Pramana Research Journal ISSN NO: 2249-2976

FORMATION OF PALAYAKARAR SYSTEM BY

VISVANATHA NAYAKA (1530-1564 A.D.) – A STUDY

S Rajagopal1
1
Assistant Professor, Department of History, Mannar Thirumalai Naicker College, Madurai,
Tamilnadu, India

Abstract
Krishnadeva Raya, the great Vijayanagar Emperor, had divided his empire into more than
200 Nayakdom. Nayakas were the vassals of the Vijaynagar ruler. Tamil country was
divided into three Nayakships instead of rajyas. Visvanatha Nayaka was the first Nayaka
of Madurai Kingdom. By his turn he introduced Palayakarars (Poligar) System in Madurai
Kingdom with assistance of Dalavay Ariyanatha Mudhaliyar and divided his region into 72
Palayam. Each Palayams consisting of few villages and the area of territories was an un-
uniform. Basically, the palayams were developed as military camps to support the Nayaka
kings. Palayakarar were the subordinates of the Madurai Nayaka and were to maintain an
army and supplied to the Nayaka. In the case of Nayakas to Vijayanagar kings, the
Palayakarars had to pay tribute to Nayakas. The maniyakaran or ambalakaran, the talaiyari,
karnam furthermore, kitari were the other authorities of Nayaka government. This paper
specially discusses principally Formation of Palayakarars System in detail.

Key Words: Nagama Nayaka, Nayakdom, Palayakarars, Ariyanandha Mudali, Rajyam

Kavalkars, and Talaiyari

Introduction
Krishnadeva Raya (1509-1529 A.D.), the great Vijayanagar Emperor, for easy and better
administration, he had divided his empire into more than 200 Nayakdom. Nayakas were the
vassals of the Vijaynagar ruler. Tamil country was divided into three Nayakships of Madurai,
Senji and Tanjavur instead of rajyas. Visvanatha Nayaka was the founding father of the
Nayaka kingdom a t Madurai. By his turn he introduced Palayakarars System in Madurai
Kingdom with the advice of Ariyanatha Mudhaliyar, his Dalavay and divided his region into
72 Bastions. Palayakarar were the subordinates of the Madurai Nayaka. The duties of
Palayakarar were to maintain an army and supplied to the Nayaka when demanded. Also
they maintain police forces called Kavalkara (Police). He distributed uncultivated land to
Palayakarar and destroyed the forest in Tiruchirappalli and Trinelveli region. He enlarged
cultivation land and to maintain the peace and gave an efficient administration, security to his
people. He sent an army under the commander to conquer the Veyand. The present paper
scrutinizes predominantly Formation of Palayakarars System by Visvanatha Nayaka (1530-
1564 A.D.) – A Study” in detail form.

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Methodology
The study would be both descriptive and investigative. By the way of historical
research method, various evidences are collected from different kinds. Primary and secondary
sources have been critically analysed and utilized in a cogent manner. The facts are
documented and substantiate by the way of genuine end notes.

Aim of the Study

The Aim of this paper “Formation of Palayakarars System by Visvanatha Nayaka

(1530-1564 A.D.) – A Study” is to persuade our oncoming generation how a foreign western
federal system implemented in Madurai reign in Tamil country. Also how Visvanatha
Nayaka managed Palayam, Palayakarars, military generals, fought different wars during his
military campaign. It is also analyses how he possessed leadership qualities and had become
the most admired in South Tamil County is to be discussed. This paper is an attempt to
highlights the history of the Palayakarars and to bring the concealed information into fresh
light.

Objectives of the Study

The main objectives of this paper are :-

(a) To know about the background of amaranayakas system in Tamil county.
(b) To analyses reason of Formation of Palayams in Madurai region.
(c) To discover the various vital Official role of Madurai Nayaka
(d) To detect war achievement of Visvanatha Nayaka.

