9 COMMUNICATION MODES FOR LEARNERS WITH SPECIAL NEEDS AND

DISABILITIES

Course Description:

Communication Modes for Learners with Special Needs and Disabilities is a vital
course that underscores the role of effective communication as the foundation of
human interaction and learning. For learners with special needs and disabilities,
communication is the gateway to inclusion, participation, independence, and
lifelong development. This learning area addresses the critical need to overcome
communication barriers by equipping teacher trainees with the competencies to
recognize, interpret, and respond to the diverse communication needs of
learners. The course is structured into four key strands: communication skills,
Augmentative and xvi Alternative Communication (AAC), Sign Language Skills, and
Basic English Braille Skills. It is grounded in Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory, which
emphasizes the social nature of learning and the essential role of language and
interaction in cognitive development. This course is intended to equip teacher
trainees with knowledge and skills on the identification and use of appropriate
techniques in communicating with learners with specific disabilities. This will
reduce communication barriers and enable teacher trainees to support learners
with disabilities in the learning process.

Course Learning Outcomes

By the end of the course, the teacher trainee should be able to:

1. Model appropriate behavior and values for learners with special needs and
disabilities to emulate development of good citizenship,
2. Communicate and collaborate effectively with learners, peers, parents and the
community to create a conducive learning environment for learners with special
needs and disabilities,

3. Use appropriate pedagogical approaches to facilitate learning for learners with

Special needs in and out of the classroom,

4. Apply inclusive practices to support all learners including those with disabilities
and special educational needs,

5. Employ ICT skills to meet the unique educational needs of all learners in an
inclusive learning environment, 3gt

6. Employ appropriate differentiated assessment approaches to promote

effective learning,

7. Identify and nurture the learner's potential and talents for appropriate
educational placement and provision of appropriate curricula,

8. Develop environmental conservation skills in Pre-Primary and Primary school

learners to promote education for sustainable development,

9. Create innovative and effective solutions to challenges faced by learners with

special needs and disabilities in the learning process,

10. Integrate pertinent and contemporary issues in learning to enable learners

with special needs and disabilities to cope with daily challenges

Course Content

1.0 Introduction to communication skills

1.1 Overview of Communication Skills

a) Terms and concepts

i) Communication
ii) Effective communication

iii) Modes of communication

iv) Communication skills

v) Communication difficulties

b) Functions of Communication

i) Informative function

ii) Expressive or emotional function

iii) Directive or persuasive function

iv) Phatic or social function

v) Metalinguistic Function

vi) Poetic or Aesthetic function

vii) Regulative function

c) Principles of Effective Communication

i) Clarity

ii) Conciseness

iii) Relevance

iv) Empathy

v) active listening

vi) appropriate feedback

1.2 Communication Process

a) Components of the communication process

i. Source

ii Message

iii. Medium

iv. Recipient

v. Feedback

b) Elements of effective Communication i. Form

ii. function

iii. Content

iv. Context

1.3 Forms of communication

a) Expressive communication (Verbal and nonverbal)

i. Spoken /oral communication

ii. written communication

iii. signed communication

iv. facial expressions

v. gestures body

vi. Language

vii. Posture
viii. Eye contact

ix. tactile communication

b) Receptive communication

i. Auditory receptive communication

ii. Visual receptive communication

iii. Tactile receptive communication

iv. Written language receptive communication

Environmental/contextual receptive communication

c) Communication modes

i. Verbal communication

ii. Non-verbal communication

iii. Visual communication

iv. Tactile communication

v. Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC)

vi. Sign language

vii. Written communication

viii. Gestural communication

d) Challenges in receptive and expressive communication

i. Difficulty understanding spoken language,

ii. limited vocabulary

iii. comprehension problems with following directions

iv. challenges in understanding nonverbal cues

v. difficulty processing written language and expressive communication

vi. Limited verbal expression

vii. poor sentence structure and grammar articulation issues

viii. difficulty with written expression

ix. use of alternative communication methods

x. limited social communication skills

e) Strategies of remediating receptive and expressive communication

• using of simple and clear language

• visual support

• multi-sensory approach

• providing extra processing time

• use of technology

• modelling

• Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC)

• Speech and language therapy)

1.4 Barriers to Communication in learners with disabilities (4hrs)

a) Barriers to communication i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi.

Physical Cognitive Social Environmental

presence of disability

delayed language acquisition

b) Effects of communication barriers on learning and interaction i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi.
Limited participation in the learning experiences

Lower academic performance

Social isolation

Low self-esteem

Limited peer interaction

Misunderstandings and conflict

vii. Dependence on support)

2.0 Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC)

2.1 Overview of Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC)

a) i. Terms and concepts in AAC.

ii. Augmentative communication

iii. Alternative Communication

iv. Aided and Unaided Communication Symbols and Symbol Systems

b) Benefits of AAC,

i) Facilitating Communication

ii) enhancing comprehension

iii) supporting language development

iv) promoting social interaction

v) aiding academic participation

vi) reducing frustration and behavior challenges

vii) building esteem and confidence

viii) encouraging independence

ix) fostering inclusion

c) Categories of learners who need AAC.

i) Deafblind

ii) Intellectual Disability

iii) Cerebral palsy

iv) Autism spectrum disorder

v) Hearing Impairment

vi) Learning disabilities

vii. Multiple Disabilities

• Communication disorders

d) Characteristics of learners in need of AAC

i. Limited or absent verbal speech difficulty initiating or sustaining

communication

delayed Language development require alternative methods to communicate

experiences frustration or behavioral issues linked to communication challenges
presence of vision and hearing loss cognitive deficit reliance on consistent
routines and visual supports
2.2 Types of AAC Unaided/Non-aided AAC systems and Aided AAC systems a)
Difference between Unaided and Aided AAC systems

i. Aided AAC involves external support like devices or symbols

ii) Unaided AAC relies only on the user's body for communication using gestures
signs or body language

b) Types of Unaided AAC systems

• Waving

• Pointing

• Facial expressions

• Body language

• Sign language

• Eye gaze Picture Exchange Communication Systems (PECS)

c) Types of Aided AAC systems

• Picture Exchange Communication Systems (PECS)

• Communication boards/books

• with symbols or words

• Alphabet boards

• Calendar Systems

• High-Technology Aided AAC such as Speech-generating devices (SGDs)

Text-to-speech apps on tablets or smartphones

• Computer-based communication systems with voice output)

2.3 Non-Technological Augmentative and Alternative Communication systems
(4hrs)

a) Types of non-technological AAC Systems

i) Communication Boards

ii) Communication Books

iii) Alphabet Boards

iv) Sentence Strips

v) Visual Schedules

vi) Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS)

vii) Tactile Symbols Communication

viii) Passports Gesture-based Systems,

ix) Language

x) Facial Expressions and Body Language

xi) (calendar system

b) Use of non-technological AAC Systems to enhance communication

i. Facilitating expression of needs and wants

ii) Supporting comprehension and understanding

iii) Promoting social interaction

iv)Enhancing classroom participation

v)Reducing frustration from communication barriers

vi) Encouraging independence

vii) Providing alternative means for non-verbal learners

viii. Supporting language development

ix) Aiding behavior management

x) Reinforcing learning through visual or tactile cues

2.4 Technological Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC) (4hrs)

a) Types of Technological AAC systems

i. Speech Generating Devices

ii) Tablet or Phone-Based AAC Display Devices

iii) Voice Output Communication Aids (VOCAs)

iv) Eye-tracking Communication Devices

v) Text-to Speech Devices

vi) Switch-activated AAC tools

vii) Computer-based Communication Software

b) Use of Technological AAC tools and devices

• Learner’s Communication Needs,

 Motor Skills

• Cognitive abilities,

 6Y\]HY
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 THYH Ease of Use

• Portability

• Accessibility

• Durability

• Availability

DEFINATION OF TERMS AND CONCEPTS

1. Communication
Communication is the process of exchanging information, thoughts, ideas, and
feelings between individuals through speaking, writing, gestures, or other forms.

