Electrical Measurements and Instrumentation | by Prof.

Tejal Kharche

UNIT 1: ANALOG INSTRUMENTS

❖ Classification of measuring instrument
Analog Instruments in measurement and control systems are pivotal in capturing, analyzing,
and representing various physical quantities. They are characterized by their continuous signal
representation and are foundational tools in industrial and laboratory settings.
Definition of Analog Instruments
Analog instruments are devices used for measuring and monitoring physical quantities such as
temperature, pressure, velocity, and electrical voltage, where the measurement is represented
in a continuous form. Unlike digital instruments, which display values in discrete numerical
form, analog instruments indicate measurements using a continuous scale or dial. The key
feature of an analog instrument is its ability to represent data as analog signals, which vary
smoothly over a range, mirroring the behavior of the measured physical quantity.
Classification of Analog Instruments
Analog instruments can be broadly categorized based on the nature of the quantity they
measure and their principle of operation. Here are the primary classifications:
1. Based on Measured Quantities
• Electrical Instruments: Measure electrical quantities such as voltage, current,
resistance, and power. Examples include voltmeters, ammeters, and ohmmeters.
• Mechanical Instruments: Designed to measure mechanical parameters like pressure,
force, torque, and speed. Pressure gauges and speedometers fall under this category.
• Thermal Instruments: Used for measuring temperature. Thermometers and bimetallic
strips are common examples.
• Acoustic Instruments: Measure sound levels and acoustic properties. Sound level
meters are typical acoustic instruments.
2. Based on Operating Principles
• Electromagnetic Instruments: Utilize the electromagnetic effect for measurement.
The moving coil and moving iron instruments are examples.
• Electrostatic Instruments: Measure electrical quantities through electrostatic
principles, as seen in electrostatic voltmeters.
• Thermal Instruments: Work based on the thermal effects of electric current. Examples
include thermocouples and resistance temperature detectors (RTDs).
• Mechanical Instruments: Operate based on mechanical principles, such as the
Bourdon tube used in pressure gauges.
Working Principle of Analog Instruments
The working principles of analog instruments are inherently linked to their classifications.
However, the fundamental concept revolves around converting the physical quantity to be
measured into a readable form, typically through a pointer over a scale.

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Electromagnetic Instruments
Electromagnetic instruments operate on the principle that an electric current flowing through a
coil placed within a magnetic field induces a magnetic torque. This torque moves a pointer
across a scale. The position of the pointer corresponds to the magnitude of the measured
quantity. Moving coil and moving iron meters are prime examples, widely used for measuring
voltage and current.
Electrostatic Instruments
These instruments measure voltage by exploiting the electrostatic force between charged
elements. When a potential difference is applied across two plates, an electrostatic force
proportional to the square of the voltage is generated. This force causes movement that is
translated into a measurement. Electrostatic voltmeters are known for their high input
impedance and are used in circuits where minimal power consumption is essential.
Thermal Instruments
In thermal instruments, the measurement principle is based on the thermal effect of electric
current. For instance, in a thermocouple, the temperature difference between two junctions of
dissimilar metals generates a voltage indicative of the measured temperature. Similarly, in
RTDs, the resistance of the sensor element varies with temperature, providing a means to
measure thermal variations accurately.
Mechanical Instruments
Mechanical analog instruments, such as the Bourdon tube pressure gauge, operate based on the
mechanical deformation of a material under pressure. The pressure causes a curved tube to
straighten, and this mechanical movement is translated into a rotation of the pointer on the dial,
indicating the pressure level.
❖ Different torques in measuring instrument
In order to ensure proper operation of indicating instruments, the following three torques are
required:
• Deflecting torque.
• Controlling torque.
• Damping torque.
One important requirement in indicating instruments is the arrangement for producing
operating or deflecting torque (Td) when the instrument is connected in the circuit to measure
the given electrical quantity.
This is achieved by utilizing the various effects of electric current or voltage. The deflecting
torque causes the moving system to move from its zero position. The deflecting torque is
produced by utilizing one or more of the following effects of current or voltage:
Magnetic effect ——————————- Moving-iron instruments.
Electrodynamic effect ———————- (i) Moving coil instruments, (ii) Dynamometer type.
Electromagnetic induction effect ———Induction type instruments.

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Thermal effect ———————————Hot-wire instruments.

