Table of Contents

Chapter 1 : IKS - An Overview​ 1

Chapter 2 : The Vedic Corpus​ 5

Chapter 3 : Philosophical Systems​ 11

Chapter 4 : Wisdom through the Ages​ 16

Chapter 5: Linguistics​ 19

Chapter 6: Number System and Units of Measurement​ 23

Chapter 8: Mathematics​ 28

Chapter 9: Astronomy​ 31
 Chapter 1 : IKS - An Overview

1. What is the current status of IKS in India? Briefly explain the reasons for its
current status.
Answer:​
The Indian Knowledge System (IKS) is currently witnessing a revival through academic integration and
cultural reappreciation. However, it remains underutilized in mainstream education and research.

Reasons for current status:

●​ Colonial influence led to the devaluation of indigenous systems.

●​ Western education replaced traditional Gurukul-based models.
●​ Lack of documentation and research on ancient texts.
●​ Minimal integration with modern science and policy frameworks.

2. Do you think ancient knowledge is useful for a society? Support your answer
with suitable arguments.
Answer:​
Yes, ancient knowledge is useful for society as it provides time-tested, holistic approaches to health, ethics,
sustainability, and education.

Supporting arguments:

●​ Ayurveda offers natural healing practices.

●​ Yoga enhances mental and physical well-being.
●​ Vāstu Śāstra and agricultural practices support eco-friendly living.
●​ Philosophies like Vedanta guide moral and social conduct.

Thus, ancient knowledge continues to offer practical and ethical value in the modern context.

3. Define the term 'Indian Knowledge System'. Briefly explain what you understand
by each word in this term.
Answer:​
Indian Knowledge System (IKS) refers to the comprehensive body of knowledge developed in India over
centuries, rooted in indigenous culture and tradition.

●​ Indian: Originating from the Indian subcontinent, based on native texts and practices.
●​ Knowledge: Encompasses disciplines such as philosophy, science, medicine, and arts.
●​ System: A structured, interrelated framework transmitted through Śruti (oral) and Smṛti (written)
traditions.

4. Outline the broad classification of the IKS repository. How do the categories in
the classification framework differ from one another?
Answer:​
The IKS repository is broadly classified into the following categories:

1.​ Spiritual Traditions (Adhyātma Vidyā) – Includes Vedas, Upaniṣads, and Darśanas.
 2.​ Scientific Traditions (Śāstra) – Includes Ayurveda, Jyotiṣa, Gaṇita, etc.
3.​ Artistic Traditions (Kalā) – Includes Nāṭya Śāstra, music, dance, sculpture.
4.​ Societal Traditions (Dharma, Artha, Nīti) – Includes governance, ethics, and education.

Differences:

●​ Adhyātma Vidyā focuses on self-realization.

●​ Śāstra aims at practical application of logic and science.
●​ Kalā emphasizes aesthetic and creative expression.
●​ Societal texts guide behavior, governance, and social systems.

5. What do you understand by the term 'Caturdaśa-vidyāsthāna'? Briefly explain the

various components of this framework.
Answer:​
Caturdaśa-vidyāsthāna refers to the “fourteen repositories of knowledge” in ancient Indian tradition. It was
the foundational curriculum in traditional learning systems.

Components:

1.​ Four Vedas – Ṛgveda, Yajurveda, Sāmaveda, Atharvaveda

2.​ Six Vedāṅgas – Śikṣā (phonetics), Kalpa (rituals), Vyākaraṇa (grammar), Nirukta (etymology),
Chandas (prosody), Jyotiṣa (astronomy).
3.​ Four Upāṅgas – Mīmāṃsā (ritual philosophy), Nyāya (logic), Dharmaśāstra (ethics), Purāṇas
(mythological history).

6. Comment on the statement, "The components of 'Caturdaśa-vidyāsthāna' are all

related to the Vedas".
Answer:​
The statement is valid. All components of Caturdaśa-vidyāsthāna either directly comprise or support the
understanding and application of the Vedas:

●​ The Vedāṅgas aid in accurate interpretation and performance of Vedic rituals.

●​ The Upāṅgas provide philosophical, logical, and ethical context.
●​ The Purāṇas narrate stories that popularize Vedic values.

Thus, every component either forms or enhances Vedic knowledge.

7. Briefly state the salient features of IKS when viewed from a historicity point. What
are the areas of key contributions?
Answer:​
Salient features of IKS from a historic perspective:

●​ Developed over millennia, with continuity and adaptation.

●​ Knowledge preserved through Śruti and Smṛti.
●​ Education centered around the Gurukula system.
●​ Emphasis on both theoretical and applied knowledge.

Key contributions:

●​ Mathematics – Zero, decimal system (Āryabhaṭa, Bhāskara).

●​ Medicine – Ayurveda (Caraka, Suśruta).
●​ Astronomy – Jyotiṣa and planetary models.
●​ Philosophy – Six Darśanas.
●​ Education – Institutions like Takṣaśilā and Nālandā.
8. Indian knowledge repository pre-dated several of the Western works in several
areas. Do you agree with the statement? Prepare a note either supporting the
statement or otherwise.
Answer:​
Yes, the statement is valid. Indian knowledge predates many Western works.

Supporting examples:

●​ Zero and decimal system were used by Indians centuries before European adoption.
●​ Suśruta’s surgical techniques date back to 600 BCE.
●​ Āryabhaṭa's astronomical models preceded Copernicus.
●​ Upaniṣadic philosophy explored metaphysics long before Greek thinkers.

Hence, Indian contributions laid the foundation for global scientific and philosophical thought.

9. Comment on the statement, "The oral tradition employed by ancient Indians

necessitated use of some unique methods to represent the knowledge".
Answer:​
The statement is correct. Ancient Indians primarily used oral tradition (Śruti) to preserve and transmit
knowledge.

Unique methods included:

●​ Chanting with specific meter and tone (Chandas).

●​ Use of mnemonics and repetitive recitation for retention.
●​ Guru–Śiṣya Paramparā ensured accurate transmission.
●​ Texts were composed in verse to aid memorization.

These techniques ensured accuracy and continuity for centuries before the advent of writing.
 Chapter 2 : The Vedic Corpus

1. What do you understand by the term 'Veda'? Why is the Veda called 'apuruseya'?
Answer:​
The term Veda comes from the root vid, meaning "to know". It refers to a body of sacred knowledge
developed in ancient India.

Vedas are called apuruseya because they are considered not of human origin. They were revealed to
ancient sages (rishis) and not created by any person.