Key Elements:

 Sender: The person who conveys the message.

 Message: The content being communicated.
 Medium: The channel used (e.g., speech, sign language, pictures).
 Receiver: The person who receives and interprets the message.
 Feedback: The response given by the receiver.

Importance in Special Needs Education:

 Foundation for learning, social interaction, and emotional expression.

 Helps build relationships and foster independence

2. Effective Communication
Effective communication occurs when the intended message is clearly delivered,
understood, and responded to appropriately.

Features:

 Clarity and simplicity

 Appropriate language and mode
  Active listening
 Empathy and respect
 Non-verbal cues (facial expressions, tone)

For Learners with Special Needs:

 Requires adaptation to individual abilities (e.g., using AAC devices, visual

aids).
 May involve slower pacing and repetition.

3. Modes of Communication
Modes of communication refer to the different ways or methods used to convey
messages.

Types:

a. Verbal Communication

 Spoken language (e.g., oral instructions, conversations)

 Written language (e.g., text, symbols)

b. Non-Verbal Communication

 Body language, facial expressions, gestures, eye contact

 Often crucial for non-speaking individuals

c. Visual Communication

 Pictures, symbols, signs, charts (e.g., PECS – Picture Exchange

Communication System)

d. Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC)

 Unaided AAC: Sign language, gestures

 Aided AAC: Communication boards, speech-generating devices, tablets

e. Technology-Assisted Communication

 Software/apps for speech-to-text, visual storytelling, or symbol use

 Eye-tracking systems and adaptive keyboards
 4. Communication Skills
These are the abilities that allow individuals to convey and receive messages
effectively.

Key Skills:

 Expressive skills: Ability to express thoughts and feelings (speaking,

signing, writing)
 Receptive skills: Ability to understand and interpret messages
 Social skills: Turn-taking, topic maintenance, understanding social cues
 Listening skills: Active attention, response to messages

For Learners with Disabilities:

 Skills may develop differently or need tailored support.

 May need structured teaching and visual/social supports

5. Communication Difficulties
Challenges in understanding, using, or processing verbal and/or non-verbal
messages.

Causes:

 Developmental disorders (e.g., autism, Down syndrome)

 Speech/language disorders
 Hearing impairment
 Cognitive or intellectual disabilities
 Physical impairments affecting speech or motor control

Examples:

 Difficulty forming words/sentences

 Limited vocabulary or comprehension
 Challenges with social interaction or body language
 Reliance on gestures or symbols instead of spoken language

Support Strategies:

 Use of AAC systems

 Visual schedules and cues
 Simplified language and repetition
  Speech and language therapy
 Inclusive communication environment

Functions of Communication for Learners with Special Needs and Disabilities

Communication serves multiple purposes in everyday life. For learners with

special needs and disabilities, understanding and supporting each function is key to
promoting inclusion, independence, and learning.

i)Informative Function

This function is used to share or receive information, facts, or knowledge.

Examples:

 A learner tells a teacher they are feeling unwell.

 A teacher gives instructions or explains a concept.
 Using pictures to indicate weather or schedule.

Application for Learners with Special Needs:

 May require visual supports (e.g., picture cards, schedules).

 Simplified language and repetition help with understanding.
 AAC tools (e.g., speech devices) can support learners who are non-verbal.

ii) Expressive or Emotional Function

Used to express personal feelings, emotions, or inner thoughts.

Examples:

 A child shows frustration through body language or facial expressions.

 A learner uses sign language to say they are happy.
 Emotional cues like crying, smiling, or tantrums.

Support for Learners with Special Needs:

 Teach emotion vocabulary using visuals.

 Use emotion charts or mood meters to help non-verbal learners express
feelings.
  Encourage safe expression through art, play, or therapy.

iii) Directive or Persuasive Function

Used to instruct, command, request, or influence others' behavior or thoughts.

Examples:

 A student requests a break using a communication card.

 A teacher motivates learners to complete a task.
 A peer persuades another to join a game.

Support for Learners with Special Needs:

 Teach polite ways to make requests (e.g., ―I want‖, ―Can I have…‖).

 Use choice boards to allow learners to direct their preferences.
 Practice role-plays to teach social influence appropriately.

iv) Phatic or Social Function

Used to initiate or maintain social interaction and build relationships.

Examples:

 Saying ―hello,‖ ―how are you?‖ or waving.

 Engaging in small talk or classroom greetings.
 Sharing time or activities with others.

Support for Learners with Special Needs:

 Use social scripts to teach greetings and conversation starters.

 Incorporate peer buddy systems to encourage interaction.
 Support turn-taking and eye contact with structured games

 v) Metalinguistic Function

Used to reflect on or talk about language itself (language about language).

Examples:

 Explaining the meaning of a word.

 Asking ―What does that word mean?‖
  Learning grammar or sentence structure.

Support for Learners with Special Needs:

 Use visual grammar tools and simple explanations.

 Practice with concrete examples and repetition.
 For language disorders, speech therapy may target metalinguistic skills.

vi) Poetic or Aesthetic Function

Definition:

Used to create beauty, rhythm, or emotional impact in language, often through

creative expression.

Examples:

 Reciting poems or rhymes.

 Telling stories or jokes.
 Singing songs with rhythm and rhyme.

Support for Learners with Special Needs:

 Use rhyming activities, music, or storybooks with visuals.

 Encourage creativity with sensory-friendly materials.
 Adapt poems using sign language or AAC for accessibility.

vii) Regulative Function

Used to control or guide behavior in social and classroom settings.

Examples:

 A teacher setting rules or routines.

 A learner being reminded to wait their turn.
 Students using language to negotiate rules in a game.

Support for Learners with Special Needs:

 Use visual rules and behavior charts.

 Reinforce with positive behavior support strategies.
 Practice using cue cards or prompting techniques for self-regulation.
Summary:

Each function of communication plays a vital role in the holistic development of

learners with special needs. Supporting these functions through adaptive methods
ensures learners can:

 Express themselves
 Understand others
 Build relationships
 Participate meaningfully in learning and social environments

Principles of Effective Communication (with Learners with Special Needs and

Disabilities

Clarity

Using clear, simple, and understandable language to ensure the message is easily
comprehended.

 Application to Learners with Special Needs:

o Use plain language and avoid jargon or complex terms.
o Speak slowly and clearly, especially for learners with auditory
processing disorders.
o Use visual supports (e.g., pictures, symbols, gestures) to reinforce
spoken or written messages.
o For learners with intellectual disabilities or autism, instructions should
be broken down into step-by-step formats.

ii) Conciseness

Conveying information in as few words as necessary without losing meaning.