Chemical effect ——————————–Electrolytic instruments.
Electrostatic effect —————————-Electrostatic voltmeters

The table below gives information about the electrical measuring instruments in which
deflecting torque is produced by utilizing the first three effects.
Controlling Torque in Measuring Instruments
The controlling torque (Tc) opposes the deflecting torque and increases with the deflection of
the moving system. The pointer comes to rest at a position where the two opposing torques are
equal i.e. Td = Tc. The controlling torque performs two functions.
Controlling torque increases with the deflection of the moving system so that the final position
of the pointer on the scale will be according to the magnitude of an electrical quantity (i.e.
current or voltage or power) to be measured.
Controlling torque brings the pointer back to zero when the deflecting torque is removed. If it
were not provided, the pointer once deflected would not return to zero position on removing
the deflecting torque. The controlling torque in indicating instruments may be provided by one
of the following two methods:
1. Spring control.
2. Gravity control.

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Spring Control Method

This is the most common method of providing controlling torque, in electrical instruments. A
spiral hairspring made of some non-magnetic material like phosphor bronze is attached to the
moving system of the instrument as shown in the figure.

Springs also serve the additional purpose of leading current to the moving system (i.e. operating
coil). With that deflection of the pointer, the spring is twisted in the opposite direction. This
twist in the spring provides the controlling torque.
Since the torsion torque of a spiral spring is proportional to the angle of twist, the controlling
torque (Tc ) is directly proportional to the angle of deflection of pointer (θ) i.e. Tc α θ.The
pointer will come to rest at a position where controlling torque is equal to the deflecting torque
i.e. Td =Tc.
In an instrument where the deflecting torque is uniform, spring control provides a uniform scale
over the whole range. The balance weight is attached to counterbalance the weight of the
pointer and other moving parts.
Gravity Control Method
In this method, a small weight is attached to the moving system, which provides necessary
controlling torque. In the zero position of the pointer, the control weight hangs vertically
downward and therefore provides no controlling torque.
However, under the action of deflecting torque, the pointer moves from zero position and
control weight moves in opposite direction. Due to gravity, the control weight would tend to

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come in original position (i.e. vertical) and thus provides an opposing or controlling torque.
The pointer comes to rest at a position where controlling torque is equal to the deflecting torque.
In this method, controlling torque (Tc) is proportional to the sin of angle of deflection (θ) i.e.
Tc α sin θ.

Because in this method controlling torque (Tc) is not directly proportional to the angle of
deflection (θ) but it is proportional to sin θ therefore, gravity control instruments have non-
uniform scales; being crowded in beginning.
Damping Torque in Measuring Instruments
A damping torque is produced by a damping or stopping force which acts on the moving system
only when it is moving and always opposes its motion. Such a torque is necessary to bring the
pointer to rest quickly. If there is no damping torque, then the pointer will keep moving to and
fro about its final deflected position for some time before coming to rest, due to the inertia of
the moving system.
This damping torque acts only when the pointer is in motion and always opposes the motion.
The position of the pointer when stationary is, therefore, not affected by damping torque. The
degree of damping decides the behavior of the moving system.

If the instrument is under-damped, the pointer will oscillate about the final position for some
time before coming to rest. On the other hand, if the instrument is over damped, the pointer
will become slow and lethargic.

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However, if the degree of damping is adjusted to such a value that the pointer comes up to the
correct reading quickly without oscillating about it, the instrument is said to be critically
damped.
Types of Damping Torque
The damping torque in indicating instruments can be provided by:
1. Air friction damping.
2. Fluid friction damping.
3. Eddy current damping.
Air Friction Damping

Arrangements of air friction damping are shown in fig. (a) and fig. (b). In the arrangement
shown in fig (a), a light aluminum piston is attached to the spindle that carries the pointer and
moves with a very little clearance in a rectangular or circular air chamber closed at one end.