Military Organisation Relation with Feudalism

The origin of militia was inextricably associated with the functioning of feudalism.
Military organization during the medieval period in South India was based upon the feudal
features, in which the king relied on his vassals for armed forces. Feudalism was a system
where Government and society functioned on the basis of holding land. The social, political
and military institutions thrived on the contract of vassalage and the distribution of lands
calls, fiefs. Under this set-up the subordinate and local chieftains and the vassals of the kin
supplied fighting men to the autonomous in the hour of need and also participated in the
war. In turn, they received grant of land and got their authority recognized by the king. The
system survived through the twin principles of ‘service and protection’. The leadership of the
king and the service of vassals enabled north of them to survive with security.1

Integration of Rajyas

Krishnadevaraya (1509-1529 A.D.) the Tuluva dynasty of greatest ruler of

Vijayanagar Empire was distinguished as a marker of an era of multi sided personality. He

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was a great warrior, administrator, patron of art and literature. During his reign of twenty
years, the glory of the empire attained its highest water mark.[2] During the Krishnadevaraya
administration, the rajyas governors were not sympathetically willing towards the central
government. He had sent an expedition into the Tamil country to strengthen the loyalties of
the Nayakas to the central government. As per plan he sends a large army under four leaders
namely, Vaiyappa Nayaka, Tubaki Krishnappa Nayaka, Vijaraghava Nayaka and Venkatadri
Nayaka. The imperial army settled down the issues and fixed the revenue. [3] Tamil country
was politically divided into rajyas instead of mandalams of the early days. During the
Krishnadevaraya period, the Tamil territory was divided into five Rajyas and the Pandyas of
Tenkasi and rulers of Travancore paid tribute and enjoyed quasi-independent power. The five
Rajyas of the Tamil territory are:- [4]

(i) Chandra Giri Rajyam

(ii) Pandi Vidu Rajyam
(iii) Tiruvadigai Rajyam
(iv) Chola Rajyam
(v) Pandya Rajyam or Madurai Rajyam

Formation of Nayakadom

Krishnadeva Raya, the great Vijayanagar Emperor, for easy and better administration,
had divided his empire into more than 200 Nayakdom. Nayakas were the vassals of the
Vijaynagar ruler. They were able to supply 3,20,000 foot soldiers, 21,600 horses and 235
elephants to Vijayanagar.[5] Nuniz has given an account that Achyuta Raja maintained six
lakhs of soldiers and 24,000 horses sent by his nobles.[6]

Potential of Senapathi Nagama Nayaka

The whole Tamil country was divided into three Nayakships namely Madurai, Senji
and Tanjavur instead of rajyas. ‘Then the whole Tamil country was brought under the
effective control of the Amaranayakas instead of Mahamandalesvara. In the last years of
Krishnadevaraya, problem started in Madurai region local Amaranayaka was not able to
handle situation. Virasekhara Chola invaded Chandrasekhara Pandya’s kingdom and annexed
with Chola territory’.[7] Chandrasekhara Pandya had complained to Vijayanagar Emperor
Krishnadevaraya in 1525 A.D. In this crucial situation, Vijayanagar Emperor
Krishnadevaraya chose powerful and responsible Senapathi Nagama Nayaka, to solve the
problem. Because, he had a strong military contingent, who was monitored the capital of
Vijayanagar Emperor with 40,000 Cavalry, 1000 Elephantary and 10,000 Camelary forces.
Apart from that, he has maintained by own forces of 6,000 Cavalry and 20,000 Infantry
soldiers.[8]

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Visvanatha Nayaka War against Nagama Nayaka

