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UNIT 1 MOTIVATION AND EMOTION

🔷 INTRODUCTION TO MOTIVATION

Motivation is the process that initiates, directs, and sustains goal-

directed behavior. It is what energizes a person to act, guides their
actions, and helps them persist in their behavior until the goal is
achieved.

 Think of it as the "why" behind behavior – why we eat, sleep,

study, or achieve something.

 Comes from Latin “movere”, meaning "to move."

🔷 COMPONENTS OF MOTIVATION

You can remember it with "IDE":

1. I – Instinct/Drive: The internal push (e.g., hunger).

2. D – Direction: Choosing a specific goal or action (e.g., going to the

kitchen).

3. E – Energy/Effort: The strength or intensity behind the behavior.

Other core components:

 Need → a state of deprivation.

 Drive → a state of tension caused by need.

 Goal → object or situation that satisfies the need.

🔷 TYPES OF MOTIVATION

✅ 1. Intrinsic Motivation

 Comes from within the individual.

 Driven by personal satisfaction or interest.

 E.g., reading a book because you love reading.

✅ 2. Extrinsic Motivation

 Comes from external rewards or pressures.

 E.g., studying to get good marks or praise.

🔷 MECHANISM OF MOTIVATION

Biological drives that are innate and necessary for survival:

Hunger

 Controlled by the hypothalamus.

 When energy levels are low, the body releases ghrelin (hunger
hormone).

 Eating stops when satiety is reached; leptin helps with this.

💧 Thirst

 Caused by fluid loss or increased blood concentration.

 The hypothalamus triggers the thirst drive.

 Drinking restores water balance.

😴 Sleep

 Sleep-wake cycle is regulated by the biological clock in the

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN).

 Motivation for sleep increases with fatigue or circadian rhythm

changes.

❤️‍🔥 Sex

 Involves both biological (hormonal changes) and psychological

(desire, love) components.

 Regulated by androgens and estrogens, with involvement of

limbic system.

🔷 CLASSICAL THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

🧠 1. Murray’s Theory of Needs

 Developed by Henry Murray.

 Believed people have many needs, both primary (biological) and

secondary (psychological).

 Introduced the concept of “Psychogenic Needs” (unconscious

needs).

 Key needs:

o nAch (Need for Achievement)

 o nAff (Need for Affiliation)

o nPow (Need for Power)

These needs form the basis of personality and motivation.

📊 2. Atkinson’s Theory of Achievement Motivation

 John Atkinson built on Murray’s idea.

 Focused on achievement motivation, i.e., what drives people to

succeed.

 Proposed a mathematical model:

o Motivation = (Need for Achievement) × (Probability of

Success) × (Incentive Value of Success)

 Individuals with high achievement motivation:

o Prefer tasks of moderate difficulty

o Seek feedback

o Take personal responsibility for outcomes

💡 EASY WAY TO REMEMBER:

Use this mnemonic:

"IDEA-TYPES-HBSS-MA"

 Introduction

 Direction & Energy

 A – Achievement & Affiliation (Murray)

 TYPES – Intrinsic & Extrinsic

 H – Hunger

 B – Biological needs (hunger, thirst, etc.)

 S – Sleep

 S – Sex

 M – Murray

 A – Atkinson
UNIT 2

🔷 THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

Motivational theories are broadly divided into two types:

✅ 1. Content Theories (What motivates us)

These focus on individual needs that drive behavior.

✴️Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (1943)

Maslow proposed that human needs are arranged in a pyramid, from

basic to complex, and people must satisfy lower-level needs before
higher-level ones.

5 Levels:

1. Physiological – Basic survival (food, water, sleep)

E.g., a hungry student can’t focus on class.

2. Safety – Protection, stability (job security, health)

E.g., a person accepts a boring job because it’s stable.

3. Love/Belonging – Affection, friendship, relationships

E.g., joining a club to make friends.

4. Esteem – Respect, status, achievement

E.g., craving recognition for good performance.

5. Self-Actualization – Fulfillment of one’s full potential

E.g., a painter pursuing art for personal growth.

👉 Maslow later added: Cognitive, Aesthetic, and Transcendence

needs.

✴️McClelland’s Achievement Motivation Theory

McClelland identified three learned needs:

1. Need for Achievement (nAch)

o Desire to excel and succeed.

o E.g., an entrepreneur starting a business.

2. Need for Power (nPow)

o Desire to control others and influence outcomes.

o E.g., a manager wanting authority.

 3. Need for Affiliation (nAff)

o Desire to build friendly relationships.

o E.g., a team player who avoids conflict.

💡 Different people are motivated more by one need than others.

✴️Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Also called Motivation-Hygiene Theory:

🟢 Motivators (cause satisfaction)

 Related to job content: achievement, recognition, growth.

 E.g., promotion makes an employee feel valued.

🔴 Hygiene Factors (prevent dissatisfaction)

 Related to job environment: salary, policies, job security.