 Application to Learners with Special Needs:

o Avoid overwhelming learners with lengthy explanations.
o Deliver one idea or instruction at a time.
o Use bullet points or key words for written communication (e.g., for
learners with dyslexia or ADHD).
 o Keep sentences short and focused, especially when using assistive
communication devices.

iii) Relevance

Ensuring that the communication is directly related to the topic or purpose at hand.

 Application to Learners with Special Needs:

o Use real-life examples that are familiar or meaningful to the learner.
o Tailor content to individual learning goals and interests to maintain
engagement.
o Avoid off-topic or abstract information that may confuse learners with
autism or cognitive disabilities.
o Ensure materials and communication are culturally and contextually
appropriate.

iv) Empathy

Understanding and being sensitive to the feelings, experiences, and perspectives of

the learner.

 Application to Learners with Special Needs:

o Show patience and understanding when a learner struggles to
communicate.
o Use non-judgmental tone and body language.
o Acknowledge the learner’s effort, and validate their experiences or
emotions.
o Be aware of sensory sensitivities (e.g., tone, volume, or environment)
and adjust accordingly.
o Foster a supportive environment that builds trust and confidence.

v) Active Listening

Fully concentrating on what the speaker is saying, understanding it, and responding
thoughtfully.

 Application to Learners with Special Needs:

o Maintain eye level and eye contact where appropriate, but be
sensitive to learners with autism who may find this uncomfortable.
 o Use non-verbal cues (nodding, gestures) to show attentiveness.
o Allow extra time for learners to express themselves without
interrupting or rushing.
o Reflect and clarify understanding by paraphrasing or repeating back
key points.
o Be alert to alternative communication methods such as AAC
devices, sign language, or body language.

vi) Appropriate Feedback

Giving timely, respectful, and constructive responses that guide learning and
behavior.

 Application to Learners with Special Needs:

o Provide feedback that is specific, immediate, and positive.
o Use visual or tactile feedback tools (e.g., thumbs up, smiley faces)
for non-verbal learners.
o Avoid overly critical language; instead, focus on what the learner
did well and how to improve.
o Adapt feedback to suit the learner’s communication needs (e.g.,
simplified language or sign-supported speech).
o Encourage self-assessment and reflection where possible, to promote
independence and self-confidence.

1.2 Communication process

a) Components of the Communication Process

i) Source (Sender)

 The originator of the message, who initiates communication.

 In special needs contexts, the source may be:
o A teacher, caregiver, therapist, or peer.
o Someone using assistive technology (e.g., speech-generating
devices).
 Considerations:
o Use clear, simple language.
o Be aware of non-verbal cues (facial expressions, gestures).
o Ensure the sender is trained in inclusive communication strategies
(e.g., using sign language or visual aids).
ii) Message

 The content being communicated—ideas, emotions, instructions, or

information.
 For individuals with disabilities, messages may need to be:
o Simplified or broken down into manageable parts.
o Delivered using multi-sensory formats (visual, auditory, tactile).
o Tailored to the cognitive, sensory, or emotional needs of the
recipient.
 Examples:
o Using picture exchange systems for non-verbal individuals.
o Employing Braille or large print for visually impaired persons.

iii) Medium (Channel)

 The method or tool used to transmit the message.

 In special needs communication, this can include:
o Speech, sign language, written text, visual aids, tactile tools.
o Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC) devices.
o Digital platforms with accessibility features (e.g., screen readers).
 Key Considerations:
o Choose a medium that aligns with the recipient’s abilities and
preferences.
o Ensure the medium is accessible, reliable, and culturally
appropriate.

iv) Recipient (Receiver)

 The person who receives and interprets the message.

 In the context of disability:
o May have hearing, visual, cognitive, or speech impairments.
o Requires adapted communication methods to understand
effectively.
 Support Strategies:
o Provide personalized support (e.g., interpreters, communication
partners).
o Be patient and allow extra time for processing and responding.
o Use inclusive environments that reduce distractions and barriers.

v) Feedback
  The response from the recipient that indicates understanding or need for
clarification.
 Feedback may be:
o Verbal, non-verbal, written, or symbolic.
o Delivered through assistive devices or behavioral cues.
 Importance in Special Needs Context:
o Helps the sender adjust communication for clarity and effectiveness.
o Encourages active participation and builds confidence.
o Feedback mechanisms should be flexible and respectful of the
individual's communication style.
o

b) Elements of effective communication

Form and Function

Form – How communication is expressed

 Refers to the physical or symbolic means used to convey a message.

 In learners with disabilities, form may be verbal (speech) or non-verbal (signs, symbols,
gestures, AAC devices).
 Examples in disability context:
o Speech – for learners with mild impairments.
o Sign language – for hearing-impaired learners.
o Picture-based AAC boards – for non-verbal learners.
o Eye-gaze systems – for learners with cerebral palsy who have limited motor
control.

Function – Why communication is used

 Refers to the purpose or intent of communication.

 Common communication functions include:
o Requesting (asking for objects, help).
o Rejecting (saying ―no‖ or indicating dislike).
o Commenting (sharing observations or feelings).
o Greeting and social interaction (building relationships).
o Seeking information (asking questions).
 In disability context:
 o AAC tools and adapted communication methods should allow learners to perform
all essential communication functions, not just request items

2 Content – What is communicated

 Refers to the meaning, vocabulary, and ideas conveyed.
 Involves semantics (word meanings), syntax (sentence structure), and morphology
(word forms).
 In disability context:
o Content must match the learner’s cognitive level and life experiences.
o For learners with intellectual disabilities, start with concrete, familiar
vocabulary before moving to abstract terms.
o Visual and tactile supports may be used to make content clearer.
 Examples:
o For a deafblind learner – content may be delivered via tactile symbols.
o For a learner with autism – content should be literal and avoid ambiguous phrases.

3. Context – Where, when, and with whom communication

occurs
 Refers to the environment, situation, and interaction partners that influence
communication.
 Includes physical context (location, materials), social context (relationship between
speakers), and cultural context.
 In disability context:
o Context should be structured to reduce barriers (e.g., quiet spaces for learners
with hearing impairments).
o Consistent communication methods should be used across home, school, and
community.
o Peers and teachers should be trained to interact effectively with the learner’s
chosen communication mode.
 Examples:
o For a learner with hearing loss – providing visual cues and good lighting.
o For a learner with cerebral palsy – arranging seating for optimal eye-gaze device
use.

1.3 forms of communication

a) Expressive Communication (Verbal and Non-Verbal)

Expressive communication refers to the ways individuals convey thoughts,

feelings, needs, and ideas to others. For learners with special needs or disabilities,
communication may be enhanced, adapted, or supported through various modes
depending on their abilities and challenges

i) Spoken/Oral Communication

Use of spoken words to express ideas or feelings.

 Relevance to Special Needs:

o Some learners (e.g., with Down Syndrome, autism, speech
impairments) may struggle with articulation or fluency.
o Speech therapy or augmentative and alternative communication
(AAC) devices may support development.
 Strategies:
o Simplify language.
o Use repetition.
o Allow extra response time

ii) Written Communication

Use of symbols, letters, or text to communicate ideas.

 Relevance to Special Needs:

o Learners with dyslexia, visual impairments, or fine motor difficulties
may have challenges.
o May need assistive technology (e.g., text-to-speech, Braille devices).
 Adaptations:
o Use of large print or alternative fonts.
o Writing with support tools (grips, keyboards).
o Visual aids to support comprehension.

iii) Signed Communication

Use of structured sign language (e.g., Kenyan Sign Language, ASL) to

express thoughts.