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The cushioning action of the air on the piston damps out any tendency of the pointer to oscillate
about the final deflected position. This method is not favored these days and the one shown in
fig. (b) is preferred.
In this method, one or two light aluminum vanes are attached to the same spindle that carries
the pointer. As the pointer moves, the vanes swing and compress the air. The pressure of
compressed air on the vanes provides the necessary damping force to reduce the tendency of
the pointer to oscillate.
Fluid Friction Damping

In this method, discs or vanes attached to the spindle of the moving system are kept immersed
in a pot containing oil of high viscosity. As the pointer moves, the friction between the oil and
vanes opposes the motion of the pointer and thus necessary damping is provided.
The fluid friction damping method is not suitable for portable instruments because of the oil
contained in the instrument. In general, fluid friction damping is not employed in indicating
instrument, although one can find its use in Kelvin electrostatic voltmeter.
Eddy Current Damping
Two methods of eddy current damping are generally [Link] the first method, as shown in the
figure, a thin aluminum or copper disc is attached to the moving system is allowed to pass
between the poles of a permanent magnet. As the pointer moves, the disc cuts across the
magnetic field and eddy currents are induced in the disc.

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These eddy currents react with the field of the magnet to produce a force which opposes the
motion according to Lenz’s Law. In this way, eddy current damping torque reduces the
oscillations of the pointer.
In the second method, the coil which produces the deflecting torque is wound on aluminum
former. As coil moves in the field of the instrument, eddy currents are induced in the aluminum
former to provide the necessary damping torque.
❖ Analog Ammeter

An Analog Ammeter is an instrument used to measure electric current in a circuit. The current
is measured in amperes (A). Unlike digital ammeters, analog ammeters use a moving needle
over a scale to indicate the current value.
Working Principle:
Analog ammeters mainly work on the principle of the magnetic effect of electric current. When
current flows through a coil inside the meter, it generates a magnetic field that interacts with a
permanent magnet or a spring-loaded mechanism, causing a needle to move across a calibrated
scale.
The most common type is the moving coil galvanometer, adapted into an ammeter by adding a
shunt resistor.

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Main Components:
1. Moving Coil: Carries current and moves in a magnetic field.
2. Permanent Magnet: Creates a stable magnetic field.
3. Pointer/Needle: Shows current reading on the scale.
4. Scale: Calibrated typically in amperes or milliamperes.
5. Shunt Resistor: Diverts most of the current, protecting the coil.
6. Spring: Provides control and returns the pointer to zero.
Types of Analog Ammeters:
1. Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) Ammeter:
• Used for DC current.
• Highly accurate.
2. Moving Iron Ammeter:
• Used for both AC and DC currents.
• Less sensitive and cheaper.
3. Electrodynamometer Ammeter:
• Used for precise AC and DC current measurements.
4. Thermocouple Ammeter:
• Measures high-frequency AC current by converting heat to an electrical signal.
Advantages:
• No external power supply needed.
• Immediate response with visual indication.
• Simple and rugged design (especially moving iron type).
Disadvantages:
• Parallax error (reading error due to eye position).
• Limited accuracy compared to digital ammeters.
• Sensitive to mechanical shock and vibrations.
• Usually designed for a specific current range; overload can damage it.
Applications:
• Electrical panels.
• Laboratory experiments.
• Industrial equipment monitoring.
• Power plants and substations.
• Automotive diagnostics.

❖ Analog Voltmeter
An Analog Voltmeter is an electrical instrument used to measure the potential difference
(voltage) between two points in an electrical circuit. It is calibrated in volts (V) and typically
uses a needle to indicate the voltage on a printed scale.

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Working Principle:
Analog voltmeters work on the principle of the deflection of a moving coil in a magnetic field.
When voltage is applied, a current flows through a coil attached to a needle. This coil is placed
in the field of a permanent magnet. The interaction causes the coil (and needle) to move,
showing the voltage.
Since voltmeters must draw very little current, a high resistance is added in series with the
moving coil to limit current flow.
Main Components:
1. Moving Coil: Converts electric energy to mechanical deflection.
2. Permanent Magnet: Provides a constant magnetic field.
3. Pointer (Needle): Shows the measured voltage on the scale.
4. Scale: Graduated in volts, millivolts, or kilovolts.
5. Series Resistor (Multiplier): Limits the current through the coil.
6. Spring: Restores the needle to zero when no voltage is applied.
Types of Analog Voltmeters:
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC):
• Used for DC voltage.
• Very accurate.
Moving Iron Voltmeter:
• Used for both AC and DC voltage.
• Rugged, but less accurate.
Electrodynamometer Voltmeter:
• High precision.
• Suitable for AC and DC, often used in labs.
Advantages:
• Simple and robust construction.
• No external power supply required.
• Easy to read and understand.
• Cost-effective for basic use.
Disadvantages:
• Prone to parallax error.
• Affected by temperature and vibrations.
• Limited precision compared to digital voltmeters.
• Cannot store or transmit data.

