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Metal Cutting
Main Takeaway: Metal cutting transforms bulk workpieces into desired geometries by shearing
material through a sharp tool. Understanding the mechanics, tool geometry, forces, and material
behavior is essential to optimize cutting performance, surface quality, and tool life.

1. Introduction to Metal Cutting

Metal cutting is a manufacturing process in which a cutting tool removes material from a
workpiece by shear deformation to generate chips. It underpins turning, milling, drilling, and
other machining operations.
Key Concepts:
Chip formation: Conversion of bulk material into small fragments.
Primary shear zone: Region where material yields and shears.
Secondary shear zone: Region of friction between chip and tool face.
Tertiary zone: Surface finish layer under tool flank.
2. Types of Metal Cutting
Process Relative Motion Tool Type Typical Application

Turning Rotating workpiece, linear tool feed Single-point Shafts, rods

Milling Rotating multi-tooth cutter, linear workpiece feed Multi-point Slots, complex profiles

Drilling Rotating drill into stationary workpiece Multi-edge Holes

Grinding Rotary abrasive wheel, linear feed Abrasive grains Surface finishing

3. Orthogonal Cutting Model

The orthogonal cutting model simplifies analysis: the cutting edge is perpendicular to the
direction of tool travel, and the chip flows in a plane.

3.1 Shear Plane and Shear Angle (ϕ)

Material shears along a plane of length making angle ϕ with the cutting direction.
Uncut chip thickness:
Chip thickness:
Chip thickness ratio:

Shear angle ϕ derived from geometry:

where is the tool’s rake angle.

3.2 Merchant’s Circle Diagram

Relates cutting force , thrust force , shear force , and friction force on rake face .
Cutting force : Parallel to cutting velocity.
Thrust force : Perpendicular to cutting velocity.
Shear stress on shear plane:

where is width of cut.

Friction angle :
 Optimal shear angle from Merchant’s theory:

4. Cutting Forces and Power

Resultant force :

Cutting power :

where is cutting speed.

Specific cutting force :

5. Tool Geometry and Its Influence

Parameter Definition Effect of Increase

Angle between rake face and work surface Reduces cutting force; may weaken
Rake angle
plane tool

Clearance angle Improves surface finish; lowers tool

Angle preventing flank rubbing
wear

Nose radius Radius at tool tip Improves finish; raises cutting force

6. Tool Wear and Tool Life

6.1 Wear Mechanisms

Abrasive wear: Hard inclusions in workpiece abrade tool.
Adhesive wear: Material transfers between tool and chip.
Diffusive wear: High-temperature diffusion at tool–chip interface.

6.2 Taylor’s Tool Life Equation

Relates cutting speed and tool life :

: Tool wear exponent (material-dependent)

: Constant for a specified wear criterion
7. Machinability
Machinability index compares ease of cutting different materials. Factors include cutting forces,
tool life, surface finish.

Material Machinability Rating (%) Typical Uses

Free-machining steel 100 High-volume production

Aluminum alloys 130 Lightweight components

Titanium alloys 40 Aerospace parts

8. Cutting Fluids
Functions:
Cooling: Reduces temperature in cutting zone.
Lubrication: Lowers friction on tool–chip interface.
Chip evacuation: Flushes chips away.
Types:
Oil-based: Superior lubrication.
Water-soluble: Better cooling.
Synthetic: Balanced performance.

9. Practical Examples
1. Turning mild steel rod (φ 50 mm → φ 40 mm)
, ,
Compute for :

2. Calculating shear angle for , :

10. Summary of Key Formulas

End of Unit 1 – Metal Cutting

Mechanics of Metal Cutting

1. Fundamental Principle
Metal cutting is a process where a wedge-shaped tool removes material from a workpiece by
causing localized shear deformation. The removed material forms chips, and the process is
governed by the mechanics of chip formation, tool geometry, and the forces involved. [1] [2] [3]

2. Chip Formation and Shear Deformation

Shear Plane: As the tool advances, the material ahead of the cutting edge is compressed
and shears along a narrow zone called the shear plane, forming a chip. [2] [3] [4]
Shear Angle ( ): The angle between the shear plane and the work surface. It influences
chip thickness and cutting forces.
Chip Types:
Discontinuous chips: Brittle materials, low speeds, large rake angles.
Continuous chips: Ductile materials, high speeds, small rake angles.
Continuous with Built-Up Edge (BUE): Ductile materials, moderate speeds, poor
lubrication. [3]
Analogy: The shearing process is like sliding a deck of cards—layers slip over each other along
the shear plane. [4] [2]