 Relevance to Special Needs:

o Vital for deaf or hard-of-hearing learners.
o Also used by learners with speech impairments or non-verbal autism.
 Considerations:
o Requires trained interpreters or teacher
iv) Facial Expressions

 Movements of the face to convey emotions or reactions.

 Relevance to Special Needs:
o Children with autism may not use or interpret facial cues effectively.
o Facial expressions are a universal but sometimes misinterpreted form
of communication.
 Teaching Support:
o Use emotion cards or mirrors to practice expressions.
o Encourage observation of others’ faces.

v) Gestures

Movements of hands or arms to convey meaning.

 Relevance to Special Needs:

o Important for children with speech delays or intellectual disabilities.
o Often a bridge to verbal language.
 Supportive Use:
o Use consistent gestures for classroom routines.
o Encourage "total communication" (speaking + gestures)

vi) Body Language

Physical behaviors, aside from facial expressions or gestures, that communicate

messages (e.g., fidgeting, leaning in).

 Relevance to Special Needs:

o Learners with ADHD or sensory processing disorders may display
unique body language.
o Important for teachers to read and respond to these cues with
understanding.
 Support:
o Teach social skills to help learners understand how their body
language affects others.

vii) Posture

The position or alignment of the body when sitting or standing.

Relevance to Special Needs:

May indicate a learner’s engagement or discomfort.

Learners with physical disabilities may have limited posture control.

 Classroom Implications:
o Provide supportive seating or adaptive equipment.
o Avoid misinterpreting physical limitations as disinterest.

viii) Eye Contact

Looking directly into another person’s eyes during communication.

 Relevance to Special Needs:

o Learners with autism may find eye contact difficult or distressing.
o Culturally sensitive and should not be forced.
 Alternatives:
o Encourage looking at the speaker’s face generally.
o Use visual cues or pictures to facilitate turn-taking.

ix) Tactile Communication

Use of touch to convey messages (e.g., tapping on shoulder, hand-over-hand

guidance).

 Relevance to Special Needs:

o Essential for learners who are deaf-blind or have multiple disabilities.
o Also used in tactile sign language and physical prompting.
 Guidelines:
o Ensure consent and comfort.
o Respect personal boundaries and cultural norms.

b) Receptive Communication

Receptive communication is the ability to receive, process, and understand

information conveyed through various channels such as speech, visuals, touch,
writing, and environmental cues. For learners with special needs and disabilities,
receptive communication may be affected by sensory, cognitive, or physical
challenges. Understanding these different modes is crucial in providing inclusive,
effective support in learning environments.
i) Auditory Receptive Communication

The ability to understand spoken language and sounds received through hearing.

Relevance to Special Needs and Disabilities:

 Learners with hearing impairments, auditory processing disorder,

autism, or intellectual disabilities may have difficulties comprehending
verbal messages.
 Can result in misunderstanding instructions, delayed responses, or lack of
participation.

Support Strategies:

 Use of hearing aids, cochlear implants, or FM systems.

 Clear articulation, slower speech, and simple language.
 Repeating instructions and checking for understanding.
 Supplement with visual aids or sign language.

ii) Visual Receptive Communication

The ability to receive and interpret information through visual cues such as
gestures, pictures, facial expressions, or written words.

Relevance to Special Needs and Disabilities:

 Learners with visual impairments, autism spectrum disorder (ASD), or

cognitive delays may struggle to interpret visual input.
 Learners with autism may focus on parts of visual cues while missing the
whole meaning.

Support Strategies:

 Use of high-contrast materials, large print, or Braille.

 Incorporation of visual schedules, symbols, and pictures to reinforce
learning.
 Teach learners to recognize facial expressions and body language

 iii) Tactile Receptive Communication
Understanding information received through the sense of touch.

Relevance to Special Needs and Disabilities:

  Crucial for learners who are deaf-blind, blind, or have multiple
disabilities.
 Used when auditory and visual channels are limited or unavailable.
 Support Strategies:

 Use of Braille and tactile symbols.

 Tactile signing or hand-over-hand guidance.
 Sensory-based materials to enhance comprehension.
 Ensure sensitivity to personal space and comfort when using tactile
strategies
 iv) Written Language Receptive Communication
Understanding and interpreting information presented in written format.

Relevance to Special Needs and Disabilities:

 Learners with dyslexia, language processing disorders, visual

impairments, or intellectual disabilities may face challenges with reading
and comprehension.
 Can impact academic progress, especially in literacy-based subjects.

Support Strategies:

 Use of assistive technologies (e.g., text-to-speech software, screen readers).

 Provide simplified texts or reading scaffolds.
 Offer multisensory reading strategies.
 Allow audio alternatives for written content.

v) Environmental / Contextual Receptive Communication

Understanding communication cues from the physical and social environment,
such as routines, setting arrangements, or social interactions.

Relevance to Special Needs and Disabilities:

 Learners with autism, ADHD, or intellectual disabilities may rely heavily

on environmental structure for understanding expectations.
 Unfamiliar or unpredictable environments can cause confusion or anxiety.

Support Strategies:

 Maintain predictable routines and structured environments.

  Use contextual cues such as bells, lights, or positioning to indicate
transitions or activities.
 Label materials and areas clearly to aid comprehension.
 Use visual timetables and environmental print.

c) Communication Modes
Communication modes are the various ways through which individuals express
and receive messages. For learners with special needs and disabilities,
communication may need to be modified, supported, or replaced depending on
their individual capabilities and challenges. Understanding these modes enables
educators and caregivers to adopt inclusive strategies that promote effective
interaction and learning.

i) Verbal Communication
Communication that involves the use of spoken language to convey thoughts,
ideas, or feelings.

Relevance to Learners with Special Needs:

 Learners with speech impairments, autism, or intellectual disabilities may

experience delays or difficulties in verbal expression.
 May have difficulty with pronunciation, fluency, or understanding spoken
words.

Support Strategies:

 Use of speech therapy and language development activities.

 Speaking clearly and slowly.
 Using repetition, simple language, and visual cues to enhance
understanding.

ii) Non-Verbal Communication

Communication without words, including facial expressions, body language,
gestures, eye contact, and tone of voice.

Relevance to Learners with Special Needs:

 Crucial for non-verbal learners or those with limited speech (e.g., learners
with autism, cerebral palsy).
 Some may struggle to understand or appropriately use non-verbal cues.
Support Strategies:

 Teach and model the meaning of facial expressions and gestures.

 Use visual emotion charts.
 Respect cultural and individual variations in non-verbal behaviors.

iii) Visual Communication

Communication through visual aids like pictures, symbols, charts, videos, and
written text.

Relevance to Learners with Special Needs:

 Learners with autism, speech and language delays, or hearing

impairments often benefit from visual supports.
 Learners with visual impairments may need alternative formats.

Support Strategies:

 Use of visual schedules, flashcards, picture exchange systems (PECS).

 High-contrast images and large print for those with low vision.
 Combine visuals with spoken or tactile input.

iv) Tactile Communication

Communication through the sense of touch, used when other sensory channels are
limited or unavailable.

Relevance to Learners with Special Needs:

 Especially important for learners who are deaf-blind or have severe visual
impairments.
 Also helpful for learners with multiple disabilities.