2. What are the four Vedas? What is the basis on which these have been classified?
Answer:​
The four Vedas are:

1.​ Rigveda
2.​ Yajurveda
3.​ Samaveda
4.​ Atharvaveda

They are classified based on the nature of their content:

●​ Rigveda – Hymns of praise

●​ Yajurveda – Sacrificial formulas
●​ Samaveda – Musical chants
●​ Atharvaveda –Daily rituals and healing

3. Describe the organisation of a Yajna. Who is involved and what are their roles?
Answer:​
A Yajna is a Vedic ritual involving offerings and chanting for spiritual and cosmic harmony. It involves:

●​ Hotri (Rigveda) – Recites hymns

●​ Adhvaryu (Yajurveda) – Performs rituals and prepares offerings
●​ Udgatri (Samaveda) – Sings chants
●​ Brahma – Oversees the ceremony and ensures correctness

All four work together to complete the ritual.

4. How is the knowledge further classified and arranged in each of the Vedas?
Answer:​
Each Veda is divided into four parts:

1.​ Samhita – Collection of mantras

2.​ Brahmana – Prose texts explaining rituals
3.​ Aranyaka – Meditative and symbolic ritual texts
4.​ Upanishad – Philosophical and spiritual teachings

This arrangement shows a progression from ritual to philosophical reflection.

5. Prepare a one-page note outlining the salient features of Rigveda Samhita.
Answer:

●​ Oldest of the four Vedas

●​ Contains 1028 hymns divided into 10 mandalas
●​ Composed in Vedic Sanskrit
●​ Devoted to deities like Agni, Indra, Soma, Surya
●​ Introduces the concept of rita (cosmic order)
●​ Offers insights into nature, society, ethics, and prayer
●​ Hymns were used in rituals and recited by Hotris

6. What are some of the major areas in which Atharvaveda has contributed?
Answer:

●​ Healing practices and herbal medicine

●​ Charms, spells, and protection from evil
●​ Domestic rituals – birth, marriage, death
●​ Social and philosophical insights
●​ Considered more practical and connected to common life

7. What are the key differences between the Samhita (Mantra) portion and the
Brahmana portion of a Veda?
Answer:

●​ Samhita: Contains mantras and hymns for rituals; poetic and recitative in form
●​ Brahmana: Contains ritual procedures, explanations, and symbolic meanings; prose format

Samhita is liturgical, while Brahmana is interpretative.

8. What are the key contributions found in the Brahmanas of Samaveda?

Answer:

●​ Detailed instructions on performance of Yajnas

●​ Emphasis on chanting with rhythm and melody
●​ Explanation of musical notations and sequences
●​ Cosmological symbolism behind rituals
●​ Panchavimsha Brahmana is a notable text in this context

9. What is the meaning of the word 'Upanishad'? What is the purpose of

Upanishads?
Answer:​
'Upanishad' means "sitting down near", referring to receiving knowledge from a guru.

Purpose:

●​ Explores spiritual ideas like Atman (self), Brahman (universal reality), Moksha (liberation)
●​ Encourages introspection and philosophical understanding
●​ Marks a shift from ritual to knowledge-based spirituality
10. Comment on the statement: "There are several useful perspectives that one can
derive from the Vedic corpus". Do you agree?
Answer:​
Yes, the Vedic corpus offers diverse and relevant insights:

●​ Scientific knowledge in geometry, astronomy, and health

●​ Ethical guidance through dharma and cosmic order
●​ Ecological values seen in reverence for nature
●​ Spiritual principles that support inner growth

These perspectives remain valuable in modern science, society, and environment.

11. What is the relevance of Vedangas in the context of the Vedic repository?
Answer:​
Vedangas are six auxiliary disciplines that support understanding and preservation of the Vedas:

1.​ Shiksha – Phonetics

2.​ Vyakarana – Grammar
3.​ Nirukta – Etymology
4.​ Kalpa – Ritual rules
5.​ Chandas – Meter
6.​ Jyotisha – Astronomy

They ensure proper pronunciation, meaning, performance, and timing of Vedic knowledge.

12. Comment on the statement: "Vyakarana and Nirukta address the same issue of
analysing words and their meanings".
Answer:​
Partly true. Both deal with language but differ in focus:

●​ Vyakarana (grammar): Analyzes structure and formation of words

●​ Nirukta (etymology): Explains meaning and origin of words, especially rare or symbolic ones in
Vedic texts

They complement each other in preserving linguistic clarity.

13. Why is Shiksha considered an important Vedanga? What role does it play in the
oral tradition of the Vedic preservation?
Answer:​
Shiksha deals with correct pronunciation, accent, and rhythm.

Role:

●​ Maintains purity of Vedic sounds

●​ Ensures correct recitation using tone, accent, and rhythm
●​ Essential for rituals and recitation in the oral tradition

Without Shiksha, the oral system would collapse.

14. What are the building blocks of a chandas? Explain the main forms of chandas
deployed in a Vedic repository.
Answer:​
Chandas refers to meter or the arrangement of syllables in Vedic hymns.

Building blocks:

●​ Syllables (aksharas)
●​ Lines (padas)
●​ Number of syllables determines the meter

Major forms:

●​ Gayatri (3x8 syllables)

●​ Anushtubh (4x8)
●​ Trishtubh (4x11)
●​ Jagati (4x12)

15. What do you understand by the term 'Sulba-sutra'? What is the use of it?
Answer:​
Sulba-sutra are texts from Kalpa Vedanga dealing with geometry.

Uses:

●​ Instructions for altar construction in Yajnas

●​ Includes mathematical concepts like square roots and diagonals
●​ Baudhayan Sulba-sutra contains early references to Pythagorean theorem

16. Distinguish between Grhya-sutra and Dharma-sutra.

Answer:

Grhya-sutra Dharma-sutra

Household rituals Laws of society and conduct

Focus on domestic rites Focus on duties, laws, and ethics

Non-political, family-based Applies to society at large

17. Why do the Vedic people need Jyotisha?

Answer:​
Jyotisha (astronomy) was used to:

●​ Decide auspicious timings (muhurta) for rituals

●​ Track lunar and solar movements
●​ Structure calendars and agricultural cycles

It ensured synchronization with natural rhythms and celestial order.

18. Briefly outline the salient features of life during Vedic times. Are there any
useful ideas to imbibe in our modern-day living?
Answer:​
Features of Vedic life:

●​ Nature-based, simple living

●​ Importance of family, yajnas, and dharma
●​ Education through Gurukuls
●​ Social roles and ethical duties defined by Vedic teachings

Modern relevance:

●​ Eco-friendly living
●​ Value-based education
●​ Health practices like yoga and Ayurveda
●​ Respect for knowledge, discipline, and harmony​
 Chapter 3 : Philosophical Systems

1. Outline the salient features of Indian philosophical systems.

●​ Indian philosophical systems are based on deep reasoning, experience, and introspection.
●​ They aim at the ultimate goal of human life, which is moksha or liberation.
●​ These systems explore topics like the nature of the soul, the universe, knowledge, and reality.
●​ They include both theistic and non-theistic schools, showing diversity in belief systems.
●​ All systems promote ethical living, discipline, and self-realization.
●​ They provide multiple valid approaches to truth, such as karma-yoga, bhakti-yoga, and jnana-yoga.