3. Cutting Process Types: Orthogonal vs. Oblique

Feature Orthogonal Cutting Oblique Cutting

Cutting edge Perpendicular to cutting direction Inclined to cutting direction

Chip flow Straight, normal to edge Sideways, at an angle

Analysis Simpler (2D) More complex (3D)

Orthogonal Cutting: Cutting edge is at 90° to the direction of tool feed. Chip flows straight
up the rake face.
Oblique Cutting: Cutting edge is at an acute angle (<90°) to the feed. Chip flows sideways
in a spiral or curl. [1] [2] [4]
4. Mechanics of Chip Formation: Key Parameters
Uncut chip thickness ( ): Thickness of material before cutting.
Chip thickness ( ): Thickness after cutting.
Chip thickness ratio ( ):

Shear angle ( ):

where is the rake angle of the tool.

Velocities:
Cutting velocity ( ): Speed of tool relative to workpiece.
Chip velocity ( ): Speed at which chip moves up the tool face.
Shear velocity ( ): Speed of material along the shear plane.
The relationship between these velocities can be derived using vector diagrams and the law
of sines. [2]

5. Forces in Metal Cutting (Merchant’s Circle Analysis)

Cutting force ( ): Acts in the direction of cutting velocity.
Thrust force ( ): Acts perpendicular to .
Shear force ( ): Acts along the shear plane.
Friction force ( ): Acts along the tool-chip interface.
Merchant’s Circle relates these forces and helps determine:
Shear stress on the shear plane:

where is the width of cut.

Friction angle ( ):

where is the normal force on the rake face.

6. Tool Geometry and Its Effects

Rake angle ( ): Influences chip flow, cutting forces, and tool strength.
Positive rake: Lower cutting force, sharper tool, but weaker edge.
Negative rake: Stronger edge, higher force, better for hard materials. [5] [3]
Clearance angle ( ): Prevents rubbing of tool flank on workpiece.
7. Summary Table: Key Formulas in Metal Cutting
Parameter Formula

Chip thickness ratio $ r = \frac{t}{t_c} $

Shear angle $ \tan\phi = \frac{r \cos\alpha}{1 - r \sin\alpha} $

Shear force $ F_s = \tau \cdot \frac{w t}{\sin\phi} $

Cutting power $ P = F_c \cdot V $

Tool life (Taylor’s Eqn) $ V T^n = C $

8. Practical Example
Suppose a tool with a rake angle of cuts a workpiece with an uncut chip thickness of
and produces a chip of thickness :
$ r = 0.2/0.4 = 0.5 $
$ \tan\phi = \frac{0.5 \cos 10^\circ}{1 - 0.5 \sin 10^\circ} \approx 0.51 $
$ \phi \approx 27^\circ $

9. Conclusion
The mechanics of metal cutting involve understanding how the tool geometry, material
properties, and process parameters interact to control chip formation, cutting forces, and
surface finish. Mastery of these principles is essential for optimizing machining operations and
tool life.
⁂

Geometry of Tool and Nomenclature

Understanding the geometry and nomenclature of a cutting tool is fundamental in metal cutting
because the tool’s shape, angles, and parts greatly influence cutting efficiency, chip formation,
surface finish, and tool life. The detailed nomenclature helps in proper tool selection, design, and
manufacturing.

1. Parts of a Single Point Cutting Tool

A single point cutting tool is commonly used in turning, shaping, and planning. The main parts
are:
Shank: The main body of the tool, held in the tool holder or tool post.
Face: The surface over which the chip slides after being cut.
 Flank: The surface below or adjacent to the cutting edge that faces the newly machined
surface.
Cutting Edge: The sharp edge where actual cutting occurs, formed by the intersection of
the face and flank.
Nose: The point where the side cutting edge and end cutting edge meet.
Heel: The portion where the flank meets the base or shank.
Base: The bottom surface of the tool that rests on the tool holder.