Support Strategies:

 Use of Braille, tactile symbols, or object-based communication.

 Hand-over-hand signing or tactile sign language.
 Incorporate real objects into communication activities.

v) Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC)
Any method of communication used to supplement or replace speech for
individuals who cannot use verbal communication effectively.

Types:

 Low-tech: Picture boards, communication books.

 High-tech: Speech-generating devices, communication apps.

Relevance to Learners with Special Needs:

 Beneficial for learners with non-verbal autism, cerebral palsy, speech

delays, or severe physical disabilities.
 Promotes independence and participation.

Support Strategies:

 Select AAC systems based on individual needs and abilities.

 Train both learners and caregivers on effective use.
 Integrate AAC use into daily routines and academic activities.

vi) Sign Language

A structured form of communication using manual signs, hand gestures, facial
expressions, and body movements.

Relevance to Learners with Special Needs:

 Primary mode for deaf or hard-of-hearing learners.

 Also helpful for learners with speech difficulties or those who are non-
verbal.

Support Strategies:

 Teach Kenyan Sign Language (KSL) or other relevant systems.

 Include interpreters in classrooms as needed.
 Encourage basic sign use among peers and educators for inclusivity.

vii) Written Communication

Use of letters, words, symbols, and sentences in written form to convey
messages.
Relevance to Learners with Special Needs:

 Learners with dyslexia, language processing issues, or visual impairments

may have difficulties with reading and writing.
 Some learners rely heavily on written text as a preferred communication
mode.

Support Strategies:

 Use of assistive technology (e.g., text-to-speech, screen readers).

 Provide simplified and accessible texts.
 Offer alternative writing tools (e.g., typing, speech-to-text software).

viii) Gestural Communication

Use of body movements and hand gestures to express meaning, ideas, or
emotions.

Relevance to Learners with Special Needs:

 Useful for learners with speech delays, intellectual disabilities, or non-

verbal conditions.
 Helps bridge the gap to more complex communication forms.

Support Strategies:

 Encourage use of natural gestures (e.g., pointing, waving).

 Teach consistent classroom-specific gestures for routines.
 Use gestures alongside verbal cues for reinforcement.

d) Challenges in receptive and expressive communication

i. Difficulty understanding spoken language,
ii. limited vocabulary comprehension
iii. problems with following directions
iv. challenges in understanding nonverbal cues
v. difficulty processing written language and expressive communication
vi. Limited verbal expression
vii. poor sentence structure and grammar
viii. articulation issues
ix. difficulty with written expression

e) Strategies of remediating receptive and expressive

communication
 using of simple and clear language
 visual support
 multi-sensory approach
 providing extra processing time
 use of technology
 modelling
 Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC)
 Speech and language therapy)

1.4 Barriers to Communication in Learners with Disabilities

Communication is essential for learning, social interaction, and self-expression.

However, learners with disabilities often face various barriers that hinder their
ability to send, receive, or interpret messages effectively. Understanding these
barriers helps teachers, caregivers, and stakeholders provide appropriate support
and intervention.

i) Physical Barriers
Obstacles that arise due to physical limitations affecting the learner’s ability to
communicate or access communication tools.

Examples:

 Impaired speech due to cleft palate, cerebral palsy, or motor disorders.

 Limited mobility affecting the use of communication devices, writing tools,
or sign language.
  Fatigue or physical discomfort that reduces ability to engage in
communication.

Implications:

 Reduced participation in verbal and written communication.

 Inability to use typical classroom tools (e.g., pens, boards, AAC devices).

Support Strategies:

 Provide assistive technology (speech-to-text, eye-gaze devices).

 Modify physical environments for easier access.
 Use alternative communication methods like AAC or sign language.

ii) Cognitive Barrier

Limitations in intellectual functioning that affect understanding, processing, and
using communication.

Examples:

 Learners with intellectual disabilities, Down syndrome, or traumatic

brain injuries may struggle to understand complex language or follow
conversations.
 Difficulties with memory, attention, and problem-solving may hinder
message interpretation.

Implications:

 Delayed response to communication.

 Misunderstanding instructions or questions.
 Limited vocabulary and comprehension.

Support Strategies:

 Use simple, clear language.

 Repeat and rephrase information.
 Provide visual supports and hands-on activities.

iii) Social Barriers

Challenges in social interaction that affect the learner's ability to initiate or
maintain communication.
Examples:

 Learners with autism spectrum disorder may have difficulties with social
cues, turn-taking, or maintaining eye contact.
 Poor peer relationships or social anxiety may prevent communication.

Implications:

 Isolation or withdrawal from group activities.

 Misinterpretation of others’ intentions.
 Reduced confidence in expressing oneself.

Support Strategies:

 Teach social communication skills (e.g., greetings, questions, responses).

 Use peer support programs or buddy systems.
 Create a safe, inclusive environment for all learners.

iv) Environmental Barriers

Aspects of the physical or learning environment that hinder effective
communication.

Examples:

 Noisy classrooms, poor lighting, or crowded spaces.

 Lack of visual aids or inaccessible teaching materials.
 Teachers or peers who are not trained in inclusive communication practices.

Implications:

 Distraction or overstimulation.
 Missed instructions or messages.
 Increased communication breakdowns.

Support Strategies:

 Minimize background noise and visual clutter.

 Use visual schedules, signs, and organized routines.
 Train staff on inclusive and accessible communication.
v) Presence of Disability
The nature or type of a learner’s disability can directly limit communication
abilities.

Examples:

 Hearing impairments limit auditory communication.

 Speech or language disorders affect verbal expression.
 Deaf-blindness restricts both auditory and visual communication modes.

Implications:

 Reliance on alternative communication methods.

 Difficulty in traditional classroom participation.
 Possible misinterpretation of a learner's abilities.

Support Strategies:

 Employ sign language, tactile communication, or AAC devices.

 Provide individualized education plans (IEPs).
 Encourage acceptance and use of diverse communication styles.

vi) Delayed Language Acquisition

Slower than typical development of language skills in areas like vocabulary,
grammar, and sentence formation.

Examples:

 Learners with developmental delays, hearing loss, or autism may have

delayed speech and language.
 Learners from linguistically diverse backgrounds may face dual-language
challenges.

Implications:

 Difficulty expressing needs or ideas clearly.

 Struggles in understanding instructions and participating in discussions.
 Risk of academic underachievement and low self-esteem.

Support Strategies:
  Early identification and speech-language therapy.
 Consistent exposure to rich language environments.
 Use of visual supports, modeling, and repetition.

b) Effects of communication barriers on learning and

interaction

i. Limited participation in the learning experiences

ii. Lower academic performance
iii. Social isolation
iv. Low self-esteem
v. Limited peer interaction
vi. Misunderstandings and conflict
vii. Dependence on support)
2.0 Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC)

Terms and concepts

1. Augmentative Communication
Refers to strategies, methods, or tools used to supplement a person’s existing speech or
communication abilities. It supports individuals who can speak but whose verbal communication
is limited, unclear, or insufficient to meet their communication needs.
Example: A child with cerebral palsy using picture cards to add detail to spoken words.

2. Alternative Communication
Refers to methods, strategies, or tools used to replace speech entirely when a person is unable
to speak at all. It provides a different way to communicate.
Example: A nonverbal learner with autism using a speech-generating device instead of speech.