Senapathi Nagama Nayaka came to Madurai and defeated Virasekhra Chola. Instead
of handing over the kingdom to Chandrasekhara Pandya, he ruled the kingdom himself. On
his usurpation occurring Chandrasekhara Pandya, again went to Krishnadevaraya and
complained against the Nagama Nayaka.[9] The tempered Krishnadevaraya immediately sent
against Visvanatha Nayaka, the son of Nagama Nayaka to resolve the situation. Visvanatha
Nayaka then a competent young man was attached to Imperial court in Vijayanagar while his
father was serving at Madurai. Visvanatha Nayaka helped the emperor in his northern
campaign in Richur in 1520 A.D.[10] Visvanatha Nayaka marched towards Madurai and
defeated his father and took him a war prisoner to the Krishnadevaraya’s court at
Vijayanagar. After the success of the assigned task, Krishnadevaraya encouraged the
Visvanatha Nayaka and appointed him as Amaranayaka[11] of Madurai region and Madurai
was assigned to as Nayakkattanam in the year 1529-1530 A.D.

Amaranayakas Visvanatha Became Nayaka of Madurai

Krishnadeva Raya (1509-1529 A.D.), had divided his empire into more than 200
Nayakdom and Madurai was under the control of Visvanatha Nayaka (1529-1564 A.D.).[12]
Ferno Nuniz, the Portuguese Traveller who lived in Vijayanagar from 1535 to 1537
A.D., had pointed out that at Bisnaga (Vijayanagar) there were 200 captains called
Amaranayakas.[13]

The amaranayakas were only military vassals who were assigned amaram or
Nayakkattanam in lieu of their service in financial and military matters to the emperor of
Vijayanagar. During ‘last years of Krishnadeva Raya appointed Visvanatha Nayaka as
Nayaka of Madurai’14 (i.e in 1529 A.D.). Visvanatha Nayaka the founding fat her o f
the Nayaka kingdom i n Madurai was a great ruler of gallant qualities, extraordinary ways
and potencies to reorganize the dominion amidst tremendous clash and temper. As he
was trained within the Vijayanagar imperial system, he applied its principles in a
systematic manner at Madurai. The state and court of the Nayaka individuals involving a
settled region, bound together by basic laws, propensities and traditions into one body politic,
practiced through the medium of a composed government was known as a state. The territory
of the Madurai Nayaka under Visvanatha Nayaka controlled Madurai, Dindigul,
Tiruchirappalli, Karur,[15], Tirunelveli, Kanyakumari, Ramnad, Salem, Coimbatore and a
part of Travancore regions of present day Tamilnadu.[16]

Strengthening the Madurai Fort

Before Sevvappa Nayaka took over the Tanjavur country (in 1532 A.D.), Visvanatha
Nayaka was the governor of the Madurai as well as the Tanjavur areas. As a result of the
foundation of the two separate Nayakships, Tiruchirappalli became part of the territory of the

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Madurai and Vallam was included in Tanjavur jurisdiction. Visvanatha Nayaka improved the
defence of Tiruchirappalli,[ 17 ] After took over charge as Madurai Nayaka, Visvanatha
Nayaka strengthened the Madurai fort with eight gates following the consultation with the
important military officials as Dalavay Ariyanatha Mudhaliyar and Kesavaya Naidu.

Important Official of Madurai Nayaka

The Madurai Nayaka lead as chief military commander, the others officials dalavay,
pradhani, rayasam, kanakkan and the sthanapati were the official authorities just helped the
lords to hold political steadiness and suzerainty. Keeping in mind, an administrative office
called dalavay, delighted supreme and finish complete control over all polite and military
organization. The power and responsibility of the Chief Minister and senapathi were
converging into a solitary office which helped and ably lead in a practicable way.

Pradhani

After dalavay, following by vital office of the king was pradhani, the finance minister
or the revenue minister was called pradhani.[18] His principal function was the preparation
of the budget for the state. Also in the absence of the Dalavay, he would act as the supreme
master of the state. He was entrusted with the entire internal administration of the country.