2. Tool Geometry: Important Angles

The following angles define the geometry of a cutting tool and influence cutting forces, chip
flow, and tool wear:

Angle Name Definition Effect

Angle between the face and a line perpendicular Controls chip flow; positive rake
Rake Angle ( )
to the base of the tool reduces cutting force

Clearance (Relief) Angle between flange (or flank) and the Prevents rubbing of tool flank on
Angle machined surface workpiece

Side Cutting Angle between the side cutting edge and the Affects chip width and cutting
Edge Angle tool’s axis forces

End Cutting Edge Angle between the end cutting edge and a line Reduces vibration and prevents tool
Angle perpendicular to the tool axis rubbing

Angle of the tool face backward from the cutting Facilitates chip removal; affects
Back Rake Angle
edge in the tooling plane cutting forces

Angle between tool face and a vertical plane Influences chip flow and tool
Side Rake Angle
perpendicular to the cutting edge strength

Larger radius improves finish but

Nose Radius Radius of curvature at the tool’s nose point
increases cutting forces

Angle between the face and minor flank of the Affects strength of cutting edge and
Lip Angle
cutting edge chip formation

3. Definitions with Illustration Concepts

Rake Angle ( ): Positive rake angles (5°–20°) make cutting easier by reducing shear force;
negative rake angles provide a stronger cutting edge but increase cutting forces.
Clearance Angle: Typically ranges from 5° to 15°, enough to avoid rubbing but small enough
to support the tool edge.
Side Cutting Edge Angle: Usually between 10° to 30°, affects chip formation width.
End Cutting Edge Angle: Usually 5° to 15°, avoiding chatter and tool wear at the end edge.
Nose Radius: Typically 0.4 to 1.5 mm; a sharper nose creates a finer finish but tool wears
faster.
4. Tool Signature
Tool signature is a numerical code representing the tool’s key angles (back rake, side rake, end
relief, side relief, end cutting edge, side cutting edge) and nose radius.
Example: 0-7-6-8-15-16-0.8
Back rake angle = 0°
Side rake angle = 7°
End relief angle = 6°
Side relief angle = 8°
End cutting edge angle = 15°
Side cutting edge angle = 16°
Nose radius = 0.8 mm

5. Summary Table of Nomenclature and Geometry

Feature Description

Shank Body of tool held in tool post

Face Surface over which chips slide

Flank Surface adjacent to the cutting edge, facing the machined surface

Cutting edge Edge between face and flank where cutting occurs

Nose Point where side cutting edge meets end cutting edge

Clearance angle Angle preventing rubbing between tool flank and workpiece

Rake angle Angle aiding smooth chip flow and reducing cutting forces

Side cutting edge angle Affects chip width, reduces cutting force concentration

End cutting edge angle Helps prevent tool chatter and built-up edge formation

Nose radius Radius at nose affecting tool life and surface finish

Conclusion
The geometry and nomenclature of cutting tools define how effectively a tool performs its
function. Proper understanding of these parameters helps in selecting the right tool geometry for
specific materials and machining operations to optimize machining efficiency, surface finish, and
tool life.
If needed, a schematic diagram of tool geometry can be provided to illustrate these terms
vividly.
 ⁂

Effect of Tool Geometry on Cutting Efficiency

Tool geometry significantly influences the cutting efficiency by affecting cutting forces, power
consumption, chip flow, surface finish, and tool wear. Optimizing tool geometry enhances
productivity and the quality of machined parts.

1. Rake Angle ( )
Effect: A positive rake angle reduces the shear plane area, lowering cutting forces and
power consumption.
Reason: It provides a sharper cutting edge and facilitates easier chip flow, reducing energy
required to shear the material.
Trade-off: Large positive rake angles weaken the tool tip and increase tool wear. Negative
rakes increase strength but raise cutting forces.
Summary:
Increased positive rake → lower cutting force → better efficiency.
Excessive positive rake → tool strength loss.

2. Clearance (Relief) Angle

Effect: Prevents the flank of the tool from rubbing against the workpiece.
Reason: Reduces friction and heat generation on the tool’s flank, improving tool life and
surface finish.
Trade-off: Too small clearance causes rubbing and tool damage; too large reduces tool
strength.

3. Side Cutting Edge Angle

Effect: Influences the direction and thickness of the chip and cutting forces.
Reason: Larger angles reduce the thrust force and distribute cutting forces over a wider
area, enhancing cutting stability.
Trade-off: Too large angles may weaken the cutting edge.

