Signalling over AWGN Channels
Geometric representation of signals with finite energy, which
provides a mathematically elegant and highly insightful tool for
the study of data transmission.
Maximum likelihood procedure for the detection of a signal in
AWGN channel.
Probability of symbol error and the union bound for its
approximate calculation.
• A message source emits one symbol every T
seconds with the symbols belonging to an
alphabet of M symbols denoted by m1, m2,..,
mM
• The priori probabilities
Geometric representation of
Signals
• Digital Modulation involves Choosing a
particular signal waveform for transmission for
a particular symbol For M possible symbols,
the set of all signal waveforms are: For binary
modulation, each bit is mapped to a signal
from a signal set S that has two signals. We
can view the elements of S as points in vector
space
Geometric representation of Signals
Gram–Schmidt process
• It is a method for ortho-normalising a set of
vectors in an inner product space
• The process takes a finite, linearly independent
set 𝑆 = {𝑣1 , … , 𝑣𝑘 } for 𝑘 ≤ 𝑛
• Generates an orthogonal set 𝑆′ = {𝑢1 , … , 𝑢𝑘 }
that spans the same kdimensional subspace of
𝑹𝑛 as 𝑆.
• This method is named after Jorgen Pedersen
Gram and Erhard Schmidt.
• In the theory of Lie group decompositions it is
generalized by the Iwasawa decomposition.
Conversion of the Continuous AWGN
Channel into a Vector Channel
Coherent Detection of Signals in Noise
Maximum likelihood (ML) rule
Likelihood Functions
Correlation Receiver
Matched Filter
The matched filter (MF) is the optimal linear filter for
maximizing the output SNR.
Alternative method of implementing the optimum
receiver, consider a linear time-invariant filter with
impulse response hj(t).
With the received signal x(t) operating as input,
the resulting filter output is defined by the
convolution integral
Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI)
• ISI in the detection process due to the filtering
effects of the system
• Overall equivalent system transfer function
H ( f ) = H t ( f )H c ( f )H r ( f )
– creates echoes and hence time dispersion
– causes ISI at sampling time
z k = s k + nk + s
i i
i k
2
Nyquist bandwidth constraint
– Nyquist bandwidth constraint:
• The theoretical minimum required system bandwidth to
detect Rs [symbols/s] without ISI is Rs/2 [Hz].
• Equivalently, a system with bandwidth W=1/2T=Rs/2 [Hz]
can support a maximum transmission rate of 2W=1/T=Rs
[symbols/s] without ISI.
1 R Rs
= s W 2 [symbol/s/Hz]
2T 2 W
– Bandwidth efficiency, R/W [bits/s/Hz] :
• An important measure in DCs representing data throughput
per hertz of bandwidth.
• Showing how efficiently the bandwidth resources are used
by signaling techniques.
3
Ideal Nyquist pulse (filter)
Ideal Nyquist filter Ideal Nyquist pulse
H( f ) h(t) = sinc(t / T )
T 1
0 f – 2T T 0 T 2T t
1
1
2T 2T
1
W=
2T
4
Nyquist pulses (filters)
• Nyquist pulses (filters):
– Pulses (filters) which results in no ISI at the sampling
time.
• Nyquist filter:
– Its transfer function in frequency domain is obtained by
convolving a rectangular function with any real even-
symmetric frequency function
• Nyquist pulse:
– Its shape can be represented by a sinc(t/T) function
multiply by another time function.