2. What do you understand by the terms 'Vedic and Non-Vedic' schools of

philosophy?

●​ Vedic or Astika schools accept the authority of the Vedas as a valid source of knowledge.
●​ Non-Vedic or Nastika schools reject the Vedas and propose alternate paths to truth.
●​ Examples of Vedic schools are Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Purva-mimamsa, and Vedanta.
●​ Examples of Non-Vedic schools are Jainism, Buddhism, and Charvaka.

3. What are some of the common features of the Vedic schools of philosophy? What
are their main differences?

Common Features:

●​ All Vedic schools accept the Vedas as authoritative texts.

●​ They believe in karma, rebirth, moksha, and the soul.
●​ Most schools accept multiple pramanas (means of knowledge), like perception and inference.

Differences:

●​ Samkhya does not believe in God, but Yoga accepts Ishvara as a guide.
●​ Nyaya focuses on logic and reasoning, while Mimamsa emphasizes rituals.
●​ Vedanta prioritizes knowledge of Brahman, while Purva-mimamsa focuses on Vedic actions.

4. Commonalities and differences between the following schools:

(a) Samkhya and Yoga

Commonalities:

●​ Both accept the dualism of Purusha (conscious self) and Prakriti (nature).
●​ Both aim at liberation through detachment and self-knowledge.
●​ Both believe that ignorance causes suffering.

Differences:
 ●​ Samkhya is purely theoretical and does not include practices.
●​ Yoga is practical and includes the Ashtanga-yoga or eight-fold path.
●​ Samkhya does not believe in God, while Yoga accepts Ishvara as a special soul.

(b) Nyaya and Vaisheshika

Commonalities:

●​ Both are realist schools that believe in external reality and logical reasoning.
●​ Both accept pramanas like perception and inference as tools of knowledge.
●​ Both discuss the atomic structure of the universe.

Differences:

●​ Nyaya focuses on epistemology and logic for removing ignorance.

●​ Vaisheshika explains metaphysics using seven categories (padarthas) like substance and quality.
●​ Nyaya developed a detailed theory of debate and reasoning, which Vaisheshika lacks.

(c) Purva-mimamsa and Vedanta

Commonalities:

●​ Both are based on the authority of the Vedas.

●​ Both believe in karma, dharma, and moksha.

Differences:

●​ Purva-mimamsa emphasizes Vedic rituals and actions as the path to liberation.

●​ Vedanta emphasizes knowledge of Brahman as the path to liberation.
●​ Mimamsa uses the Brahmana part of the Vedas, while Vedanta uses the Upanishads.

5. Salient aspects of the following schools:

(a) Samkhya

●​ It is a purely theoretical philosophy that prescribes methods of analysis and contemplation.

●​ It believes that the world consists of two basic elements, Purusha (soul) and Prakriti (matter).
●​ It teaches that liberation is achieved by discriminating between self and matter.
●​ It does not felicitate the existence of ultimate God.​

(b) Yoga

●​ It is a practical philosophy that focuses on mental and physical discipline.

●​ It accepts the metaphysics of Samkhya but adds belief in Ishvara.
●​ It recommends Ashtanga-yoga, the eight-step path for liberation.

(c) Nyaya

●​ It emphasizes logical reasoning and valid knowledge (pra-mana) as the path to truth.
●​ It aims to remove ignorance through debate and inference.
●​ It supports the existence of the soul, God, and liberation.
(d) Vaisheshika

●​ It is an atomistic philosophy that explains reality using indivisible atoms.

●​ It classifies all existence under seven categories called padarthas (dravya, guna, karma, etc).
●​ It supports a pluralistic and scientific view of the universe.

(e) Purva-mimamsa

●​ It describes the rule based interpretations of vedic texts and provides philosophical justifications ​ for
observance of vedic rituals.
●​ It focuses on the correct performance of Vedic rituals as the path to liberation.
●​ It believes that Vedic actions generate unseen results (apurva) that lead to moksha.
●​ It does not emphasize God or metaphysics, but ritual duty.

(f) Vedanta

●​ It describes different materials from upanishads.

●​ The vedic text in upanishads describes the philosophical system regarding Brahmanas.
●​ The vedanta schools have written detailed information about upanishads.

6. What do you understand by the term 'Purusha and Prakriti'?

●​ Purusha is the conscious, unchanging, and eternal self that is the true identity of a person.
●​ Prakriti is the unconscious, active principle that includes nature, mind, and matter.
●​ Liberation occurs when Purusha realizes it is separate from Prakriti and stops identifying with it.

7. Explain the term 'Ashtanga-yoga'.

●​ Ashtanga-yoga means the eight-limbed path taught by Patanjali for attaining spiritual liberation.
●​ The eight limbs are:
1.​ Yama – Moral restraints
2.​ Niyama – Personal observances
3.​ Asana – Physical postures
4.​ Pranayama – Breath control
5.​ Pratyahara – Sense withdrawal
6.​ Dharana – Concentration
7.​ Dhyana – Meditation
8.​ Samadhi – Deep absorption in the self

8. What are the key differences and commonalities among the three schools of
Vedanta?

Commonalities:

●​ All three accept the Upanishads, Brahman, and the goal of moksha.
●​ All believe that liberation comes through self-realization.

Differences:

●​ Advaita Vedanta says Brahman is the only reality and the world is an illusion (maya).
●​ Vishishtadvaita believes Brahman is qualified by the soul and the world.
 ●​ Dvaita Vedanta says Brahman, the soul, and the world are completely separate realities.

9. What is the role of karma-yoga, bhakti-yoga, and jnana-yoga according to the

three Vedanta schools?

●​ In Advaita Vedanta, jnana-yoga (path of knowledge) is the main way to realize the self.
●​ In Vishishtadvaita, bhakti-yoga (path of devotion) is most important, supported by karma-yoga.
●​ In Dvaita, bhakti-yoga is the only true path, and both karma and jnana prepare the soul for devotion.

10. Comment: "Charvaka school of philosophy has taken a different approach

compared to other philosophical systems".

●​ The Charvaka school is materialistic and rejects all spiritual concepts like soul, rebirth, and
liberation.
●​ It accepts only direct perception (pratyaksha) as a valid source of knowledge.
●​ It denies the authority of the Vedas and promotes living for physical enjoyment.
●​ This approach contrasts with all other schools that believe in spiritual growth and higher goals.

