Science Study Guide: Core Concepts
Review
Subject: Science
Topics:
● Earth Science: The Rock Cycle (Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic Rocks)
● Physics: States of Matter and Phase Changes, Electrical Circuits (Series vs. Parallel)
● Chemistry: Physical and Chemical Changes
● Biology: Biological Classification System
Summary:
This study guide provides an in-depth review of several fundamental science topics identified
as areas for improvement. It explains the processes behind the rock cycle and states of
matter, clarifies the distinct behaviors of parallel and series electrical circuits, and outlines the
hierarchical structure of biological classification. The goal is to build a solid foundation for
understanding these core concepts.
The Rock Cycle
The rock cycle is a continuous process by which rocks are created, changed, and destroyed.
There are three main types of rocks, each formed in a different way. Understanding how they
form is key to understanding Earth's geology.
● Igneous Rocks: These rocks are born from fire. They form when magma (molten rock
beneath the Earth's surface) or lava (magma that has erupted onto the surface) cools
and solidifies. The speed of cooling affects the size of the crystals in the rock.
○ Intrusive Igneous Rocks: Form when magma cools slowly beneath the surface,
allowing large crystals to grow. A common example is granite.
○ Extrusive Igneous Rocks: Form when lava cools quickly on the surface, resulting in
very small or no crystals. An example is basalt, which makes up a large part of the
ocean floor.
● Sedimentary Rocks: These rocks are the result of weathering and erosion. Existing
rocks are broken down into small fragments called sediments by wind, water, and ice.
These sediments are then transported, deposited, and eventually compacted and
cemented together over long periods of time.
○ Examples include sandstone, formed from compacted sand, and limestone, often
formed from the shells and skeletons of marine organisms.
● Metamorphic Rocks: These rocks are "changed" rocks. They are formed when existing
igneous or sedimentary rocks are subjected to immense heat and pressure deep within
the Earth's crust. This process changes the rock's mineral composition and texture
without melting it.
○ For example, marble is a metamorphic rock formed from limestone, and slate is
formed from shale.
Image of the rock cycle
States of Matter and Phase Changes
All matter exists in different states—solid, liquid, or gas—depending on the temperature and
pressure. Energy plays a crucial role in changing a substance from one state to another. These
changes are known as phase changes.
● Solids: Particles are tightly packed in a fixed, regular pattern. They vibrate in place but do
not move past one another.
● Liquids: Particles are close together but are free to move and slide past one another.
They take the shape of their container.
● Gases: Particles are far apart and move randomly and quickly, filling the entire volume of
their container.
● Key Phase Changes:
○ Melting: Solid to liquid. Energy is absorbed to break the bonds holding the particles
in their fixed positions.
○ Freezing: Liquid to solid. Energy is released as particles slow down and settle into a
fixed pattern.
○ Vaporization (Evaporation/Boiling): Liquid to gas. Energy is absorbed.
Evaporation happens slowly at the surface, while boiling occurs rapidly throughout
the liquid.
○ Condensation: Gas to liquid. Energy is released.
○ Sublimation: Solid directly to gas (e.g., dry ice).
○ Deposition: Gas directly to solid (e.g., frost).
Physical vs. Chemical Changes
This concept helps us understand the nature of change in matter.
● Physical Change: A change in the form or appearance of a substance, but not its
chemical composition. The substance remains the same kind of matter.
○ Examples: Changing a substance's state (melting ice), tearing paper, or crushing a
can. These changes are often reversible.
● Chemical Change: A change that results in the formation of a completely new
substance with different properties. This process is generally not reversible.
○ Signs of a Chemical Change: A new gas is produced (bubbles), a precipitate (solid)
forms, a color change, a change in temperature (heat is released or absorbed), or the
production of light or sound.
○ Examples: Rust forming on iron, burning wood, or baking a cake.
Electrical Circuits: Series vs. Parallel
Circuits are pathways for electricity to flow. The way components are connected in a circuit
dramatically affects how the current and voltage behave.
● Series Circuit: All components are connected one after another in a single loop.
○ Current: The current is the same at every point in the circuit.
○ Voltage: The voltage is divided among the components.
○ Failure: If one component fails (e.g., a light bulb burns out), the circuit is broken, and
all components stop working. This is like a single-lane road: if there's a roadblock, all
traffic stops.
● Parallel Circuit: Components are connected on separate branches, providing multiple
paths for the current.
○ Current: The total current is split among the different branches.
○ Voltage: The voltage is the same across each branch.
○ Failure: If one component fails, the current can still flow through the other branches,
so the remaining components continue to work. This is like a multi-lane highway: if
one lane is blocked, traffic can still flow in the other lanes.
Image of a parallel circuit
Biological Classification System
The classification system is a way for scientists to organize and categorize all living organisms
on Earth. It is a hierarchical system, meaning it goes from very broad to very specific.
● Kingdom: The broadest level of classification. Examples are Animalia (animals) and
Plantae (plants).
● Phylum: A major group within a kingdom, based on basic body plan. For example,
Chordata (animals with a spinal cord).
● Class: A subdivision of a phylum. Mammalia (mammals) is a class.
● Order: A subdivision of a class. Primates (monkeys, apes, and humans) is an order.
● Family: A subdivision of an order. Hominidae (the great apes and humans) is a family.
● Genus: A group of closely related species. Homo is the genus for humans.
● Species: The most specific level of classification. Organisms of the same species can
interbreed. sapiens is the species for modern humans.
Mnemonic: A popular mnemonic to remember the order is: King Philip Came Over For Good
Spaghetti.
Vocabulary List
● Igneous Rock: A rock formed from cooled magma or lava.
● Sedimentary Rock: A rock formed from compacted and cemented sediments.
● Metamorphic Rock: A rock changed by heat and pressure.
● Sublimation: The phase change from a solid directly to a gas.
● Evaporation: The phase change from a liquid to a gas at the surface.
● Physical Change: A change in form or appearance, not chemical composition.
● Chemical Change: A change that forms a new substance.
● Series Circuit: A circuit with a single path for electricity.
● Parallel Circuit: A circuit with multiple paths for electricity.
● Kingdom: The broadest level of biological classification.
● Species: The most specific level of biological classification.