4. Nose Radius
Effect: Determines the surface finish and tool strength.
Reason: A larger nose radius smoothens the machined surface by blending discontinuous
cuts but increases cutting forces due to a larger contact area.
 Trade-off: Smaller nose radius sharpens cutting action but may cause poor surface finish
and quicker tool wear.

5. Back Rake Angle

Effect: Controls chip flow direction and influences cutting forces.
Reason: Positive back rake angles decrease cutting force and improve chip evacuation.
Trade-off: Excessive back rake may weaken tool and cause chip clogging.

Summary Table: Tool Geometry Effects on Cutting Efficiency

Tool Geometry
Effect on Cutting Efficiency Trade-offs
Parameter

Reduces cutting force, power

Rake angle Tool strength vs. rake angle
consumption

Clearance angle Decreases friction, tool wear Too small causes rubbing

Side cutting edge angle Decreases thrust force, improves chip flow Too large weakens tool edge

Larger radius increases cutting

Nose radius Improves surface finish, tool strength
force

Back rake angle Controls chip flow, reduces cutting force Tool strength vs chip clogging

Conclusion
Optimizing tool geometry balances cutting forces, tool life, surface finish, and chip control,
directly enhancing cutting efficiency. Proper tool design based on the workpiece material and
machining conditions enables seamless machining operations with minimal energy consumption
and improved productivity.

Common Tool Nomenclature Terms and Their

Functions
Understanding the nomenclature of cutting tools is essential for selecting, using, and analyzing
tools in metal cutting operations. Here are the most common terms and their functions, especially
for a single-point cutting tool (used in turning, shaping, etc.): [20] [21] [22]

1. Shank
Function: The main body of the tool, held by the tool holder or tool post. It provides support
and rigidity during cutting.
2. Face
Function: The surface over which the chip flows after being separated from the workpiece.
Its geometry affects chip flow and heat dissipation.

3. Flank
Function: The surface below or adjacent to the cutting edge, facing the newly machined
surface. It prevents rubbing and provides clearance.

4. Cutting Edge
Function: The sharp edge formed by the intersection of the face and flank. It performs the
actual cutting action.
Side Cutting Edge: Main edge that removes most of the material.
End Cutting Edge: Edge at the tool tip, helps finish the cut and avoid rubbing.

5. Nose
Function: The point where the side and end cutting edges meet. It affects surface finish
and tool strength.

6. Nose Radius
Function: The rounded tip at the nose. A larger radius improves surface finish and tool life
but increases cutting force.

7. Heel
Function: The intersection of the flank and the base of the tool. It provides structural
support.

8. Base
Function: The bottom surface of the tool, which rests on the tool holder.

9. Angles in Tool Nomenclature

Angle Name Function

Rake Angle Controls chip flow, cutting force, and tool strength.

Clearance (Relief) Angle Prevents rubbing of the tool flank on the workpiece.

Side Cutting Edge Angle Affects chip width, direction, and distribution of cutting forces.

End Cutting Edge Angle Reduces vibration and prevents tool rubbing at the end.

Back Rake Angle Facilitates chip removal and influences cutting force.

Side Rake Angle Influences chip flow and tool strength.

10. Tool Signature
A numerical code representing the key angles and nose radius of the tool, used for
standardization and easy identification.

11. Summary Table: Nomenclature and Functions

Term Function

Shank Holds the tool in the holder

Face Chip flows over this surface

Flank Faces the machined surface, provides clearance

Cutting Edge Performs the cutting action

Nose Affects finish and tool strength

Nose Radius Improves finish, tool life

Heel Structural support

Base Rests on tool holder

Rake Angle Controls chip flow, force, and tool strength

Clearance Angle Prevents rubbing, reduces wear

Side/End Cutting Edge Angles Affect chip width, direction, and vibration

In summary: Each part and angle of a cutting tool has a specific function that influences cutting
performance, tool life, and surface finish. Mastery of these terms is essential for effective tool
selection and machining operations.
⁂

ASA System (American Standards Association)

The ASA system is a standardized method for designating the geometry of single-point cutting
tools, especially in turning operations. It uses specific reference planes and a fixed sequence to
describe the tool’s angles and nose radius, making tool selection and communication clear in
manufacturing.

