× 10-4with55° C2 )6.81 × 10-4)

= 2.74× 10-4
Therefore, the radiation emitted from surface A1strike against the
surface A2at the rate of2.74× 10-4

Scheme for example 2