 E.g., low salary causes dissatisfaction, but high salary alone doesn’t
motivate.

👉 Motivation comes from motivators, not hygiene factors.

✅ 2. Process Theories (How motivation occurs)

These explain the mental processes that affect motivation.

✴️McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

Two contrasting views about workers:

🅇 Theory X: People dislike work

 Need control, punishment

 Prefer being directed

E.g., manager uses strict supervision.

🅈 Theory Y: People enjoy work

 Are self-motivated

 Seek responsibility and creativity

E.g., manager involves team in decision-making.

👉 Theory Y is more positive and humanistic.

✴️Equity Theory (J. Stacy Adams)

People are motivated by fairness in comparison to others.

Formula:
My Input / My Outcome = Others’ Input / Others’ Outcome

 If unequal, it creates tension, leading to changes in behavior.

 E.g., if A and B work equally but A gets less salary, A feels

demotivated.

✴️Expectancy Theory (Victor Vroom)

Motivation = Expectancy × Instrumentality × Valence

Components:

1. Expectancy – Belief that effort leads to performance

"If I study hard, I’ll do well in exams."

2. Instrumentality – Belief that performance leads to reward

"If I get good marks, I’ll get a scholarship."

3. Valence – Value of the reward

"Scholarship is important to me."

If any one factor is zero, motivation is zero.

📌 Summary Table

Theory Type Key Idea Example

Maslow Conten Hierarchy of Needs Hungry student can’t

Theory Type Key Idea Example

t focus

McClellan Conten
3 Needs (Ach, Power, Aff) Entrepreneur = nAch
d t

Conten
Herzberg Motivators vs Hygiene Promotion = motivator
t

McGrego Proces Y manager = team

X (strict) & Y (humanistic)
r s involvement

Proces Unequal pay =

Equity Fairness drives behavior
s demotivation

Expectan Proces Effort → Performance → Study → Marks →

cy s Reward Scholarship

UNIT 3

Foundations of Emotions: Concepts and Components of Emotion,

Biological bases of emotions-ANS, endocrine system, immune system,
Psycho-physiological measures

🔷 FOUNDATIONS OF EMOTIONS

✅ 1. CONCEPT OF EMOTION

Emotion is a complex psychological and physiological response to

a significant internal or external event.
It includes:

 Subjective feelings (how you feel)

 Physiological arousal (what your body does)

 Behavioral expression (what you do or show)

🧠 Example:
If you see a snake:

 You feel scared (subjective),

 Your heart races (physiological),

 You may run or scream (behavioral).

✅ 2. COMPONENTS OF EMOTION

Use the 3-A Model: Arousal – Affect – Action

1. Physiological Arousal

 Involves bodily changes (e.g., increased heart rate, sweating).

 Controlled by autonomic nervous system.

2. Cognitive (Subjective) Experience

 How we interpret a situation (fear, joy, anger, etc.).

 Two people may feel differently in the same situation.

3. Expressive Behavior

 Facial expressions, body posture, voice tone.

 E.g., smiling when happy, frowning when sad.

✅ 3. BIOLOGICAL BASES OF EMOTION

✴️A. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Controls involuntary bodily functions during emotions.

 Two branches:

o Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS):

“Fight or Flight” – increases heart rate, breathing, dilates
pupils.
E.g., during fear or anger.

o Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS):

“Rest and Digest” – calms the body after emotion.
E.g., after crying, the body relaxes.

🧠 Example:

In a surprise test:

 SNS → fast heartbeat, sweaty palms.

 After the test, PNS restores calm.

✴️B. Endocrine System

Hormones influence emotions through glands.

 Adrenal glands secrete:

o Adrenaline (epinephrine): increases arousal.

o Cortisol: stress hormone, prepares body for action.

🧠 Example:

Before an exam:

 Adrenaline helps you stay alert.

 Cortisol helps focus, but too much causes anxiety.

✴️C. Immune System

Emotions affect immune functioning.

 Chronic stress or sadness weakens the immune system.

 Positive emotions boost immunity.

🧠 Example:

 Long-term grief → frequent illnesses.

 Laughter and happiness → better resistance to disease.

✅ 4. PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGICAL MEASURES OF EMOTION

Used to study emotions scientifically:

1. Heart Rate (HR):

Increases with fear, excitement.

2. Galvanic Skin Response (GSR):

Measures sweat gland activity – more sweat = more arousal.

E.g., used in lie detectors.

3. Blood Pressure (BP):

Increases during stress or anger.

4. Brain Imaging (EEG, fMRI):

 EEG detects brain wave changes (e.g., fear = right hemisphere

activation).

 fMRI shows which brain areas are active (e.g., amygdala = fear).
✅ KEY BRAIN AREAS IN EMOTION

 Amygdala: detects fear, threat.

 Hypothalamus: controls emotional arousal via ANS.

 Prefrontal cortex: regulates emotional reactions (e.g., calming

down).