1. Reference Planes in ASA System

The ASA system uses three mutually perpendicular planes:
Reference Plane (πR): Perpendicular to the cutting velocity vector.
Machine Longitudinal Plane (πX): Perpendicular to the reference plane, along the direction
of longitudinal feed.
 Machine Transverse Plane (πY): Perpendicular to the reference plane, along the direction
of transverse feed.

2. Tool Signature in ASA System

The tool geometry is specified by seven parameters in a fixed order:
1. Back Rake Angle (γY): Angle of the rake face measured in the transverse plane.
2. Side Rake Angle (γX): Angle of the rake face measured in the longitudinal plane.
3. Back Clearance Angle (αY): Angle of the principal flank measured in the transverse plane.
4. Side Clearance Angle (αX): Angle of the principal flank measured in the longitudinal plane.
5. End Cutting Edge Angle (φE): Angle between the auxiliary cutting edge and the
longitudinal plane.
6. Side Cutting Edge Angle (φS): Angle between the principal cutting edge and the transverse
plane.
7. Nose Radius (r): Curvature at the tool tip (expressed in inches in ASA system).
Sequence Example:

Back Rake, Side Rake, Back Clearance, Side Clearance, End Cutting Edge, Side Cutting Edge

Typical ASA Tool Signature:

-8°, 6°, 5°, 10°, 15°, 30°, 1/8 (inch)

Back Rake Angle = -8°

Side Rake Angle = 6°
Back Clearance Angle = 5°
Side Clearance Angle = 10°
End Cutting Edge Angle = 15°
Side Cutting Edge Angle = 30°
Nose Radius = 1/8 inch

3. Functions of Each Parameter

Parameter Function

Back Rake Angle (γY) Controls chip flow and cutting force; measured in transverse plane

Side Rake Angle (γX) Influences chip direction and tool strength; measured in longitudinal plane

Back Clearance Angle (αY) Prevents rubbing; measured in transverse plane

Side Clearance Angle (αX) Prevents rubbing; measured in longitudinal plane

 Parameter Function

End Cutting Edge Angle Reduces vibration, affects finish; measured in reference plane

Side Cutting Edge Angle Affects chip width and direction; measured in reference plane

Nose Radius Improves surface finish and tool life; measured in inches

4. Key Points of ASA System

Angles are measured with respect to machine axes and feed directions.
Nose radius is always expressed in inches.
Sequence must be strictly followed for clarity and standardization.
Used mainly for single-point turning tools.

5. Comparison: ASA vs. Other Systems

System Reference Planes Nose Radius Unit Used For

ASA Machine axes (X, Y, πR) Inch Turning tools

ORS (ISO) Cutting edge-based mm International standard

NRS Normal to cutting edge mm International standard

Summary: The ASA system provides a clear, standardized way to specify tool geometry using
seven parameters, aiding in tool selection, manufacturing, and communication in machining
operations. [30] [31] [32]
⁂

Orthogonal vs. Oblique Cutting

Understanding the difference between orthogonal and oblique cutting is crucial in
manufacturing science, as these two cutting modes affect chip formation, tool life, cutting
forces, and surface finish.

1. Definition & Tool Orientation

Orthogonal Cutting:
The cutting edge of the tool is perpendicular (90°) to the direction of cutting velocity or
feed.
The process is essentially two-dimensional—the chip flows straight up the rake face,
normal to the cutting edge.
Oblique Cutting:
The cutting edge is inclined at an angle (not 90°) to the direction of cutting velocity.
 The process is three-dimensional—the chip flows sideways, at an angle to the cutting
edge.

2. Chip Flow
Orthogonal: Chip flows in a tight, flat spiral, perpendicular to the cutting edge.
Oblique: Chip flows in a long curl, sideways or helical, at a chip flow angle to the cutting
edge. [40] [41]

3. Forces Involved
Cutting Type Force Components

Orthogonal 2 (Cutting & Thrust)

Oblique 3 (Cutting, Thrust, Radial)

Orthogonal: Easier to analyze, only two force components.