Rayasam

Another chief administration outstanding officer was the rayasam or the Chief
Secretary of the ruler. He was the next important to the ministers. The Dalavay, the Pradhani
and the Rayasam formed the trio of the kings council. The rayasam was the king’s
confidential secretary and his business was to draft correspondence, prepare grants and
orders, remember precedents and keep notes of all important transactions as duties of a high
order and his position was rather exalted.[19]

Sthanapati and Kanakkan

Other than these administrational apparatuses, there were Kanakkan and Sthanapati.
The Kanakkan was the Chief Accountant and in charge of the audit department. The
Sthanapati was the Foreign Secretary who had dealings with outside rulers.[20] The above
clerical offices shaped the focal country of the Nayaka government at the head-quarters. Such
an extraordinary great official functionaries remained in help of the Nayakas rulers at all
levels and filled in as strong strides for their command. Other than them, the poligars, the
military delegates, endowed with in-chargeship of the barrier of the bastions at Madurai
fort.[21]

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Other Important Officials

The maniyakaran or ambalakaran, the talaiyari, karnam furthermore, kitari were the
other authorities of Nayaka government.[22] They held the nearby officers, temple book
keepers, maniyakaran or the income officer of a town and talaiyari or the security of the
town kaval framework and kitari or the judicial leader of the town. They named the
sovereigns to areas and for the most part of Telugus to palayams.[23]

Formation of Palayams

Like Krishnadeva Raya, the great Vijayanagar Emperor, Visvanatha Nayaka

introduced a new system in Madurai Kingdom with the advice of Ariyanatha Mudhaliyar, his
Dalavay and divided his region into 72 bastions which are called Palayams.[24] A list of
Palayam under Visvanatha Nayaka are given Table 1. below :-
Table 1. List of Palaiyams Under Visvanatha Nayaka in Madurai Reign25

Ser. Palayam Ser. Palayam Ser. Palayam

No. No. No.
1 Ariyalur 25 Tottiyankottai 49 Taramangalam
2 Turaiyur 26 Mankilani 50 Kuruvukulam
3 Iluppaiyur 27 Periyakuma 51 Paralacci
4 Kulathur 28 Thirumalai 52 Sennlkudi
5 Kattalur Perumbur 29 Aravattam 53 Alankulam
6 Marungapuri 30 Kombai 54 Memandai
7 Natham 31 Velliyakkundam 55 Rajapalayam
8 Thokaimalai 32 Kaccaikatti 56 Talaivankkottai
9 Pillilaimuzhuaki 33 Ezhairampannai 57 Maduvakkuruchi
10 Kumarapalayam 34 Sivagiri 58 Kadambur
11 Ramagiri 35 Ettaiyapuram 59 Neikattanseval
12 Pazhani 36 Panchalamkuruchi 60 Chokkamparri
13 Viruppachikuppam 37 Cettur 61 Urkkadu
14 Kannivadi 38 Kollarparri 62 Urukkadu
15 Ayakkudi 39 Kotikkulam 63 Maniyaachi
16 Mampari 40 Peraiyur 64 Tevaram
17 Idaiyakkottai 41 Cappattur 64 Kambak Kudalur
18 Ayittur 42 Sandaiyur 66 Ualayapatti
19 Maduvur or Vaduvur 43 Mannarkottai 67 Uttapanayakanur
20 Kongarayankottai 44 Attankkarai 68 Kavundankottai
21 Maruvathu 45 Singampatti 69 Uttumalai
22 Emukkalapuram 46 Urkkadu 70 Gurukkalpatti
23 Tavacimadi 47 Ezhumalai (or) 71 Nagalapuram
Eramadai
24 Tombattur 48 Talaimalai 72 Azhakapuri

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Because the country was very dry and most of the places were forest, where people
could not get safety. So he instituted Poligar system in the year 1535 A.D. The Palayakkarar
role was to administer their Palayams from their fortified centres. The system was a quasi-
feudal organisation of the country. ‘Each Palayam was ruled by a Palayakkarar or a petty
chief. He divided the responsibility for the defence of each of the 72 bastions of the Madurai
Fort’.[26] The total number of the Palayams and power of Poligar varied from time to time.
The Travancore was included as the 73rd Palayam as it was a feudatory under the Vijayanagar
rule.[27] During the time of Thirumalai Nayaka, the number of Palayams enhanced upto
82.28