11. Prepare a one-page note outlining the salient features of the Jaina school of
philosophy.

●​ The Jaina philosophy was founded by Mahavira and emphasizes ahimsa (non-violence) as the
highest virtue.
●​ It believes that the soul (jiva) is eternal and separate from matter (ajiva).
●​ Liberation is achieved by removing karma through right knowledge, right faith, and right conduct.
●​ Jainism does not believe in a creator God; each soul is capable of achieving liberation on its own.
●​ It promotes anekantavada, or the doctrine of multiple viewpoints.

12. Compare and contrast the Jaina school of philosophy with that of the Buddhist
school.

Similarities:

●​ Both reject the authority of the Vedas.

●​ Both teach ethical conduct and self-discipline.
●​ Both believe in karma and rebirth.

Differences:

●​ Jainism believes in an eternal soul (jiva), while Buddhism denies a permanent self (anatma).
●​ Jainism accepts extreme asceticism; Buddhism teaches a middle path.
●​ Jainism promotes multiple viewpoints (anekantavada), while Buddhism focuses on dependent
origination.
13. What are the key recommendations of the Buddhist school of philosophy to
attain liberation?

●​ The Buddhist path to liberation starts with understanding the Four Noble Truths:
1.​ Life is suffering (dukkha)
2.​ Desire causes suffering
3.​ Ending desire ends suffering
4.​ The Eightfold Path leads to the end of suffering​

●​ The Eightfold Path includes: right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood,
right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.
●​ Buddhism recommends meditation, ethical living, and mindfulness to achieve nirvana, the end of
suffering.
 Chapter 4 : Wisdom through the Ages

1. Briefly enumerate the composition of the puranic repository. What is the use of
the puranic knowledge?

●​ The Puranic repository is composed of 18 Mahapuranas and 18 Upapuranas, covering a wide

range of topics.
●​ These texts include stories of creation, genealogies, legends of gods, ethics, and geography.
●​ Puranic knowledge is used to convey moral values, cosmology, rituals, and social duties in a
simple, narrative form.
●​ It serves as a bridge between philosophy and practice, making complex ideas accessible to
common people.

2. What are the key characteristics of Puranas? How does it help in assessing the
contents of a Purana?

●​ Each Purana contains five key features (pancha-lakshana): Sarga (creation), Pratisarga
(re-creation), Vamsha (genealogies), Manvantara (epochs), and Vamshanucharita (lineage of
kings).
●​ These characteristics help in identifying whether a text truly qualifies as a Purana.
●​ Puranas also blend mythology with historical and ethical lessons, making them rich in cultural
and spiritual value.
●​ Their structure helps in understanding the cyclical nature of time and evolution of society.

3. Prepare a one-page note on the issues of contemporary interest discussed in

Puranas.

●​ Puranas discuss many topics relevant even today, such as environmental ethics, social
responsibilities, and governance.
●​ They promote values like honesty, humility, patience, and respect for nature.
●​ Some texts speak about women’s dignity, community harmony, and sustainable living.
●​ The allegories and stories encourage personal development and social balance, making them
timeless in their appeal.
●​ These teachings continue to inspire modern disciplines like ecology, psychology, and civic ethics.

4. What are some of the observations found in the Puranas on foetal development?

●​ The Puranas, especially the Garbhopanishad and parts of the Bhagavata Purana, provide
detailed insights on foetal development.
●​ They describe stages of human growth inside the womb, from fertilization to birth.
●​ Observations include development of body parts, consciousness, and memory of past lives.
●​ These narratives highlight the sacredness of life before birth and stress on moral purity during
pregnancy.
5. What do you understand by the term 'Itihasa'? What issues do they address?

●​ The term Itihasa means “thus it happened,” referring to epic narratives with historical and moral
dimensions.
●​ The two main Itihasas are the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.
●​ They address issues like dharma, duty, truth, justice, relationships, leadership, and moral
dilemmas.
●​ These texts present human struggles and divine guidance in story form, offering life lessons for
all ages.

6. What are the main differences between a Purana and an Itihasa?

●​ Puranas are encyclopedic texts dealing with cosmology, rituals, legends, and moral teachings in a
thematic format.
●​ Itihasas are epic narratives that describe specific historical events and the lives of ideal characters.
●​ Puranas are less linear, while Itihasas follow a continuous storyline.
●​ Itihasas often focus on human conflicts and ethical choices, whereas Puranas are more
mythological and symbolic.

7. Comment on the statement: "Ramayana and Mahabharata have taken contrasting

approaches to bring the key message of life".

●​ Yes, this statement is valid. The Ramayana emphasizes idealism and righteousness, showing
how a person should live.
●​ In contrast, the Mahabharata presents realism, portraying complex situations where dharma is not
always clear.
●​ Ramayana gives a model of ideal conduct through Rama, while Mahabharata presents moral
challenges faced by characters like Arjuna and Yudhishthira.
●​ Both convey the importance of dharma, but from different perspectives — ideal vs practical.

8. Summarize the key messages found in each Kanda of Ramayana. What is the
relevance of these messages to contemporary society?

●​ Bala Kanda – Teaches values of obedience, learning, and divine purpose.

●​ Ayodhya Kanda – Highlights sacrifice, duty, and family ethics.
●​ Aranya Kanda – Emphasizes endurance, detachment, and commitment.
●​ Kishkindha Kanda – Stresses friendship, trust, and alliance-building.
●​ Sundara Kanda – Inspires with Hanuman's bravery, faith, and service.
●​ Yuddha Kanda – Reflects the battle between good and evil, with a focus on courage and justice.
●​ Uttara Kanda – Discusses the consequences of leadership and moral decisions.

These messages are relevant today for character development, leadership, emotional strength, and
ethical living.

9. Briefly enumerate the key contributions of Mahabharata to contemporary society.

 ●​ The Mahabharata provides deep insights into human psychology and moral dilemmas.
●​ It teaches about conflict resolution, leadership, social justice, and strategic thinking.
●​ The Bhagavad Gita, within the Mahabharata, offers a guide to spiritual growth and balanced life.
●​ Its stories explore family, power, dharma, karma, and decision-making under pressure.
●​ It is often used in management, ethics, and political science studies today.

10. What do you mean by Niti-shastra? What are the key issues discussed in such
works?

●​ Niti-shastra refers to texts on ethics, governance, and practical wisdom.

●​ These works discuss how to live wisely, rule justly, and behave ethically in society.
●​ Key issues include diplomacy, justice, social conduct, self-control, and leadership.
●​ Famous examples are Chanakya Niti, Hitopadesha, and Panchatantra.

11. How is samanya-niti different from raja-niti? What are some contributions of
these texts?

●​ Samanya-niti is general ethics meant for everyone, focusing on daily conduct, truthfulness, and
personal discipline.
●​ Raja-niti is political ethics, guiding kings and rulers on governance, warfare, administration, and
statecraft.
●​ Contributions include ideas of ideal leadership, public welfare, conflict management, and
justice.
●​ For example, Chanakya’s Arthashastra deals with raja-niti, while Hitopadesha contains
samanya-niti.