Oblique: More complex, three mutually perpendicular force components. [41] [42]

4. Tool Wear & Surface Finish

Orthogonal: Higher tool wear due to concentrated forces; surface finish is generally poorer.
Oblique: Lower tool wear (forces distributed over a larger area); better surface finish and
longer tool life. [43] [44] [40]

5. Applications
Cutting Type Typical Uses

Orthogonal Grooving, parting, slotting, pipe cutting

Oblique Drilling, milling, grinding, most machining

6. Comparison Table
Feature Orthogonal Cutting Oblique Cutting

Tool Orientation Perpendicular to motion direction Inclined to motion direction

Chip Flow Normal to cutting edge, tight spiral Sideways, helical, long curl

Force Components 2 (Cutting, Thrust) 3 (Cutting, Thrust, Radial)

Tool Wear Higher Lower

Surface Finish Poorer Better

 Feature Orthogonal Cutting Oblique Cutting

Analysis Simpler (2D) Complex (3D)

Applications High precision, low volume Versatile, most industrial machining

7. Summary of Key Points

Orthogonal cutting is simpler to analyze, but less common in industry; it produces higher
tool wear and poorer surface finish.
Oblique cutting is more typical in real machining, with better tool life and surface finish due
to distributed forces and chip flow.
If you want to see the force diagrams or chip flow illustrations, let me know and we can walk
through them step by step.
⁂

Mechanics of Chip Formation

Chip formation is a fundamental aspect of metal cutting, where the workpiece material is
removed in the form of chips due to the action of a cutting tool. Understanding the mechanics
helps optimize machining efficiency, tool life, and surface finish.

1. Basic Mechanism
Compressive Force: The cutting tool applies a compressive force to the workpiece,
concentrating stress just ahead of the cutting edge. [50] [51]
Plastic Deformation: When this stress exceeds the material's yield strength, the metal
plastically deforms and shears off, forming a chip. [51] [52] [50]
Shear Plane: The region where this shearing occurs is called the shear plane—a narrow
zone (typically ~0.025 mm thick) extending from the tool tip into the workpiece. [51]
Chip Flow: The deformed material flows up the rake face of the tool as a chip, while the
newly formed surface is left behind.

2. Shear Zones in Chip Formation

Primary Shear Zone: Where the bulk of plastic deformation and shearing occurs, forming
the chip.
Secondary Shear Zone: At the interface between the chip and the tool's rake face, where
friction causes additional deformation and heat.
Tertiary Zone: At the tool flank, affecting the surface finish and tool wear.
3. Types of Chips
Chip formation depends on material properties, cutting conditions, and tool geometry: [53] [54] [55]

Chip Type Description Typical Conditions

Ductile material, high speed,

Continuous Chip Ribbon-like, smooth, uniform thickness
sharp tool

Brittle material, low speed, rough

Discontinuous Chip Broken segments, irregular shape
tool

Continuous Chip with Continuous chip with built-up edge (BUE) at Ductile material, low/medium
BUE tool tip speed

Serrated (Segmented) Saw-tooth appearance, alternating high/low Difficult-to-machine alloys, high

Chip shear zones speed

4. Factors Affecting Chip Formation

Workpiece Material: Ductility, hardness, and toughness influence chip type and ease of
formation. [52] [53]
Tool Geometry: Rake angle, sharpness, and nose radius affect shear plane angle and chip
flow. [56]
Cutting Conditions: Speed, feed, depth of cut, and use of cutting fluid impact chip shape
and heat generation. [53]
Friction: At the tool-chip interface, friction increases heat and can lead to built-up edge or
poor chip evacuation. [56] [51]

5. Shear Plane and Shear Angle

Shear Plane: The imaginary plane along which the material shears to form the chip.
Shear Angle ( ): Determines chip thickness and cutting force. A larger shear angle means
thinner chips and lower cutting force.
Influence of Rake Angle: Increasing the rake angle reduces the shear plane area, lowering
the force and temperature required for chip formation. [56]

6. Energy and Heat in Chip Formation

Most of the energy in machining is consumed in the shear zone, converting mechanical work
into heat.
Heat is distributed among the chip, tool, and workpiece, affecting tool life and surface
quality. [52]
7. Summary of Key Points
Chip formation is governed by plastic deformation and shearing in a localized shear plane.
The type of chip formed depends on material properties, tool geometry, and cutting
conditions.
Efficient chip formation leads to better surface finish, lower cutting forces, and longer tool
life.
If you want to see the mathematical derivation for shear angle or chip thickness ratio, let me
know and we can work through it step by step.
⁂