The Terms of Palayakkaran

The term of Palayakkar or Poligars of Tamilnadu as appeared in the regions of South

India appeared in the political scene neither suddenly nor spontaneously. They came into the
political scene through various stages and as the result of interplay of historical circumstances
and political consideration. When the Vijayanagar rulers conquered the Tamil country, they
were in need of local chiefs to help them in time of peace and war. They divided the territory
into Nayakattinams and they entrusted them to chieftains known as Nayakas. The Nayakas
divided the country into Palayams and assigned them to subordinate chieftains known as the
Palayakkaran or Poligars.[29] These warriors had obtained a degree of moral authority from
local Brahmins by patronising the Hindu Temples.[30] In the British records, the Poligars of
Tamilnadu referred to the Southern Poligars. They were mostly concentrated in the region of
Tinnevelley, Ramanathapuram, Madurai, Dindigul and Tiruchirappalli Districts. The English
term Poligar seems to be taken from the Tamil word Palayakkaran but actually taken from
the Telugu Palagadu or the Canarese Palegara, the meaning is same. The English took the
word Pollam, a Poligar holding rather from the Telugu Palem-u than from the Tamil
Palayam.[31]

The British Historian David Shulman called the Poligars as South India’s ‘Little
Kings’ as little more than successful bandits.[32] The government was not in the position to
safeguard the life and property of the people and enter into collusion with the criminals in
consideration of money. Due to the abnormal situation the people appealed the Poligars for
protection. They were ready to respond to their appeal. The Poligars appointed their own
servants and directed them to safeguard the inhabitants of the village.[33] Meanwhile the
villagers were ready to accept their protection in enhanced rates. In course of time more
villages seek their protection and kaval villages by paying increased rates. Thus the consent
of the inhabitants in enhancing the status of the chieftains served as the motivating force.

The poligar, who maintained their own armed forces, extended their aid to the ruler on
requisition. The poligar of Kannivadi and the Setupati of Ramanathapuram went to the
defence of Madurai against the Bijapuris and Kannadians. Though the army appeared
formidable it proved inefficient on the field of battle. The Nayakas particularly of Tanjavur

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took interest in the developments in Ceylon, yet the control of the sea engaged no serious
attention. However, they gave due importance to the spy system.[34]

Palayakarars Land
Palayam were of small territories consisting of few villages and the area of territories
as un uniformed. Basically, the palayams were developed as military camps to support the
Nayaka kings. Additionally, as in the case of amaranayakas to Vijayanagar kings, the
Palayakarars had to pay tribute to Nayakas. Thus the land held by the palayakarars on
military tenure had no ownership right over the lands for them. The lands granted to them
consisted mostly forest areas, waste lands and cultivated lands. “The palayakarar kept the
best lands for their own cultivation of their palayam and the rest were distributed among the
chief inhabitants known as ‘sherogars’ who cultivated the land in times of peace but during
the time of war they rendered military service.”[ 35 ] Palayakarars were not equally
distributed land by Madurai Nayakas. The Nilakkottai Palayakarar was given a large territory
consisting of 108 villages from Dindigul in the North to Sithayankottai in the west.[36] But
the Koppayanayakkanur Palaiyam consisted of only 24 villages.[37]