Applications:

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• Electrical and electronics labs.

• Industrial panel meters
• Educational institutions.
• Troubleshooting electrical circuits.
• Automotive and machinery testing.

❖ PMMC Instruments
What is a PMMC Instrument?
The term PMMC is the short form of “permanent magnet moving coil”. This instrument is
simple as well as most frequently used on ships with sophisticated names. These instruments
are used when an exact measurement is required as well as to aid while maintaining electrical
equipment. Apart from PMMC, it is also called as D’alvanometer. It is a kind of galvanometer
that works on the principle of D’Arsonval.

These instruments use permanent magnets to create the stationary magnetic field in the coils,
and then it is used with the moving coil that is connected to the electric source for generating
deflection torque according to the Fleming left-hand rule theory.
The PMMC instrument working principle is when the torque is applied to the moving coil that
is placed within the permanent magnet field, and then it gives a precise result for DC
measurement.
Working Principle of a PMMC Instrument
Whenever a current caring conductor is located within a magnetic field, then it experiences a
force that is perpendicular to the current & the field. Based on the rule of “Fleming left hand”,
if the thumbnail of the left hand, middle and forefinger are at 90 degrees with each other.

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After that the magnetic field will be in the forefinger, flow of current will be across the middle
finger and finally, the force will be through the thumb finger.
Once the current flow within the coil on the aluminum former, the magnetic field can be
generated in the coil in proportion to the current flow.
The electromagnetic force throughout the fixed magnetic field from the permanent magnet
generates the deflection force within the coil. After that the spring generates the force to resist
additional deflection; therefore it helps to balance the pointer.
So damping force can be generated within the system through the aluminum core movement
of the magnetic field. It maintains the pointer stable to a point. Once it attains equilibrium by
controlling & deflection torque to provide accuracy in measurement.
PMMC Instrument Construction
The construction of the PMCC instrument can be done using several parts where the permanent
magnet and moving coils are essential parts. Each part of this instrument is discussed below.

Moving Coil
It is an essential component of the PMMC instrument. The designing of this coil can be done
by wounding copper coils to a rectangular block among the magnetic poles. It is made with
Aluminum and the rectangular block can be called Aluminum former rotated into the jeweled
bearing. So it permits the coil to turn freely.
Once the current is supplied throughout these coils, then it gets a deflection within the field,
then it is used to find out the voltage or current magnitude. The aluminum is a non-metallic
former, used to measure the current whereas the metallic former including high electromagnetic
damping is used to calculate the voltage.
Magnet System
The PMMC instrument includes two high-intensity magnets otherwise a ‘U’ shaped magnet-
based design. The designing of these magnets can be done with Alnico & Alcomax for higher

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superior field intensity & coercive force. In several designs, an extra soft iron cylinder can be
arranged among the magnetic poles to create the field identical; while decreasing air reluctance
for increasing the strength of the field.
Control
In the PMMC device, the torque can be controlled due to the springs which are fabricated with
phosphorous bronze. These springs are arranged among the two jewel bearings. The spring
provides the lane to the lead current to supply in & out of the moving coil. The torque can be
controlled mainly due to the delay of the ribbon.
Damping Torque
Damping torque can be generated within the PMMC instrument using the aluminum core’s
movement within the magnetic field.
So the pointer can be kept at rest after the early deflection. It assists in the right measurement
devoid of fluctuations. Because of the movement of the coil within the magnetic field, eddy
current can be generated within the aluminum former. This generates the damping force
otherwise torque to resist the motion of the coil. Gradually the deflection of the pointer will be
reduced and lastly, it will stop at a permanent position.
Pointer and Scale
In this instrument, the connection of the pointer can be done through the moving coil. It notices
the moving coil’s deflection. The magnitude of their derivation can be displayed on the scale.
The pointer within the instrument can be designed with lightweight material. Thus, it can be
simply deflected through the coil’s movement. Sometimes, the parallax error can occur within
the device which is simply decreased by properly arranging the pointer’s blade.
What are the Different Reasons that Cause an Error in PMMC?
In a PMMC instrument, different errors can be occurred due to the temperature effects as well
as getting older of the instruments. The errors can be caused by the main parts of the instrument
like the magnet, effect of temperature, moving coil and the spring.
So, these errors can be reduced when the swamping resistance is connected in series using the
moving coil. Here, the swamping resistance is nothing but the resistor which includes less
temperature coefficient. This resistance can reduce the temperature effect on the moving coil.
Torque Equation
The equation involved in the PMCC instrument is the torque equation. The deflecting torque
induces due to the coil’s movement and this can be expressed with the equation shown below.
Td = NBLdl
Where,
‘N’ is the no. of turns in the coil
‘B’ is the density of flux within the air gap
‘L’ & ’d’ are vertical as well as horizontal lengths of the surface