12. Comment on the statement: "Subhashitas, Niti-shastras, and Itihasas address

the same set of issues".

●​ Yes, this is true to a large extent. All three discuss human values, ethical conduct, social order,
and leadership.
●​ Subhashitas offer short moral verses for daily reflection.
●​ Niti-shastras provide structured advice on ethics and politics.
●​ Itihasas illustrate values through stories and real-life dilemmas.
●​ Together, they reinforce dharma, wisdom, and balanced living from different formats — verse,
prose, and narrative.
 Chapter 5: Linguistics

1. Briefly sketch the organization of Astadhyayi. How many rules are there in
Astadhyayi?
●​ The Astadhyayi is a comprehensive text on Sanskrit grammar written by Panini.
●​ It contains 8 chapters, each divided into 4 sections, making a total of 32 sections.
●​ It includes approximately 4000 sutras (rules) written in concise formulaic language.
●​ The rules are arranged logically to generate and analyze Sanskrit words and sentences.

2. What are the unique aspects of the Sanskrit grammar propounded by Panini?
●​ Panini’s grammar is rule-based, generative, and precise, making it highly structured.
●​ He introduced a notation system using meta-rules (paribhashas) and markers (anubandhas).
●​ Panini’s work uses mnemonics (sankhya sutras and pratyaharas) for efficient rule referencing.
●​ The grammar is algorithmic in nature, resembling modern programming logic.

3. How is the issue of phonetics addressed in the Sanskrit language? What are the
phonetical aspects pertaining to vowels specified in Sanskrit grammar?
●​ Sanskrit phonetics is systematically structured with clear articulation points.
●​ Sounds are categorized based on place (sthana) and manner (prayatna) of articulation.
●​ Vowels are classified as short (hrasva), long (dirgha), and pluta (prolonged).
●​ Each vowel has a fixed pronunciation pattern, ensuring consistency in speech.

4. What do you understand by the terms 'Prakriti' and 'Pratyaya'? What is the
relevance of these in Sanskrit grammar?
●​ Prakriti refers to the root or base word (often a dhatu or noun stem).
●​ Pratyaya is the suffix or ending added to prakriti to create meaning or inflection.
●​ Together, they form new words by derivation and inflection, making them fundamental in Sanskrit
word construction.

5. Write short notes on the following:

(a) The Sanskrit language is derivational in nature

●​ Sanskrit generates new words by adding suffixes (pratyayas) to roots (dhatus) or stems.

(b) Sanskrit grammar is rule-driven

●​ Every transformation or construction in Sanskrit follows fixed grammatical rules (sutras) from texts
like Astadhyayi.

(c) Sanskrit grammar is modular in structure

 ●​ Rules in Sanskrit are broken into independent but connected modules, making the system
adaptable and reusable.

6. What are the ways by which one can generate noun forms in Sanskrit? Similarly,
explain how verb forms can be generated.
●​ Noun forms are generated by adding subanta suffixes to noun stems based on number, gender,
and case.
●​ Verb forms are created by conjugating root verbs (dhatus) with tin-pratyayas indicating tense,
mood, number, and person.
●​ Both processes are governed by Panini’s rules, ensuring accuracy and clarity.

7. What do you understand by the terms 'subanta' and 'tinanta'?

●​ Subanta is a word ending with a nominal suffix (sup-pratyaya), typically used for nouns and
adjectives.
●​ Tinanta is a word ending with a verbal suffix (tin-pratyaya), representing verb forms in various
tenses and moods.

8. What do you understand by the term 'mnemonics'? How is it used in Astadhyayi?

●​ Mnemonics are memory aids used to condense and recall complex rules or groups of sounds.
●​ In Astadhyayi, Panini used systems like the Shiva-sutra and pratyahara technique to represent
sound groups compactly.
●​ This system helps refer to sets of sounds or rules efficiently using minimal syllables.

9. Briefly explain how compound words are generated in the Sanskrit language.
●​ Compound words (samasa) are formed by joining two or more words into one unified expression.
●​ The main types of compounds are:
○​ Tatpurusha – dependent compounds
○​ Dvandva – coordinating compounds
○​ Bahuvrihi – descriptive compounds
○​ Karmadharaya – adjective compounds
●​ Compounds are formed by dropping case endings and combining meanings under a single head
word.

10. What is the relevance of the 'karaka' concept? Using an example, identify the
karakas. Can you relate it to the vibhaktis?
●​ Karaka refers to the semantic role played by nouns in a sentence (like subject, object, instrument).
●​ There are six main karakas: karta (doer), karma (object), karana (instrument), sampradana
(recipient), apadana (source), adhikarana (location).
●​ These roles correspond to case endings (vibhaktis) in Sanskrit.
●​ Example: In “Ramah vanam gacchati” (Rama goes to the forest):
○​ Ramah (subject) – karta – nominative (prathama vibhakti)
○​ Vanam (object of movement) – adhikarana – accusative (dvitīya vibhakti)
11. Write a one-page note explaining why knowledge of dhatus in Sanskrit is very
valuable.
●​ Dhatus are verbal roots that form the base of thousands of Sanskrit words.
●​ Each dhatu carries a core meaning (e.g., “gam” = to go) that can be extended through suffixes.
●​ Mastery of dhatus helps in understanding, deriving, and analyzing new words.
●​ It also aids in translation, chanting, and comprehension of classical texts.
●​ For computational purposes, dhatu recognition allows for efficient parsing and processing of
Sanskrit language data.

12. What happens when an upa-sarga is prefixed to a verb form? Give some
examples in support of your argument.
●​ An upa-sarga is a preposition-like prefix added before a verb root (dhatu).
●​ It modifies the meaning of the root, often significantly.
●​ Example 1: Gam (to go) → upagam (to approach)
●​ Example 2: Bhū (to be) → prabhū (to dominate)
●​ Upa-sargas enhance nuance, direction, and intensity in Sanskrit verb meanings.

13. Comment on the statement: "The Sanskrit language has potential for use in NLP
and AI applications".
●​ Yes, Sanskrit’s highly regular grammar and rule-based structure make it ideal for NLP (Natural
Language Processing).
●​ Its precise syntax, minimal ambiguity, and clear word formation rules support machine parsing.
●​ The modular nature of Astadhyayi aligns with computational linguistics and programming logic.
●​ Sanskrit is already being explored for machine translation, speech recognition, and semantic
analysis in AI systems.​
 Chapter 6: Number System and Units of
Measurement

1. List down the key inferences that one can make about the Indian mathematical
tradition based on historical evidence.
●​ Indian mathematics developed independently and has a long history dating back to the Vedic period.
●​ Ancient texts like the Sulba-sutras show knowledge of geometry and measurement.
●​ Indian scholars introduced concepts like zero, place value, and infinity long before the West.
●​ Mathematics was used in fields like astronomy, architecture, poetry, and rituals.
●​ Indian numeral systems influenced global mathematical development, especially through Arab
scholars.