Responsibility of the Palayakarars

“The Palayakarar was to the Nayaka what the Nayaka was to the Emperor”.
Palayakarar were the subordinates of the Madurai Nayaka. The duties of Palayakarar were to
maintain an army and to supplied to the Nayaka when demanded and also maintain police
forces called Kavalkara (Police). As well, some other duties of Palayakarars to collect
revenue from his jurisdictional area and administer justice within his sphere. Peasant paid
their dues to the Palayakarar’s agent. He in turn paid his dues to the Palayakarar. The
palayakarar remitted his due to the Nayaka and the Nayaka did to the Emperor. However,
Kaval or watch represented a basic duty of the Palayakarars[38]. They also provided sentries
to Madurai for protection. ‘The number of soldiers prescribed to be posted on behalf of each
of the palayakarar in the Madurai Nayaka’s bastian was not less than 100 soldiers’[39].
Palayakarars played as local military commanders for the territory under overlord kingdom.
The palayakarars were regarded as guardian of peace and security. They were entrusted with
the task of detecting crime and dispensing justice.[40] They exercised the power to collect
the revenues as well as the maintenance of the military force. He was the virtual
administrator of his territory, renter to his sovereign, commander of force, guardian of public
welfare and a ryot among his people.[ 41 ] However in normal times they undertook
charitable activities, cleared forest, executed irrigation works and built villages.[42]

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Poligars - Kaval system

In addition to the military establishment of Poligars, there existed a police setup called the
Kaval. The word Kaval means “watch” and a person who performed the duty was called
Kavalkar. The Kaval system in each village was controlled by the village councils. They were
of four descriptions viz., sentinel:-
1. arasu kavalkars (government),
2. nadu kavalkars (district),
3. desa kavalkars (region) and
4. sthalam kavalkars (village).

If any theft occurred, the kavalkars concerned had to pay the money for the damages. The
kavalkars discharged police duties. The poligars collected taxes and paid tribute to the
sovereign. In order to protect themselves, they constructed forts of mud or of stone. They
followed guerrilla methods of warfare.[43]

Dalavay of Ariyanadhar Mudhaliyar

Ariyanantha Mudhaliyar was mastered the ancient Martial arts like silambam, sword
fight, wrestling etc; at the age of sixteen he came to the court of Krishnadevaraya. He worked
as a chief accountant (paradhani) of Visvanatha Nayaka reign.[44] ‘Visvanatha Nayaka
introduced a new Palayakkarar system in Madurai Kingdom with the advice of Ariyanatha
Mudhaliyar, his Dalavay and divided his region into 72 bastions which are called
Palayams’.[45]

Establishment of Muthaliar Kottai

As Visvanatha Nayaka was a Telugu and outsider of Madurai region, he was

compelled to concentrate the organization with the dedicated help of his Tamil subjects.
Every one of the authorities, was principally depended with the obligations to upgrade the
troops and advance the treasury of the state.[46] To help the Madurai Nayaka, Dalavay
Ariyanatha Mudhaliyar brought his friends and relatives lived in Kanchivaram and made
them to settle down at Cholavandan. He constructed a colony of about 300 houses for the
protection and convenience of his relatives.[47] Even today that area is called as Muthaliar
Kottai.

Development of Madurai Territory under Visvanatha Nayaka

At that time, the robbers were disturbed the traders and pilgrims. Forest was the
dwelling place of robbers. With the help of Dalavay, he destroyed the forest and the roads
were constructed for traders and pilgrims. During that period minor chieftain ruled in south
Tamilnadu they were called as Panchapandyas in Tirunelveli reign. They were revolted and
disturbed to the people Visvanatha Nayaka suppressed with the help of Dalavay of
Ariyanadhar. He destroyed the forest in Tiruchirappalli and Trinelveli region to maintain the

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peace and order. He sent an army under the commander to conquer the Veyand because he
protected and gave aid to the Christians. Visvanatha Nayaka believed strongly and supported
to the Hindu religion. Ariyanandha Mudali of Madurai, Sevvappa Nayaka of Senji both they
were directly involved in the battle of Talaikottai (1565 A.D.). Krishnappa Nayaka was the
next ruler of Madurai. He sent an army under the leadership of Ariyanandha Mudali against
the Muslim power of the Deccan’.[48]

Other Achievements

Visvanatha Nayaka was completely engaged to consolidate and maintain with in his
territory under assistance of his Dalavay Ariyanandha Mudali. ‘He suppressed rebellion of
Kambam- Koodalur areas under head ship of his loyal Ramabatra Nayakar’.49 Visvanatha
fought a series of wars against the Pancha Pandyas of Tirunelvli and in the supersession of
the local power.50 During his times, Tenkasi Pandyas ruled independently.51 On the whole,
the Pandyas seemed to have been loyal to the Nayakas of Madurai. They regularly paid
tributes to the Nayakas. The Nayakas also allowed the Pandyas to rule peacefully without
much interference. He sent troops for assistance, when Vijayanagara Emperor invaded to
Travancore.