📌 SUMMARY TABLE

Component Description Example

Physiological Body changes (ANS,

Sweating in fear
Arousal hormones)

Cognitive Feeling ashamed or

How we interpret emotions
Experience proud

Behavioral
Observable signs Laughing, crying
Expression

SNS → fear; PNS →

ANS Controls bodily responses
calm

Adrenaline during
Endocrine Hormonal changes
stress

Stress lowers
Immune System Health response
immunity

Used in labs and

Measures HR, GSR, EEG, fMRI
therapy

UNIT 4

📘 Theories & Interventions of Emotions

Emotions are essential for human survival, decision-making, social

interaction, and mental well-being. Psychologists have developed several
theories to explain how emotions arise, and various interventions have
been created to regulate or enhance emotional functioning—especially
focusing on positive emotions and emotional intelligence. Below are the
detailed explanations of classical theories, positive emotions, and
emotional intelligence.
🔹 1. Classical Theories of Emotion

🧠 a. James-Lange Theory of Emotion

This theory was proposed by William James and Carl Lange. It suggests
that bodily reactions come first, and then the mind interprets these
reactions as emotions. The key idea is that we feel emotions because
of physical changes in our body.

📌 Key Points:

 Emotions are the result of bodily changes.

 Sequence: Event → Arousal → Emotion.

 “We are afraid because we tremble.”

📝 Example: You see a snake → heart races and you tremble → you feel
fear.

🧠 b. Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

Proposed by Walter Cannon and Philip Bard, this theory criticized James-
Lange theory by arguing that body responses are too slow and not
distinct enough to produce specific emotions. They stated that the brain
sends signals simultaneously to the body and emotional centers.

📌 Key Points:

 Emotions and arousal occur at the same time.

 Involves the thalamus sending dual signals.

 Sequence: Event → Brain → Emotion + Arousal.

📝 Example: Seeing a snake causes both fear and trembling at the same
time.

🧠 c. Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory of Emotion

Also called the cognitive arousal theory, it was introduced by Schachter

and Singer. According to this theory, emotions depend on two factors:
physiological arousal and cognitive labeling. We interpret the arousal
based on context, which leads to the emotion.

📌 Key Points:

 Emotion = Arousal + Interpretation.

  Same arousal → different emotions based on context.

 Sequence: Event → Arousal → Label → Emotion.

📝 Example: Your heart races. If you’re at a concert, you label it as

excitement. If in a dark alley, you label it as fear.

🔹 2. Positive Emotions and Related Interventions

💗 Fredrickson’s Broaden-and-Build Theory of Positive Emotions

Barbara Fredrickson proposed that positive emotions broaden our

thinking and help us build lasting resources like relationships, skills,
and resilience. Unlike negative emotions (which narrow attention for
survival), positive emotions encourage exploration and creativity.

📌 Key Points:

 Positive emotions broaden attention and thinking.

 They build physical, social, and emotional resources.

 Helps in coping, resilience, and psychological growth.

📝 Example: Feeling joy may make a person socialize, which builds

support networks.

💬 Optimism and Positive Emotion Interventions+++

Optimism is the tendency to expect good outcomes. It improves mental

and physical health. Interventions based on positive psychology aim to
increase positive emotions and reduce stress by focusing on growth
and gratitude.

📌 Key Interventions:

 Gratitude journaling – writing things you're thankful for.

 Best possible self – visualizing a positive future.

 Cognitive reframing – changing negative thoughts to positive

ones.

📝 Example: Writing about good things daily can increase life satisfaction
and reduce depression.

🔹 3. Emotional Intelligence (EI)

📘 What is Emotional Intelligence?

Emotional Intelligence is the ability to understand, manage, and use

emotions—both our own and those of others. It affects our success in
relationships, academics, and work. It can be learned and improved
through training and practice.

🧠 Models of Emotional Intelligence

1. Ability Model (Mayer & Salovey)

EI is a mental ability with four components:

o Perceiving emotions,

o Using emotions,

o Understanding emotions,

o Managing emotions.

2. Mixed Model (Daniel Goleman)

Combines emotional abilities with personality traits:

o Self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, social

skills.

o Widely used in workplace training.

3. Trait Model (Petrides)

Treats EI as a personality trait:

o Measured through self-report tools.

o Includes traits like confidence, emotional control, adaptability.

📌 Key Points:

 EI is important for stress control, empathy, and leadership.

 Different models define EI as skill-based, personality-based, or both.

📏 Measurement of EI

 MSCEIT (Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test) – based

on ability.

 EQ-i (Emotional Quotient Inventory) – self-report measure by Bar-

On.

 SSEIT (Self-Report Emotional Intelligence Test).

🔗 Correlates of Emotional Intelligence

High EI is related to:

 Better mental health.

 Academic and workplace success.

 Effective communication and leadership.

 Low levels of anxiety and aggression.

📌 Key Points:

 EI helps in emotional regulation, decision-making, and stress

reduction.

 Correlates with positive social behavior and resilience.