2. When was the concept of zero discovered in India? What is its special
significance?
●​ The concept of zero was formally developed in India around the 5th century CE, with early
references found in the Bakhshali manuscript and works of Aryabhata and Brahmagupta.
●​ Zero plays a crucial role in the place value system, mathematical operations, and later in algebra
and calculus.
●​ It is also significant as a philosophical and scientific concept, representing the idea of void or
absence.

3. What are the advantages of the Indian numeral system over the Roman
numerals? Explain with examples.
●​ The Indian system uses ten digits (0–9), while Roman numerals use letters like I, V, X, L, C.
●​ It is more efficient for calculations and large numbers.
●​ Example: 2,347 (Indian) vs MMCCCXLVII (Roman) – the Indian form is shorter and easier to
compute.
●​ The Indian system has a place value and a decimal base, which makes it suitable for modern
mathematics.

4. What are the key characteristics of a place-value system of numerals? How is it

advantageous?
●​ Each digit’s value depends on its position in the number.
●​ It follows a base-10 structure, where moving left increases the power of 10.
●​ It simplifies operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and helps represent large
numbers compactly.
●​ It allows for the efficient use of zero to denote empty places.

5. What do you understand by the term 'decimal system'? Where did it originate and
what are its advantages?
●​ The decimal system is a base-10 numeral system using digits from 0 to 9.
●​ It originated in India, as seen in ancient mathematical texts.
 ●​ Its main advantages include easy representation of fractions, efficient computation, and suitability for
various fields like accounting, science, and technology.

7. Indian mathematics is seamlessly linked with literature and poetry. Comment with
examples.
●​ Sanskrit poetry and literature often use numerical codes and patterns, blending art with math.
●​ Pingala’s Chandas-shastra used binary combinations to analyze meters.
●​ Bhaskara and other mathematicians wrote treatises in verse form, making them easy to memorize.
●​ Systems like Katapayadi encoded numbers in words or verses, connecting memory and meter
with math.

8. What are the uses of a word or letter in numeral systems?

●​ Words and letters are used as mnemonics to represent numbers using symbolic systems.
●​ In Bhuta-sankhya, specific words symbolize specific numbers based on qualities (e.g., eyes = 2,
fire = 3).
●​ In Katapayadi, consonants represent digits, enabling easy memorization and encoding of
formulas in poetic form.

9. What are the differences between the Katapayadi system and Bhuta-sankhya
system?

Feature Katapayadi System Bhuta-sankhya System

Basis Uses letters and syllables to represent Uses object-based symbols or

numbers metaphors

Representation Assigns digits to Sanskrit consonants Assigns digits to common symbolic

words

Usage Seen in texts like Aryabhatiya Seen in Puranas, Itihasas, etc.

Order Reverse (right to left) Direct (left to right)

10. Why is a Bhuta-sankhya system called so?

●​ The term Bhuta means element or object, and sankhya means number.
●​ It is called Bhuta-sankhya because it uses common objects, elements, or natural concepts to
symbolize numbers.
●​ For example, “eye” = 2, “earth” = 1, “sky” = 0.
11. Identify the numbers represented by the Bhuta-sankhya system in the following
cases:
(Note: Exact values depend on a Bhuta-sankhya reference table. But here's a possible answer format.)

(a) rāma-chandra-guna-nanda-rtu-padāḥ

●​ Rama (1), Chandra (1), Guna (3), Nanda (9), Rtu (6), Pada (4) → 461391

(b) guna-adri-tri-veda-nayana-bhujangāḥ

●​ Guna (3), Adri (7), Tri (3), Veda (4), Nayana (2), Bhujanga (8) → 823437

(c) pūrṇa-kha-śāstra-gruha-nanda-rishi-vedāḥ

●​ Purna (0), Kha (0), Shastra (4), Gruha (1), Nanda (9), Rishi (7), Veda (4) → 4791400

12. Use Table 6.3 and rewrite the numbers below using the Bhuta-sankhya system:
(Note: Representations depend on table associations; below is an illustrative format.)

(a) 179,532,695

●​ Example: Nanda (9), Rtu (6), Indra (5), Earth (1), … → You create a poetic line mapping digits to
objects.

(b) 345,447

●​ Example: Guna (3), Veda (4), Agni (3), Nayana (2), etc.

(c) 670,087,123

●​ Break down digits and assign Bhuta equivalents for each.

13. For the answers that you obtained for Question 11, express them using the
Katapayadi system.
(a) 461391 → Right to Left: 1-9-3-1-6-4

●​ Word (example): ya-tha-ba-ka-ja-bha → Can be rearranged as: yathabakajabha

(b) 823437 → 7-3-4-3-2-8

●​ Word: sa-la-va-ba-ra-ta → Example: salavabarata

(c) 4791400 → 0-0-4-1-9-7-4

●​ Word: kṣa-ña-gha-pa-tha-sa-bha → Try: kṣañaghapathasbha

14. Rewrite the numbers given in Question 12 using the Katapayadi system.
(a) 179532695 → Right to Left: 5-9-6-2-3-5-9-7-1

●​ Example: ma-tha-ca-ra-ba-śa-tha-sa-ya → Compressed as: mathacarabashathasaya

 (b) 345447 → Right to Left: 7-4-4-5-4-3

●​ Word: sa-va-gha-ma-bha-la → savaghamabhala

(c) 670087123 → Right to Left: 3-2-1-7-8-0-0-7-6

●​ Word: ba-ra-ka-sa-ha-ña-kṣa-sa-ca → barakasahañakṣasaca

15. Identify the numbers represented by the Katapayadi-system in the following

cases:

Phrase Consonants Extracted Digits (R → L) Final Number

ānandāmṛtam m-t-m-d-n 5-6-5-3-5 55365

rakṣābandhanotsavaḥ h-v-s-t-n-dh-n-b-kṣ-r 8-4-7-6-5-4-5-3-0-2 8476543502

koronā rājanāśakaḥ k-r-n-j-n-ś-k 1-2-5-6-5-6-5-5-2-1 1256556251

16. What is a binary cycle? Can you develop a binary cycle of length four and
identify all possible binary words of length four?
●​ A binary cycle is a sequence of binary digits (0 and 1) that repeats after a fixed length.
●​ For a cycle of length 4, the number of binary words = 2⁴ = 16 combinations.
●​ Possible binary words:
○​ 0000, 0001, 0010, 0011, 0100, 0101, 0110, 0111
○​ 1000, 1001, 1010, 1011, 1100, 1101, 1110, 1111
●​ These sequences form the basis for binary logic, coding, and computer operations.
 Chapter 8: Mathematics

1. Enumerate the unique aspects of Indian Mathematics. Can you illustrate them
with some examples?
●​ Indian mathematics was practical, symbolic, and abstract at the same time.
●​ It introduced key concepts like zero, infinity, decimal system, and place value.
●​ Many works were composed in verse form, making them easy to memorize.
●​ Indians used letters and poetry to encode mathematical ideas (e.g., Katapayadi system).
●​ Geometry was developed through ritual needs, as seen in the Sulba-sutras.
●​ Example: Aryabhata calculated pi (π) with amazing accuracy using verse formulas.