3. Aided Communication
A type of AAC that requires external tools or devices to convey messages. These can range
from low-tech (e.g., communication boards, picture books) to high-tech (e.g., tablets with AAC
software, eye-gaze devices).
Example: Using a tablet with text-to-speech software.

4. Unaided Communication
A type of AAC that does not require any external tools, relying instead on the person’s own
body to communicate. It includes gestures, facial expressions, body language, and sign language.
Example: Using sign language or pointing to indicate choice.

5. Symbols in AAC
Visual, auditory, or tactile representations that stand for objects, actions, concepts, or ideas to
support communication. Symbols can include pictures, photos, written words, or tactile objects.
Example: A picture of a cup representing ―drink.‖

6. Symbol System
An organized set or collection of symbols with rules for how they are used to represent language
within an AAC framework. Symbol systems can be standardized or customized and may be
visual, tactile, or auditory.
Example: Blissymbols (a standardized graphic symbol system) or PECS (Picture Exchange
Communication System).

Benefits of AAC

i. Facilitating Communication
ii. enhancing comprehension
iii. supporting language development
iv. promoting social interaction
v. aiding academic participation
vi. reducing frustration and behaviour challenges
vii. building esteem and confidence
viii. encouraging independence
ix. fostering inclusion

CATEGORIES OF LEARNERS WHO NEED AAC

i)Deafblind

Learners with combined hearing and vision loss, which can be partial or total.
AAC Needs:
  Communication systems must rely on tactile and sensory modalities.
 Often require tactile sign language, Braille communication devices, or object symbols.
Examples of AAC:
 Tactile signing (e.g., tactile American Sign Language).
 Braille note-takers.
 Object cues (specific objects representing activities).
Special Considerations:
 High need for one-on-one interaction.
 AAC must be adapted to touch and residual senses.

Intellectual Disability
Learners with below-average intellectual functioning and limitations in adaptive behavior.
AAC Needs:

 Systems must be simple, repetitive, and consistent to aid learning.

 Use concrete symbols before abstract ones.
Examples of AAC:
 Picture boards with real-life images.
 Speech-generating devices with simple vocabulary.
 Visual schedules.
Special Considerations:
 Repetition and reinforcement are essential.
 Vocabulary should match the learner’s daily experiences.

3. Cerebral Palsy
Neurological disorder affecting movement, muscle tone, and motor control, often impacting
speech production.
AAC Needs:

 May require switch-activated or eye-gaze systems due to limited fine motor control.
 Systems must accommodate motor challenges.
Examples of AAC:
 Eye-tracking communication devices.
 Head-pointer systems for computer access.
 Large button communication boards.
Special Considerations:
 Positioning and physical support are critical.
 Fatigue management for long communication sessions.

4. Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

Developmental condition affecting social communication, interaction, and behavior.
AAC Needs:
  Highly visual and structured systems.
 Predictable layouts to reduce anxiety.
Examples of AAC:
 Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS).
 Visual schedules and storyboards.
 Speech-generating tablets with structured categories.
Special Considerations:
 Gradual introduction of AAC to avoid sensory overload.
 Consistent use across home and school settings.

5. Hearing Impaired
Partial hearing loss affecting communication ability.
AAC Needs:

 For those who do not use spoken language effectively, AAC can supplement or replace
speech.
 May use sign-based or text-based AAC.
Examples of AAC:
 Sign language or sign-supported speech.
 Real-time captioning devices.
 Text messaging systems.
Special Considerations:
 Early exposure to visual language is key.
 Choice of AAC depends on residual hearing and communication environment.

6. Learning Disabilities
Disorders affecting processing of spoken or written language, reasoning, or math (e.g., dyslexia,
dysgraphia).
AAC Needs:

 Focus on supporting literacy and expression rather than replacing speech entirely.
Examples of AAC:
 Word prediction software.
 Speech-to-text programs.
 Graphic organizers and visual aids.
Special Considerations:
 AAC should support rather than hinder literacy skill development.
 May be combined with remedial teaching strategies.

7. Multiple Disabilities
Co-occurrence of two or more disabilities (e.g., cerebral palsy with hearing impairment).
AAC Needs:
  Highly individualized systems combining features for different impairments.
Examples of AAC:
 Multi-modal systems (e.g., eye gaze + tactile symbols).
 Custom-made communication boards with large, tactile symbols.
 Hybrid devices with voice output and Braille display.
Special Considerations:
 Requires cross-disciplinary assessment (speech therapist, special educator, occupational
therapist).
 Adaptability and flexibility are essential.

Communication Disorders
Communication disorders are conditions that affect a person’s ability to receive, process,
send, or understand verbal, non-verbal, or written communication effectively.

They can impact speech, language, hearing, voice, or overall communication skills, and may
occur from birth (developmental) or be acquired later in life due to illness, injury, or aging.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION DISODERS

A. Speech Disorders

Problems in producing speech sounds correctly or fluently.

Examples:

1. Articulation disorders – difficulty forming certain sounds (e.g., lisp, replacing ―r‖ with
―w‖).
2. Phonological disorders – patterns of sound errors (e.g., dropping final consonants).
3. Fluency disorders – interruptions in the flow of speech (e.g., stuttering, cluttering).
4. Voice disorders – abnormal pitch, volume, or quality due to vocal cord problems.

Impact on Learners:

 Difficulty in being understood by peers and teachers.

 Can cause frustration and social withdrawal.

B. Language Disorders

Difficulty understanding (receptive) or expressing (expressive) language.

Examples:

1. Receptive language disorder – trouble understanding spoken or written language.

2. Expressive language disorder – difficulty forming sentences or finding words.
 3. Mixed receptive-expressive disorder – problems in both understanding and producing
language.

Impact on Learners:

 Challenges in following instructions, reading comprehension, and class participation.

 Can affect literacy development.

C. Pragmatic (Social Communication) Disorders

Difficulty using language appropriately in social contexts.

Examples:

 Inappropriate tone, difficulty taking turns in conversation, or misunderstanding non-

verbal cues.
Common in: Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), intellectual disabilities.
Impact on Learners:
 Misunderstandings with peers and difficulty building relationships.

D. Voice Disorders

Problems with pitch, loudness, resonance, or quality of the voice.

Causes: Vocal cord damage, neurological conditions, overuse of voice.
Impact on Learners:

 Strained or abnormal voice affects classroom communication and participation.

E. Fluency Disorders

Interruptions in the smooth flow of speech.

Examples:

 Stuttering – repetitions, prolongations, or blocks in speech.

 Cluttering – rapid and/or irregular speech rate.
Impact on Learners:
 May avoid speaking in class, leading to reduced participation.

3. Causes of Communication Disorders in Learners with

Disabilities
 Neurological conditions (e.g., cerebral palsy, brain injury).
 Hearing impairments affecting speech development.
 Developmental disorders (e.g., autism, Down syndrome).
 Structural abnormalities (e.g., cleft palate).
 Genetic syndromes linked to speech-language delays.
  Environmental factors (e.g., lack of early language exposure).

4. Effects on Learning and Social Interaction

 Difficulty following instructions and classroom discussions.
 Challenges in expressing needs, thoughts, and ideas.
 Limited participation in group activities.
 Low self-esteem due to communication barriers.
 Increased risk of academic underachievement.