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‘I’ is the flow of current in the coil

G = NBLd
The restoring torque can be provided to the moving coil can be done with the spring and it can
be expressed as
Tc = Kθ (‘K’ is the spring constant)
Final deflection can be done through the equation Tc = Td
Substitute the values of Tc & Td in the above equation, then we can get
Kθ = NBLdl
We know that G = NBLd
Kθ = Gl
θ= Gl/K
I = (K/G) θ
From the above equation, we can conclude that the deflection torque can be directly
proportional to the flow of current in the coil.
Advantages of PMMC Instrument
The advantages are
1. The scale in the instrument can be divided properly
2. It generates no losses because of hysteresis.
3. It uses less power
4. It is not influenced by the stray magnetic field.
5. High accuracy
6. It is used as a voltmeter/ammeter with appropriate resistance.
7. This instrument can measure the voltage & current with different ranges
8. This instrument uses shelf shielding magnet so it is applicable in aerospace
Disadvantages of PMMC Instrument
The disadvantages are
1. It works with only DC
2. It is expensive compare with other alternative instruments
3. It is delicate
4. It shows an error because of the magnetism loss in permanent magnet
Applications of PMMC Instrument
The applications are
1. Ammeter
2. Galvanometer
3. Ohmmeter
4. Voltmeter

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❖ Moving Iron or MI Instrument

Moving iron or MI instrument has a moving iron that measures the current and voltage. A wide
range of measuring instruments are available these days that measure various electrical
parameters such as current, resistance, voltage, power, etc. One such primitive measuring
instrument is the – moving iron (MI) instrument.
What is a Moving Iron Instrument?
A moving iron Instrument is a convenient measuring instrument used to determine the electric
current flowing in a circuit, and the voltage across the connected electronic device or circuitry.
It performs the measurement by means of a moving-iron mechanism. According to this
mechanism, a soft iron vane is kept in a region of the magnetic field produced by an
electromagnet. Moreover, there is a pointer attached to the moving iron core that deflects based
on the position of the soft iron vane. The position of the iron core is dependent on the strength
of the magnetic flux surrounding it.
Construction of the Moving Iron Instrument
The main elements of a moving iron instrument, or measuring device are – a magnetized static
coil and a soft iron core. The static coil is magnetized by passing an electric current through
the conducting wires of the coil. Thus, the stationary coil behaves like an electromagnet. The
iron core is placed close to the electromagnet. The iron vane is the moving part of the measuring
device, that gets attracted towards the magnetic flux generated by the electromagnet.
The input current supplied to the static coil is the parameter to be measured by the instrument.
In most cases, a pointer is attached to the soft iron vane, the pointer’s deflection depends upon
the position of the iron core. The position of the iron core depends on the strength of the
magnetic flux produced by the electromagnet. The strength of the magnetic field generated by
the electromagnet is highly dependent on the current supplied to it. The greater the magnitude
of the supply current, the greater the attraction of the iron core toward it.
Working of the Moving Iron Instrument
When an electric current pass through the static coil made up of copper or aluminum generates
a magnetic field around it. Therefore, the magnetized stationary coil behaves like an
electromagnet. A direct and linearly proportional relationship exists between the current
flowing across the electromagnet and the magnetic field strength.
The inductivity of the static magnetized coil is incremented by the movement of the iron core
across the stationary coil. Inductivity is defined as that property of a conductor which generates
increased emf on passing currents of varying magnitudes.
The iron core is attracted by the electromagnet via the magnetic flux generated around it. A
minimum reluctance path is established when the soft iron core gets attracted and moves toward
the electromagnet. Reluctance is defined as the property of a conductor that resists the electric
current flowing through it.
A repulsive force is experienced by the iron core that moves towards the electromagnet. As a
result, the inductivity of the static coil increases due to the repulsive force generated. The