2. Name three great Indian mathematicians and enumerate their key contributions.
●​ Aryabhata: Introduced the concept of zero, sine tables, and accurate astronomical calculations.
●​ Brahmagupta: Developed rules for zero, negative numbers, and algebraic equations.
●​ Bhaskaracharya (Bhaskara II): Wrote Lilavati and Bijaganita, contributed to algebra, arithmetic,
and calculus-like ideas.

3. Identify three major areas of contribution of Ancient Indian mathematicians.

●​ Algebra: Solutions to linear and quadratic equations, use of symbols for unknowns.
●​ Geometry: Construction of altars, study of right-angled triangles (Sulba-sutras).
●​ Trigonometry and Astronomy: Calculation of sine values, planetary motion, eclipse prediction.

4. What key inferences can we draw by an examination of the key contributions of

Indian mathematicians?
●​ Indian mathematics was deeply innovative and ahead of its time.
●​ It was closely tied to practical needs, including astronomy, architecture, and rituals.
●​ Indian scholars emphasized logic, patterns, and abstraction, laying a foundation for modern math.
●​ Their methods influenced Islamic and European mathematics through translations.

5. Why was knowledge of geometry important for the ancient Indians?

●​ Geometry was essential for constructing fire altars and performing Vedic rituals.
●​ The Sulba-sutras provided geometrical rules for accurate measurements and shapes.
●​ It was also used in temple design, astronomy, and land measurement.
●​ Geometry helped ensure sacred proportions and alignments in religious practices.

6. Briefly explain about the knowledge that Indian mathematicians possessed. How
does it compare with that of other mathematicians?
●​ Indian mathematicians possessed knowledge in arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and
combinatorics.
 ●​ They developed a symbolic, general, and rule-based approach, unlike Greeks who focused more
on geometric proofs.
●​ Indian texts often presented algorithms and step-wise procedures, which are similar to modern
computational thinking.
●​ Compared to other cultures, Indian mathematics was more abstract, recursive, and algorithmic in
nature.

7. What was the motivation for Indians to study the right-angled triangle and other
geometric shapes?
●​ The primary motivation was the construction of sacrificial altars in Vedic rituals.
●​ The Sulba-sutras discuss how to form squares, rectangles, and triangles with fixed areas.
●​ Indians needed to double squares, create circles from squares, and perform accurate layout
designs.
●​ This practical need led to early versions of Pythagoras’ theorem, even before Pythagoras.

8. Comment on the statement: "Indian Mathematics is a blend of poetry, literature,

and mathematics". Give examples to support your views.
●​ This is true, as many Indian mathematical texts were written in Sanskrit verse (sloka).
●​ Bhaskara’s Lilavati presents arithmetic problems as poetic puzzles.
●​ Pingala’s Chandas-shastra used prosody and binary logic to classify poetic meters.
●​ The use of symbolic words, riddles, and rhythms made learning both fun and memorable.

9. What are the key contributions of Pingala to modern mathematical thinking?

●​ Pingala introduced the binary number system, which is foundational to computer science today.
●​ He used short (laghu) and long (guru) syllables to represent 0 and 1.
●​ His methods anticipated Pascal’s triangle, combinatorics, and mathematical recursion.
●​ He created the first known algorithmic thinking using rules and recursion in poetic meter
analysis.

10. What is the difference between a magic square and a pan-diagonal matrix
square?
●​ A magic square is a square grid where the sums of all rows, columns, and diagonals are equal.
●​ A pan-diagonal magic square is more advanced – in addition to rows, columns, and diagonals, all
broken diagonals also add to the same sum.
●​ In a pan-diagonal square, even diagonals that wrap around the edges maintain the magic sum.

11. Construct a 4 x 4 pan-diagonal magic square. What is the magic sum for the
square that you constructed?
Here’s one valid 4x4 pan-diagonal magic square:

16 2 3 13

5 11 10 8

9 7 6 12
4 14 15 1

●​ The magic sum is: 16 + 2 + 3 + 13 = 34

●​ All rows, columns, main diagonals, and broken diagonals add up to 34
 Chapter 9: Astronomy

1. Why is the study of astronomy important for mankind?

●​ Astronomy helps us understand the universe, time, seasons, and celestial cycles.
●​ It plays a key role in agriculture, calendars, navigation, and religious rituals.
●​ The study of astronomy develops our ability to predict natural phenomena and organize life
accordingly.
●​ It also inspires scientific curiosity and philosophical understanding about our place in the
cosmos.

2. How does the Indian approach to astronomy differ from other approaches?
●​ Indian astronomy is closely linked with philosophy, timekeeping, astrology, and daily life.
●​ Unlike Western astronomy which focused mainly on observation, Indian astronomy also integrated
cosmic cycles and spiritual concepts.
●​ The Indian approach used geometric models, algebraic methods, and calendar systems deeply
rooted in Vedic knowledge.
●​ It emphasized practical applications such as panchanga, temple construction, and yajnas.

3. Prepare a one-page note outlining the salient contributions of Indians to the field
of astronomy. How did it influence other regions?
●​ Indian astronomers like Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Brahmagupta, and Bhaskaracharya made
original contributions in planetary models, eclipses, sine tables, and celestial mechanics.
●​ The concept of a rotating Earth, spherical geometry, and accurate solar-lunar calendars
originated in India.
●​ Their works were translated into Arabic and Latin, influencing Islamic and European astronomy.
●​ The use of zero, decimal system, and trigonometric methods in Indian texts laid a foundation for
global astronomy.

4. Briefly describe the contents of the text, Aryabhatiya.

●​ Aryabhatiya is a Sanskrit treatise written by Aryabhata around 499 CE.
●​ It contains four chapters: Gitikapada (timekeeping), Ganitapada (mathematics), Kalakriyapada
(calendar), and Golapada (astronomy).
●​ The text presents ideas on earth’s rotation, planetary motion, trigonometry, and eclipse
prediction.
●​ It is written in verse form, blending poetry with scientific content.