Conclusion

The establishment of Nayak dynasty was of very significant in South Indian History. The
political feudalism system of Nayak Kingdom was well maintained that Vishwanatha Nayak
introduced a novel way of the seventy two Palayam systems. He was the founder of
Nayakaship in Madurai and handsome and courageous military leader ruled Madurai for
thirty years. He work hard, unified the southern Tamilnadau and successfully implemented
the Poligars system in sixteen century. It was one of the prime duties of the poligars to defend
the kingdom from the invaders and provide military security to the kingdom. He suppressed
rebellion of Kambam- Koodalur area, Pancha Pandyas of Tirunelvli and cordial relation with
Tenkasi Pandyas. He newly established Palayakarars system and able to administration of
western federal system in South Tamilnadu. It was more effective during the Thirumalai
Nayaka period. Through his loyalty, he earned good will of the Vijayanagara Emperor. He
did a lot for the improvement of the internal administration of Madurai kingdom and always
honoured his Dalavay Ariyanandha Mudali. Scholars believed that Vishwanatha Nayak died
in 1564 A.D., at the age of sixty nine and date of the death was not recorded in any of the
chronicles.

Acknowledgments

I take this marvellous option to expand my gratefulness to all personalities and group
of authors, whose published national/International research journals and book information’s
are referred for this knowledgeable revision, which is tremendously helpful reference,
referred and very precious for this research study.

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[3] Krishnaswami. A.,”The Tamil Country Under Vijayanagar”, Annamalai University,
Annamalai Nagar, 1964, p.194.
[4] Subrahmanian. N., “History of Tamilnadu (to A.D. 1565")”, Ennes Publications,
Madurai, 1983, p.340.
[5] Mahalingam.T.V., “South Indian Polity”, University of Madras, Madras, 1955, p.239.
[6] Robert Sewell, “A Forgotten Empire: Vijayanagar”, National Book Trust, New Delhi,
1970, p. 354.
[7] Krishnaswamy Iyengar.S., “Sources of Vijaya Nagar History,” p.319.
[8] William Taylor, “Oriental Historical Inscriptions”, Vol.II, p.3; Singaravel.A.,
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Madurai, 2010, p.123.
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[16] Sathiyanatha Aiyar, R., “History of the Nayaks of Madura”, (Tamil) Translated by
S.Arshiya, Karuthu Pattarai, Madurai, 2016, pp.65-66.
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[18] Vridhagirisan.V., “The Nayaks of Tanjore”, Annamalai University, Annamalinagar
Historical Series No.3, 1942, pp.174-175.
[19] Rajaram,K., “History of Tirumalai Nayak”, Ennes Publications, Madurai, 1982,
p.40.
[20] Rajaram, K., “Op.cit”., 1982, p.40.