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repulse force is generated as a result of the reluctance and inductance being inversely
proportional to each other.
Types of Moving Iron (MI) Instruments
Classifications of Moving Iron Instruments: There are mainly two categories of moving iron
instruments namely – Attraction Type and Repulsion Type.
❖ Attraction Type of Moving Iron Instrument

Figure 1 above demonstrates the working of an attractive type MI instrument. The static coil
of the measuring instrument is comprised of a minute opening. The moving iron core gets
attracted toward the magnetic field induced by the stationary coil. The strength of attraction of
the iron core towards the electromagnet depends upon the magnetic field strength generated. A
controlling torque is generated by means of a spring attached to the instrument. Additionally,
an aluminum piston is also attached to the moving iron vane in order to minimize the fluctuation
of the magnetized coil.
❖ Repulsive Type of Moving Iron Instrument
Figure 2 above illustrates a repulsive type MI instrument. A repulsive type moving iron
instrument is comprised of two iron cores. One of the iron cores is stationary, while the other

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iron core is movable. When the stationary iron core produces a magnetic field, both the iron
cores get magnetized. Therefore, similar polarity is established on both iron coils.
As a result, repulsion occurs between both the vanes. Consequently, the pointer attached to the
movable iron core moves across the scale, displaying the amount of current or voltage supplied
to it. Air friction is also produced which in turn induces the damping torque. Due to its
independency of the direction of current flow across it, repulsive instruments find their
applications in measuring both AC and DC values of currents.

Advantages of Moving Iron Instrument

The merits of using a moving iron instrument are as follows.
1. Low Cost – due to the less number of winding present in the stationary coil instrument,
it is relatively cheap.
2. Wide Operating Range- MI instruments have a wide range of operations for voltage and
current measurement.
3. Robust – Due to the simple design of the moving iron instrument and the static
electromagnet present within the instrument, it is very efficient and robust.
4. High Overload Capacity- They can withstand momentarily overloads without getting
damaged. Therefore, these instruments can measure the transient currents and voltages.
5. Linearity- MI instruments have good linearity in the measurements over a wide range.
Therefore, they can measure the voltage and current precisely.
6. Universal – due to the independency of the direction of current flow, it can be used for
measuring both AC and DC currents.

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Disadvantages of Moving Iron Instrument

The demerits of using a moving iron instrument are as follows.
1. Precision – Although, MI instruments have linearity over a wide range. However, at
extreme values, they have non-linearity in the measurement. Thus, the result obtained
for extreme values of voltage and current is less accurate.
2. Hysteresis Error- These instruments have hysteresis errors. Current flowing in different
directions causes a magnetic reversal, and as a result, the hysteresis error creeps into
the instrument.
3. Limited Frequency Response- At higher frequencies, MI instruments have limited
frequency response because the mechanical inertia of the instrument causes the
instrument to slow response.
4. Stray Magnetic Field- The useful flux when getting diverted and linked to other metallic
parts of the instrument cause error in the measurement.
5. Mechanical Wear and Tear- These instruments have mechanical parts which are
inclined to wear and tear after a certain period of time.
6. Environmental Influences- The external magnetic field can influence the measurement
accuracy of the instrument.
7. Waveform Error – Since the deflection torque is not proportional to the square of the
current flowing through it, a waveform error occurs within the instrument.

❖ Electrodynamic Type Instrument – Construction and Working Principle

Electrodynamic type instrument is used for the measurement of AC and DC quantities unlike
PMMC instrument which can only be used for the measurement of DC quantity. This type of
instrument is known as Elctrodynamometer type instrument.
Construction of Electrodynamic Type Instrument
An electrodynamic type instrument consists of Two Fixed Coil, a Moving Coil, Control Spring,
Damping Device and Magnetic Shielding arrangement. We will discuss each of them one by
one.
Fixed Coil
Fixed coil is provided for the sake of production of magnetic field. This fixed coil is divided
into two sections so that a uniform magnetic field may be achieved at the centre. Further,
splitting up fixed coil in two section facilitates passage of instrument’s moving shaft.
Moving Coil
Moving coil is serves the purpose of converting the actuating quantity into readable value on
the scale. It is generally wound on a non magnetic metallic former. Metallic former shall never
be used as it will lead eddy current generation due to changing flux. This eddy current will
introduce inaccuracy as eddy current damping is not used in Electrodynamic Instrument.