5. Intervention Strategies in Special Needs Education

 Speech and language therapy (individual or group).
 Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC) tools (communication boards,
speech-generating devices).
 Sign language or visual communication aids.
 Inclusive teaching strategies (short instructions, visual supports).
 Collaboration with speech-language pathologists, special educators, and parents.

6. Importance of Early Identification and Support

 Enhances academic performance.
 Prevents secondary emotional or behavioral problems.
 Improves social integration.
 Increases independence and self-confidence.

Characteristics of learners in need of AAC

i. Limited or absent verbal speech
ii. difficulty initiating or sustaining communication
iii. delayed Language development
iv. require alternative methods to communicate
v. experiences frustration or behavioural issues linked to communication challenges
vi. presence of vision and hearing loss
vii. cognitive deficit
viii. reliance on consistent routines and visual supports
2.2 Types of AAC Unaided/Non-aided AAC systems and Aided
AAC systems

a) Difference between Unaided and Aided AAC systems

Aided AAC involves external support like devices or symbols while Unaided AAC relies only on the user's
body for communication using gestures signs or body language

Types of Unaided AAC Systems

1. Waving

A common gesture used to greet, say goodbye, or signal attention without speech.

 Importance in Special Needs: Useful for learners with limited verbal skills to initiate or
end interactions.
 Example: A child with Down syndrome waving to greet a teacher.

2. Pointing

Using a finger, hand, or other body part to indicate an object, direction, or choice.

 Importance in Special Needs: Helps learners with speech difficulties to make selections
or express needs.
 Example: A learner pointing to a toy to indicate they want to play.

3. Facial Expression

Movements of the face that convey emotions, reactions, or intent.

 Importance in Special Needs: Can enhance understanding when speech is unclear or

absent.
 Example: Smiling to show happiness or frowning to indicate discomfort.

4. Body Language

Non-verbal communication through posture, movement, or physical orientation.

 Importance in Special Needs: Allows learners to express mood, willingness, or

reluctance without words.
  Example: Leaning forward to show interest or turning away to signal disinterest.

5. Sign Language

A formal system of manual communication using hand shapes, movements, and facial
expressions to represent words and concepts.

 Importance in Special Needs: Provides a complete language alternative for those with
severe speech and hearing impairments.
 Example: Kenyan Sign Language (KSL) or American Sign Language (ASL) used by
learners with hearing impairments

6. Eye Gaze

Using eye movement or direction of gaze to indicate choices, objects, or people.

 Importance in Special Needs: Particularly useful for individuals with severe motor
impairments who cannot use their hands.
 Example: A learner with cerebral palsy looking at a specific picture to communicate a
choice.

7. Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS)

A structured AAC approach where individuals exchange pictures to communicate needs and
ideas.

 Note: While PECS uses pictures (which are ―aided‖), the physical act of exchanging
them can be paired with unaided cues like pointing or gestures, especially in early stages.
 Importance in Special Needs: Effective for learners with autism and limited speech to
initiate communication.
 Example: A learner handing a picture of a snack to a teacher to request food.

Types of Aided AAC Systems

1. Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS)

 Definition: A structured communication method where individuals use pictures or

symbols to express needs, wants, and ideas.
 How it Works: The user selects a picture and physically gives it to a communication
partner to convey a message.
 Importance in Special Needs:
 o Encourages initiation of communication.
o Particularly effective for learners with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), speech
delays, or limited verbal skills.
 Example: A learner handing over a picture of water to request a drink.

2. Communication Boards/Books

 Definition: Flat boards or bound books containing symbols, pictures, or words that a user
can point to in order to communicate.
 How it Works: The user indicates a desired message by touching or pointing to items on
the board/book.
 Importance in Special Needs:
o Portable and low-cost option.
o Useful for learners with physical or speech impairments.
 Example: A learner with cerebral palsy using a laminated board with food pictures to
order lunch.

3. Systems with Symbols or Words

 Definition: AAC tools that use printed or digital symbols (pictures, icons, logos) and/or
written words to represent communication concepts.
 How it Works: Can be integrated into boards, books, or digital devices; users select the
symbol or word that matches their intended message.
 Importance in Special Needs:
o Supports literacy development.
o Helps learners with varied cognitive abilities.
 Example: A tablet AAC app showing both symbols and corresponding words for ―eat,‖
―drink,‖ or ―play.‖

. Alphabet Boards

Low-tech communication boards containing the letters of the alphabet arranged in sequence.The
user points to, touches, or gazes at letters to spell out words and messages.

 Importance in Special Needs:

o Suitable for literate users with speech impairments.
o Allows flexible message creation.
 Example: A person with ALS pointing to letters on an alphabet board to form sentences.

Calendar Systems
Visual or tactile calendars used as communication tools to represent events, activities, or routines
over time.

Uses objects, pictures, or symbols arranged by days/weeks/months to help learners anticipate and
discuss activities.

 Importance in Special Needs:

o Supports time-based communication for learners with visual impairments, deaf-
blindness, or intellectual disabilities.
o Helps in routine planning and reducing anxiety.
 Example: A tactile weekly calendar for a learner with deaf-blindness showing symbols
for school, therapy, and home days.

High-Technology Aided AAC Systems

a) Speech Generating Devices (SGDs)

Electronic devices that produce spoken words or phrases when the user selects symbols, words, or
letters.

 Importance in Special Needs:

o Provides a voice for non-verbal individuals.
o Can store a large vocabulary and be customized.
 Example: A tablet-based AAC app that says ―I’m hungry‖ when the user taps the food
icon.

b) Computer-Based Communication Systems with Voice Output

AAC systems using computers or specialized software to generate speech output when the user
types text or selects icons.

 Importance in Special Needs:

o Offers dynamic communication for literate and non-literate users.
o Allows integration with environmental control systems and online
communication.
 Example: A computer with eye-tracking software allowing a person with severe motor
impairments to type messages that are then spoken aloud.

2.3 Types of Non-Technological AAC Systems

 1. Communication Books
A book containing words, pictures, symbols, or photos arranged by category (e.g.,
food, people, places).

 Use: Learners point to or select symbols to communicate needs or feelings.

 Ideal for: Learners with limited speech but the ability to point or indicate
choices.

2. Communication Boards
A flat surface (board) displaying symbols, words, or pictures used for
communication.

 Use: The learner points to images or symbols to express themselves.

 Types: Topic-specific (e.g., classroom board) or general-use boards.

3. Alphabet Boards
A board displaying letters of the alphabet.

 Use: Users spell out words by pointing to letters.

 Ideal for: Learners with literacy skills but speech impairments.
 4. Sentence Strips

Strips with symbols or words arranged in a line to form basic sentences.

 Use: Learners construct sentences (e.g., ―I want juice‖) using word or

symbol cards.
 Helps with: Sentence formation and understanding sentence structure.

5. Visual Schedules
A sequence of pictures or symbols showing daily routines or activities.

 Use: Helps learners know what to expect, reducing anxiety and promoting
independence.
 Common in: Autism support and special education classrooms.

6. Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS)

A structured system where learners exchange pictures for desired items or actions.
  Use: Starts with simple exchanges and progresses to building sentences.
 Best for: Non-verbal or minimally verbal learners (often with autism).

7. Tactile Symbols

Symbols that can be felt, often made from textured materials or objects.

Learners touch or feel symbols to communicate or understand messages.