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[21] Shenoy, J.P.L., “Madura – The Temple City”, Madurai, 1937, p.23.
[22] Paranthamanar, A.K., “Madurai Nayakkar Varalaru”, Madras, 1971, p.30.
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[24] Nagaswamy, R., (ed.), “South Indian Studies, Society for Archaeological, Historical
and Epigraphical Research, Madras, 1978, p.54; and Ramaswami, “Political History
of Carnatic Under the Nawab”, Abinav Publishers, New Delhi, 1984, p.80;
Parandhamanar, A.K., “Tirumalai Nayakar Varalaru” (Tamil), Chennai,1973, pp.37-
38; Bishop R. Caldwell, “History of Tinnevelly”, New Delhi , 1998, p.12.
[25] Ramaswami, N.S., “Political History of Carnatic Under The Nawab”, Abinav
Publishers, New Delhi, 1984, P.80; G. Jaganathan, “Administration Under Nayaks
Rule” (Tamil), Heritage Foundations, Virdhunagar, 2005, pp.45-46.
[26] Aiyar, R .Sathiyanatha, “Op.cit”., p.33.
[27] Shungoonny Menon.P., “History of Travancore from the Earliest Times”, Madras,
1878, p.viii.
[28] Chandrasekharan, T., (ed.), “Ramaiyan Ammanai “(Tamil), Madras Government
Oriental Series No XLV, Madras, 1950, pp.11-13
[29] Krishnaswami. A., “The Tamil Country under Vijayanagar”, Annamalai University,
Annamalai Nagar, 1964, p.174.
[30] Bruton Stein, “Peasant State and Society in Medieval South India”, Oxford
University Press, New Delhi, 1980, pp.50-51.
[31] Caldwell R., “History of Tinnevelly”, Asian Educational Services, 1989, p.104.
[32] David Shulman, “On South Indian Bandits and Kings”, Indian Economic and Social
History Review, Vol. XVII, No,3 July 1980, p.183.
[33] Rajayyan, K., “The Rise and fall of Poligars of Tamilnadu”, University of Madras,
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[34] Rajayyan, K., “Administration and Society in the Carnatic”, p.19.
[35] Revathy, G., “History of Tamil Nadu :The Palayams”, Dominant Publishers and
distributors, New Delhi, p.82.
[36] “Ananda Vikatan “(Tamil Weekly), dated 2nd December 1984.
[37] Kulanthaivelan, K., (ed), “Palayappattukkalin Vamsavali” (Tamil), Vol.I, State
Department of Archaeology, Madras, 1981, p.107.
[38] Rajayyan.K., “Op.cit”., 1974, p.30.

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[39] Kulanthaivelan, K., (ed), “Op.cit”., Vol.I, 1981, pp.100-109.

[40] Krishnaswami. A., “The Tamil Country under Vijayanagar”, Annamalai University,
Annamalainagar, 1964, p.189.
[41] Rajayyan, K., “Op.cit”., 1974, p.20.
[42] Bhandarkar.D.R., (ed.), “Indian Antiquary”, Vol.43, Bombay, 1914, p.114.
[43] Rajayyan, K., Op.cit., 1974, p.87.
[44] Maheswari.D., “Role of Ariyanathar in the Madurai Nayak’s Army –A Study”, ICHR
Sponsored two day national Seminar on Military History of Tamil Country Through
the Ages, Edited by Rajagopal.S. et.al., Shanlax Publications, Madurai, 2019, pp.415-
417.
[45] Nagaswamy, R., (ed.), “South Indian Studies”, Society for Archaeological, Historical
and Epigraphical Research, Madras, 1978, p.54; and Ramaswami, “Political History
of Carnatic Under the Nawab”, Abinav Publishers, New Delhi, 1984, p.80;
Parandhamanar, A.K., “Tirumalai Nayakar Varalaru” (Tamil), Chennai,1973, pp.37-
38; Bishop R. Caldwell, “History of Tinnevelly”, New Delhi, 1998, p.12.
[46] Sathyanath Aiyar, R., Op.cit., p.59.
[47] Rajayyan, K., “History of Tamilnadu (1565-1982")”, Madurai, 1982, p.25.
[48] K.Rajayayan, “History of Tamilnadu 1565-1965”, Madurai, 1978, pp.25-26.
[49] Sathiyanatha Aiyar, R., “Op.cit”., 2016, p.65.
[50] Rajayyan, K., “Tamil Nadu A Real History”, Ratna Publications, Trivandrum, 2005,
pp.200-201.
[51] Vanamamalai, N.,” Iyver Rasakkal Kathai” (Tamil), Madurai, 1974, p.13.

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