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Damping
Air friction damping is employed in electrodynamic type instrument. To provide air friction
damping, a pair of aluminium vane is attached to the spindle at the bottom. These vanes move
in a sector shaped chamber.
Thing is that, the magnetic field produced by the fixed coils are very week because of air cored
coil. Therefore an introduction of eddy current damping will distort the main magnetic field
and hence will introduce appreciable inaccuracy.
Shielding
The magnetic filed in electrodynamic type instrument is very week of the order of 0.005 to
0.006 Wb/m2. Therefore it becomes very important to protect the instrument from the effect of
external magnetic field. To provide magnetic shielding, normally electrodynamic type
instrument is enclosed in a high permeability alloy.
Working Principle of Electrodynamic Type Instrument
Since the direction of current is changing in each half cycle, there will be a corresponding
change in the direction of magnetic flux. Because of this change of magnetic flux, the torque
on moving coil will also change in each half cycle of AC quantity to be measured. Suppose the
torque on moving coil for positive half cycle of AC quantity is clockwise then it will change to
anticlock wise direction in the negative half cycle. Thus ideally the needle of PMMC
instrument shall swing back and forth around zero position. But there is something called
inertia, you better know. Due to the inertia of instrument, the needle cannot follow the rapid
change in direction of torque at power frequency and therefore merely vibrates around zero
position.
Now suppose, if we were able to reverse the direction of magnetic flux each time the direction
of AC quantity changes through the moving coil then we can have a unidirectional torque. Thus

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we can measure the AC quantity. Actually this method of reversing the magnetic flux is used
in Electrodynamic or Electrodynamometer type instrument.
Fixed Coil as well as Moving coil is in series. Therefore, the direction of current in the moving
coil is same as that in the fixed coil. This means that as the direction of magnetic field changes,
the direction of current in moving coil also changes. Thus the torque on the moving coil will
not change rather it will be unidirectional.

❖ Range Extension of Ammeter and Voltmeter

There is no fundamental difference between the operating principles of ammeters and
voltmeters. Both are current-operated devices (except electrostatic type voltmeters) i.e.
deflecting torque is produced when current flows through their operating coils.
In an ammeter, the deflecting torque is produced by the current to be measured or by a definite
fraction of it whereas in a voltmeter torque is produced by the current proportional to the
voltage to be measured.
Thus, the real difference between the two instruments is in the magnitude of the currents
producing the deflecting torque. The essential requirements of a measuring instrument are that
its introduction into the circuit, where measurements are to be made, does not alter the circuit
conditions and the power consumed by them for their operation is small.
An ammeter is connected in series with the circuit whose current is to be measured. Therefore,
it should have a low resistance. On the other hand, a voltmeter is connected in parallel with the
circuit whose voltage is to be measured; therefore, it must have high resistance.
Thus we conclude that the difference is only in the resistance of the instrument an ammeter can
be converted into a voltmeter by connecting a high resistance in series with it.
It is already seen that the moving coil instruments can carry the maximum current of about 50
mA safely and the potential drop across the moving coil instrument is about 50 mV. However,
in practice, heavy currents and voltages are required to be measured. Therefore, it becomes
necessary that the current and voltage being measured be reduced and brought within the range
of the instrument.
There are four common devices used for the range extension of ammeter and voltmeter namely;
shunts, multipliers, and current and potential transformers.
The shunts and multipliers are used to extend the range of moving coil ammeters and voltmeters
respectively.
Whereas in the case of moving iron ammeters, for the ranges up to 0 – 250 A, shunts are used
and for the ranges higher than that, CTs are used.
Also, in the case of moving iron voltmeters, for the ranges up to 0 – 750 V, multipliers are used
and for the ranges higher than that, PTs are used.