 Ideal for: Learners who are blind, deaf-blind, or have multiple sensory
impairments.

8. Communication Passport
A personalized booklet that contains key information about a learner’s
communication preferences, likes, dislikes, and needs.

 Use: Shared with teachers, therapists, and caregivers to improve interaction.

 Benefit: Promotes person-centered communication.

9. Gesture-Based Systems
Use of intentional body movements to express ideas.

 Examples: Pointing, nodding, thumbs up.

 Use: Especially helpful for learners with speech delays or apraxia.

10. Sign Language

A full language system using hand movements, facial expressions, and body
positioning.

 Examples: Kenyan Sign Language (KSL), American Sign Language (ASL).

 Use: For learners who are deaf, non-verbal, or have limited speech.

11. Facial Expression and Body Language

Natural non-verbal cues that communicate emotion or intent.

 Examples: Smiling, frowning, shrugging shoulders.

 Use: Important for learners with minimal verbal communication, used in
combination with other AAC tools.

  12. Calendar Systems

Tactile or visual calendars showing past, present, and future events or activities.

 Use: Helps learners understand time concepts and prepare for transitions.
 Best for: Learners with autism, intellectual disabilities, or visual
impairments.

Use of non-technological AAC Systems to enhance communication

i. Facilitating expression of needs and wants

ii. Supporting comprehension and understanding
iii. Promoting social interaction
iv. Facilitating expression of needs and wants
v. Supporting comprehension and understanding
vi. Promoting social interaction
vii. Enhancing classroom participation
viii. Reducing frustration from communication barriers
ix. Encouraging independence
x. Providing alternative means for non-verbal learners
xi. Supporting language development
xii. Aiding behavior management
xiii. Reinforcing learning through visual or tactile cues

2.4 TECHNOLOGICAL AUGMENTATIVE AND ALTERNATIVE COMMUNICATION

Technological AAC Systems

Technological AAC systems use electronic devices or digital tools to help

individuals with communication impairments express themselves and understand
others. These tools are especially helpful for learners who have limited speech,
non-verbal communication, or motor impairments.
Types of Technological AAC Systems

1. Speech Generating Devices (SGDs)

Electronic devices that produce spoken words or messages when a user selects
symbols, text, or images.

Helps non-verbal or minimally verbal learners communicate clearly with others.

 Examples:
o Dynavox devices
o GoTalk NOW
o
 Suitable for: Learners with autism, cerebral palsy, intellectual disabilities, or
speech impairments.

2. Tablet or Phone-Based AAC

Use of mobile devices such as tablets or smartphones equipped with AAC

apps.Offers portability and flexibility in communication.

 Examples of apps:
o Proloquo2Go
o TouchChat HD
o JABtalk
 Advantages:
o Affordable and widely accessible
o Customizable for different levels of ability

3. Display Devices

Devices with visual displays (like screens) showing icons, text, or symbols that
users can select.

 Use: Users interact with the screen using touch, eye gaze, or switches.
 Examples:
o Grid Pad

Tobii Dynavox I-Series

  Ideal for: Learners with physical or motor challenges who can’t use
standard input methods.

4. Voice Output Communication Aids (VOCAs)

Devices or software that convert written or selected input into spoken words.

 Use: Enhances verbal communication for users who are unable to speak.
 Types:
o Pre-recorded message devices
o Text-to-speech devices
o
 Benefits:
o Improves independence in communication
o Useful in classroom and social settings

5. Communication Aids (VOCAs - Voice Output Communication Aids)

Specialized devices that provide voice output based on user selection.

Often grouped with SGDs but can include simpler or more customizable tools.

 Examples:

BIGmack switch (records single messages)

o Lightwriter
 Use: Ideal for learners with severe speech impairments and limited
motor skills.

6. Eye Tracking Communication Devices

Devices that track eye movement to control the interface and select icons or
words.

Allows communication without physical touch—essential for learners with

limited motor control.

 Examples:
o Tobii Dynavox Eye Gaze systems
o PRC Accent with Look Eye Tracking
  Best for: Individuals with cerebral palsy, ALS, or spinal cord injuries.

7. Switch-Activated AAC Tools

Devices activated by simple switches (buttons, foot pedals, or head movement

sensors).

 Use: Switches allow users with limited mobility to scan and select messages
or icons.
 Examples:
o Single-message switches (BIGmack)
o Scanning communication devices
 Advantages:
o Promotes independence
o Tailored for users with profound physical disabilities

8. Computer-Based Communication Software

Software programs installed on computers that support text-to-speech, symbol

communication, or visual supports.

 Use: Provides versatile communication and learning support.

 Examples:
o Boardmaker
o Clicker 8
o Communicate: In Print
 Suitable for: Learners who can use a mouse, keyboard, or adapted inputs

Use of Technological AAC Tools and Devices

i) Learners’ Communication Needs and Motor Skills

Communication Needs

o Speech Impairments: Tools like speech-generating devices (SGDs) and tablet-

based AAC apps enable learners who cannot speak to express needs, feelings, and
ideas.
o Expressive vs. Receptive Communication: Some devices are tailored for
learners who struggle to produce speech, while others support understanding (e.g.,
symbol-based communication boards with voice output).
o Customization: Vocabulary and messages can be adapted to match the learner’s
daily routines, interests, and social contexts.
 o Multimodal Support: Many devices combine text, symbols, and pictures to
bridge communication gaps.

Motor Skills

o Direct Touch Access: For learners with fine motor control, touchscreens and
buttons allow easy selection of symbols or words.
o Alternative Access Methods:
 Eye-tracking systems for learners with limited limb movement.
 Switch scanning for learners with severe physical impairments.
 Head-pointer or joystick for those unable to use touchscreens.
o Adjustable Sensitivity: Touch sensitivity, button size, and interface layout can be
modified for learners with tremors or muscle weakness.

Cognitive Abilities

o Symbol Complexity: Devices can use simple pictures for learners with
intellectual disabilities or complex text-based options for advanced users.
o Progressive Language Development: Some AAC systems can grow with the
learner’s abilities, starting with single icons and moving to full sentences.
o Memory Support: Predictive text and voice output aid learners with memory or
processing difficulties.

Ease of Use

o User-Friendly Interfaces: Large icons, clear labeling, and intuitive navigation

reduce learning difficulty.
o Minimal Steps to Output: Reducing the number of selections needed to produce
speech improves communication speed.
o Training & Support: Teachers, parents, and peers require training for effective
tool use.

Portability

o Lightweight Devices: Tablets, smartphones, and compact SGDs allow

communication anywhere.
o Wearable Options: Devices that can be strapped to wheelchairs or worn around
the neck enhance mobility.

Accessibility

o Multilingual Support: Devices can be programmed to output in multiple

languages.
o Adjustable Displays: Font size, contrast, and voice tone can be personalized for
visual or hearing impairments.
 o Integration with Other Technologies: AAC tools can connect to smartboards,
computers, or environmental controls.

Durability

o Rugged Construction: Shockproof and water-resistant designs protect devices

from damage in school and home environments.
o Long Battery Life: Ensures uninterrupted communication during long school
days.

Availability

o Cost Factors: Some high-tech AAC devices are expensive, but tablet-based AAC
apps offer affordable alternatives.
o Local Access: Availability may depend on government provision, NGO support,
or import policies.
o Open-Source and Free Options: Some free apps and software make AAC
accessible to more learners.