5. What are the key contributions of Aryabhatiya to the field of astronomy?

●​ Proposed that the Earth rotates on its axis, explaining the daily rising and setting of stars.
●​ Provided formulas for calculating planetary positions and eclipses.
●​ Introduced sine tables and used pi (π) accurately.
●​ Developed a method to measure time, yugas, and calendar systems with mathematical precision.
6. What is the concept of a 'yuga' in a calendrical system? Why is it required?
●​ A yuga is a large time cycle used in Indian timekeeping, representing different ages of the world.
●​ It helps in organizing cosmic time, dividing history into meaningful phases like Satya Yuga, Treta
Yuga, Dvapara Yuga, and Kali Yuga.
●​ It is required to synchronize celestial and spiritual timelines and explain changes in human
behavior and environment across ages.

7. Briefly describe various aspects of the Indian conceptualization of a 'year'.

●​ The Indian year is based on solar and lunar cycles.
●​ There are two main types: Saurya (solar) and Chandramasa (lunar) year.
●​ Each year is divided into ritus (seasons), months, pakshas (fortnights), and tithis (lunar days).
●​ The year also includes Uttarayana (northward movement of the Sun) and Dakshinayana
(southward movement).

8. Explain the notion of the ecliptic and the 'northern' and 'southern' motions of the
Sun.
●​ The ecliptic is the apparent path of the Sun across the sky through the 12 rashi (zodiac signs).
●​ Uttarayana is the period when the Sun appears to move northward (from winter solstice to summer
solstice).
●​ Dakshinayana is the southward movement of the Sun (from summer to winter solstice).
●​ These motions affect seasons, festivals, and agricultural cycles.

9. Explain the solar and a lunar month in an Indian calendar. Explain the term
'adhikamasa'.
●​ A solar month is based on the Sun's movement through one rashi (zodiac sign).
●​ A lunar month is based on one full cycle of the Moon's phases (new moon to new moon).
●​ Since the lunar year is shorter, an adhikamasa (extra month) is added roughly every 3 years to
synchronize lunar and solar calendars.
●​ Adhikamasa maintains alignment between seasonal and religious timings.

10. What do you understand by the following terms:

(a) Nakshatra and Tithi

●​ Nakshatra is a lunar mansion, one of 27 sectors of the sky used for tracking the Moon’s position.
●​ Tithi is a lunar day, calculated based on the Moon's angle from the Sun.

(b) Rashi

●​ Rashi refers to one of the 12 zodiac signs through which the Sun and planets appear to move.

(c) Vatsara

●​ Vatsara is a year, commonly referring to the solar year in calendrical systems.

(d) Samvatsara

●​ Samvatsara is a cycle of 60 years, each year having a unique name and character.

(e) Uttarayana
 ●​ Uttarayana is the northward journey of the Sun, starting from Makara Sankranti (around January
14).

(f) Idavatsara and Anuvatsara

●​ Idavatsara is a year when an adhikamasa is added.

●​ Anuvatsara is a normal year without any adjustment.

(g) Dakshinayana

●​ Dakshinayana is the southward journey of the Sun, starting around mid-July.

11. Why do we need to perform Manda-samskara and Shighra-samskara?

●​ These are corrections applied to planetary positions in Indian astronomy.
●​ Manda-samskara accounts for the planet’s slow motion near apogee.
●​ Shighra-samskara corrects for fast orbital speed near perigee.
●​ These ensure accuracy in calculations of conjunctions, eclipses, and planetary transits.

12. What is a Maha-yuga? What is Ahargana?

●​ A Maha-yuga is a cosmic cycle of 4.32 million years, composed of 4 yugas: Satya, Treta, Dvapara,
and Kali.
●​ Ahargana is the count of days from a fixed epoch, used for calculating planetary positions and
tithis.

13. Discuss the basic features of Nilakantha Somayaji's planetary model.

●​ Nilakantha proposed a quasi-heliocentric model, where inner planets orbit the Sun, and the Sun
orbits Earth.
●​ This was more accurate than Ptolemy’s geocentric model.
●​ He refined planetary equations and described elliptical-like orbits and speeds.
●​ His model influenced later thinkers, including those in Europe.

14. Why is Panchanga called so? What are the elements of a Panchanga?
●​ Panchanga means “five limbs” of timekeeping in Indian tradition.
●​ The five elements are:
1.​ Tithi – lunar day
2.​ Vara – weekday
3.​ Nakshatra – star/constellation
4.​ Yoga – angular relationship between Sun and Moon
5.​ Karana – half of a tithi
●​ It is used to determine auspicious times, festivals, and daily rituals.

15. Comment on the statement, "Raja Sawai Jai Singh's contributions to the field of
astronomy is timely and significant".
●​ Jai Singh established five observatories (Jantar Mantars) across India in the 18th century.
●​ He built large-scale instruments for measuring time, positions of stars, and planetary
movements.
●​ His work revived precision astronomy in India using both Indian and Islamic sources.
 ●​ His efforts preserved astronomical heritage during a period of decline.

16. Briefly describe the instruments used by ancient Indians for astronomical
purposes.
●​ Instruments included:
○​ Gnomon (shanku) for measuring shadows and time
○​ Chakra-yantra for angular measurements
○​ Samrat Yantra (giant sundial) for accurate timekeeping
○​ Yantra-Raja, an armillary sphere-like model
○​ Clepsydra (water clocks) for tracking time at night
●​ These tools enabled precise tracking of celestial bodies and timekeeping.​
A Final Reflection from the Author

This work has not merely traced the arc of knowledge across ancient Indian disciplines — it has offered a
glimpse into a civilization that remembered what modernity often forgets: that the highest knowledge is
that which transforms the knower.

From the eternal verses of the Vedas to the reasoning of philosophical systems, from the precision of
Sanskrit grammar to the elegance of mathematics, from the celestial patterns of astronomy to the ethical
insights of Itihasa and Niti — each chapter in this book has pointed toward one central idea:

Knowledge is not a collection of facts. It is a way of living, of seeing, of becoming.

The linguistic frameworks we explored were not invented for mere speech, but to train thought in purity
and precision. The mathematical insights were not mechanical calculations, but patterns reflecting the
harmony of nature. The astronomical cycles were not distant theories, but sacred synchronizations of time,
ritual, and cosmic rhythm. Even the ethical teachings, encoded in poetry and story, were not moral
commands — they were mirrors of consciousness.

To learn from these systems is to undergo a shift in identity — from one who merely consumes knowledge
to one who is shaped by it.

May the Shruti and Smriti, the dhatus and pratyayas, the karakas and rasihis, the sankhya and
samadhi, and all the harmonies between number, word, and spirit, continue to echo in your learning —
not as syllabus content, but as guiding lights.

"Jñānam na tu pustakāntargatam, jñānam yasya jīvanam darshayati."

Knowledge is not what is bound in pages; it is what becomes visible through the way we live.

Let this book be your map — not to answers, but to the questions that awaken the soul.

Let the next journey begin — where silence teaches, discipline refines, and knowledge becomes wisdom.

With love,​
A humble student of knowledge
© 2025 VRS