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 Electrical Measurements and Instrumentation | by Prof. Tejal Kharche

• Range Extension of Ammeter by Shunt

It is possible to extend the range of an ammeter by using a shunt. A shunt is a low-value
resistance having a minimum temperature coefficient and is connected in parallel with the
ammeter whose range is to be extended. The combination is connected in series with the circuit
whose current is to be measured.
This shunt provides a bypath for extra current because it is connected across (i.e. in parallel
with) the instrument.
These shunted instruments can be used to measure currents many times greater than their
normal full-scale deflection currents.
The ratio of the maximum current (with shunt) to the full-scale deflection current (without
shunt) is known as the ‘multiplying power’ or ‘multiplying factor’ of the shunt.
Example: A moving coil ammeter reading up to 1 ampere has a resistance of 0.02 ohm. How
could this instrument be adopted to read current up to 100 amperes?
Solution: In this case,
Full-scale deflection current of the ammeter, Im = 1 A
Line current to be measured, I = 100 A
Resistance of ammeter, Rm = 0.02 ohm
Let, the required shunt resistance = S

As seen from the Figure, the voltage across the instrument coil and the shunt resistance are the
same since both are joined in parallel.
∴ Im*Rm = S*Is = S(I − Im)
or S = Im*Rm/(I – Im)
= 1*0.02/(100 – 1) = 0.02/99 = 0.000202 Ans.

• Range Extension of Voltmeter by Multipliers

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 Electrical Measurements and Instrumentation | by Prof. Tejal Kharche

Multipliers are used for the range extension of voltmeters. The multiplier is a non-inductive
high-value resistance connected in series with the instrument whose range is to be extended.
The combination is connected across the circuit whose voltage is to be measured.
Example: A moving coil voltmeter reading up to 20 mV has a resistance of 2 ohms. How this
instrument can be adapted to read voltage up to 300 volts.
Solution: In this case,
Voltmeter resistance, Rm = 2 ohm
Full-scale voltage of the voltmeter, ν = RmIm = 20 mV = 0.02 V
Full-scale deflection current, Im = v/Rm = 0.02/2 = 0.01 A
Voltage to be measured, V = 300 V
Let the series resistance required =R

Then as seen from the figure, the voltage drop across R is V – ν

R *Im = V – ν
or R = (V – v)/Im
or R = (300 – 0.02)/0.01 = 299.98/0.01 = 29998 ohms Ans.
Shunts can not be used to extend the range of moving-iron AC ammeters accurately. This is
because the division of current between the operating coil and the shunt varies with frequency
(since the reactance of the coil depends upon frequency). In practice, the range of moving-iron
AC ammeters is extended by one of the following methods:

• Range Extension of Ammeter by Coil Turns:

For example, suppose that full-scale deflection is obtained with 400 ampere-turns. For full-
scale reading with 100A, the number of turns required would be = 400 / 100 = 4. Similarly, for
full-scale reading with 50A, the number of turns required is = 400/50 = 8.
Thus the ammeter can be arranged to have different ranges by merely having a different number
of turns on the coil. Since the coil carries the whole of the current to be measured, it has a few
turns of thick wire. The usual ranges obtained by this method are from 0 -250 A.

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 Electrical Measurements and Instrumentation | by Prof. Tejal Kharche

• Range Extension of Ammeter Current Transformer:

For ranges above 0 – 250 A, a current transformer is used in conjunction with a 0 – 5 A moving
iron AC ammeter as shown in the figure. The current transformer is a step-up transformer i.e.
number of secondary turns is more than the primary turns.
Usually, the primary winding of the transformer contains a single turn or at the most a few
turns. The primary of this transformer is connected in series with the load and carries the load
current. The AC ammeter is connected across the secondary of the transformer.
Since in the figure, the current transformer ratio is 10:1, it means that line (or load) current is
equal to 10 times the reading on the AC meter. Therefore, load current, IL = 3 x 10 = 30 A.

Range Extension of Voltmeter by Potential Transformer

The range of a moving-iron AC voltmeter is extended by connecting a high resistance
(multiplier) in series with it.
For ranges higher than 0 – 750 V, where power wasted in the multiplier would be excessive, a
0 – 110 V moving-iron AC voltmeter is used in conjunction with a potential transformer as
shown in the figure.
The potential transformer is a step-down transformer i.e. number of primary turns is more than
the secondary turns. The primary of the transformer is connected across the load across which
voltage is to be measured. The AC voltmeter is connected across the secondary.
Since in the figure, the potential transformer ratio is 20:1, the load voltage is equal to 20 times
the reading on the AC voltmeter.
Load voltage, VL = 100 x 20 = 2000 V
Note that both secondaries of the instrument transformers are grounded as a safety measure.

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