• Example of Nyquist filters: Raised-Cosine filter
Lecture 6 5
Pulse shaping to reduce ISI
• Goals and trade-off in pulse-shaping
– Reduce ISI
– Efficient bandwidth utilization
– Robustness to timing error (small side lobes)
Lecture 6 6
The raised cosine filter
• Raised-Cosine Filter
– A Nyquist pulse (No ISI at the sampling time)
1 for | f |< 2W0 W
| f | +W 2W0
H ( f ) = cos 2
for 2W0 W <| f |< W
4 W W0
0 for | f |> W
cos[2 (W W 0)t]
h(t) = 2W0 (sinc(2W0t))
1 [4(W W0
2
)t]
W W
Roll-off factor r =
0
Excess bandwidth: W W
0
0 r 1 W0
7
The Raised cosine filter – cont’d
| H ( f ) |=| H RC ( f ) | h(t) = hRC (t)
1 r=0 1
r = 0.5
0.5 0.5 r =1
r =1 r = 0.5
r =0
1 3 1 0 1 3 1 – 3T – 2T T 0 T 2T 3T
T 4T 2T 2T 4T T
Rs
Baseband W sSB= (1+ r) Passband W DSB= (1+ r)R s
2
8
Example of pulse shaping
• Square-root Raised-Cosine (SRRC) pulse shaping
Amp. [V]
Baseband tr. Waveform
Third pulse
t/T
First pulse
Second pulse
Data symbol
9
Example of pulse shaping …
• Raised Cosine pulse at the output of matched filter
Amp. [V]
Baseband received waveform at
the matched filter output
(zero ISI)
t/T
10
Eye pattern
• Eye pattern:Display on an oscilloscope which sweeps
the system response to a baseband signal at the rate 1/T (T
symbol duration)
Distortion
due to ISI
Noise margin
amplitude scale
Sensitivity to
timing error
Timing jitter
time scale
11
Example of eye pattern:
Binary-PAM, SRRQ pulse
• Perfect channel (no noise and no ISI)
12
Equalization – cont’d
Step 1 – waveform to sample transformation Step 2 – decision making
Demodulate & Sample Detect
z(T ) mˆi
r(t) Threshold
Frequency Receiving Equalizing
comparison
down-conversion filter filter
For bandpass signals Compensation for
channel induced ISI
Received waveform Baseband pulse
Baseband pulse Sample
(possibly distored)
(test statistic)
13
Equalization
• ISI due to filtering effect of the
communications channel (e.g. wireless
channels)
– Channels behave like band-limited filters
j (f)
Hc ( f ) = Hc ( f ) e c
Non-constant amplitude Non-linear phase
Amplitude distortion Phase distortion
Lecture 6 14
Equalizing filters …
• Baseband system model
a1
ak (t kT) Tx filter Channel r(t) Equalizer Rx. filter z(t) zk {âk }
k ht (t) hc (t) he (t) hr (t) Detector
t = kT
Ta a Ht ( f ) Hc( f ) He ( f ) Hr ( f )
2 3
n(t)
• Equivalent model H ( f ) = H t ( f )H c ( f )H r ( f )
a1
Equivalent system
ak (t kT ) z(t) x(t) Equalizer z(t)
zk {âk }
k h(t) he (t) Detector
t = kT
Ta a H( f ) He( f )
2 3 n̂(t)
filtered noise
n̂(t) = n(t) * hr (t)
15
Equalization – cont’d
• Equalization using
– MLSE (Maximum likelihood sequence
estimation)
– Filtering
• Transversal filtering
– Zero-forcing equalizer
– Minimum mean square error (MSE) equalizer
• Decision feedback
– Using the past decisions to remove the ISI contributed by
them
• Adaptive equalizer
Lecture 6 16
Transversal equalizing filter …
• Zero-forcing equalizer:
– The filter taps are adjusted such that the equalizer output is
forced to be zero at N sample points on each side:
Adjust 1 k =0
z(k) =
{cn }n=N N 0 k = 1,..., N
• Mean Square Error (MSE) equalizer:
– The filter taps are adjusted such that the MSE of ISI and noise
power at the equalizer output is minimized.
Adjust
{c n }n =
N
[
min E (z(kT) ak ) 2
]
N
17
Example of equalizer
• 2-PAM with SRRQ Matched filter outputs at the sampling time
• Non-ideal ch annel
hc (t) = (t) + 0.3 (t T )
• One-tap DFE
ISI-no noise,
No equalizer
ISI-no noise,
DFE equalizer
ISI- noise
No equalizer
ISI- noise
DFE equalizer
Lecture 6
1
8
Reference
• Simon Haykin, “Digital Communication
Systems”, John Wiley & Sons, First Edition,
2014, ISBN 978-0-471-64735-5.