Types of Chips in Metal Cutting

During metal cutting, the material removed from the workpiece forms chips. The type of chip
produced depends on factors such as workpiece material, cutting speed, tool geometry, feed
rate, depth of cut, friction, and use of cutting fluid. Understanding chip types is crucial for
optimizing machining efficiency, tool life, and surface finish. [60] [61] [62]

1. Continuous Chip
Description: Ribbon-like, long, and uniform in thickness. Forms a coil or string.
Formation Conditions: Ductile materials (e.g., low carbon steel, copper, aluminum), high
cutting speed, large rake angle, sharp tool, low friction, and proper cutting fluid.
Advantages: Good surface finish, lower power consumption, longer tool life.
Disadvantages: Difficult to handle and dispose; may wrap around the tool or workpiece,
requiring chip breakers. [61] [62] [60]

2. Continuous Chip with Built-Up Edge (BUE)

Description: Similar to continuous chip, but with a portion of the chip material welded to the
tool face near the cutting edge, forming a built-up edge.
Formation Conditions: Ductile materials, moderate cutting speed, high friction, poor
lubrication, high pressure and temperature at the tool-chip interface.
Effects: BUE periodically breaks off, sometimes adhering to the workpiece and sometimes
to the chip, leading to poor surface finish and increased tool wear. [62] [63] [60] [61]
3. Discontinuous (Segmented) Chip
Description: Chips break into small segments or pieces; irregular and non-uniform.
Formation Conditions: Brittle materials (e.g., cast iron, bronze), low cutting speed, small
rake angle, large depth of cut, poor lubrication, or vibration.
Advantages: Easy to handle and dispose; less risk of chip entanglement.
Disadvantages: Poor surface finish, possible tool chattering, and vibration. [63] [60] [61] [62]

4. Serrated (Segmented) Chip

Description: Chips have a saw-tooth or segmented appearance, alternating between high
and low shear zones.
Formation Conditions: Difficult-to-machine alloys (e.g., titanium, nickel-based alloys), high
cutting speeds, and high strain rates.
Effects: Common in high-speed machining of hard-to-cut materials; can affect surface finish
and tool life. [64] [60]

5. Summary Table: Chip Types and Conditions

Chip Type Typical Materials Cutting Conditions Surface Finish

Continuous Ductile (Al, Cu, steel) High speed, sharp tool, good fluid Good

Continuous w/ BUE Ductile Moderate speed, high friction Poor

Discontinuous Brittle (cast iron) Low speed, large depth, vibration Poor

Serrated Hard alloys High speed, high strain rate Variable

In summary:
Chip type is a key indicator of machining efficiency and tool condition.
Continuous chips are preferred for smooth machining, but require chip breakers for safety.
Discontinuous chips are easier to manage but may indicate poor cutting conditions.
Built-up edge and serrated chips can lead to poor surface finish and increased tool wear.
If you want to discuss the mechanisms of chip formation or how to control chip type, let me
know!
⁂
Shear Angle Relationship in Metal Cutting
The shear angle ( ) is a critical parameter in metal cutting that defines the inclination of the
shear plane with respect to the cutting velocity vector. It determines how the material deforms
plastically to form the chip.

1. Definition of Parameters
= Uncut chip thickness (thickness of the material before cutting)
= Chip thickness (thickness of the chip after cutting)
= Chip thickness ratio (always less than 1)
= Rake angle of the cutting tool
= Shear angle (angle of shear plane inclination)

2. Geometry Relationship of Shear Angle

Based on the orthogonal cutting model and geometrical analysis of chip formation, the
relationship between chip thickness ratio, rake angle, and shear angle is:

This formula shows that the shear angle depends on both the chip thickness ratio and the
rake angle.

3. Explanation
A larger shear angle results in a thinner shear plane, which implies less resistance to
cutting and reduced cutting force.
When the rake angle ( ) is positive, it increases the shear angle, making cutting easier.
The chip thickness ratio ( ) relates how much the chip thickness increases compared to the
original thickness, affecting shear plane inclination.

4. Special Case (Zero Rake Angle)

For , the relationship reduces to:
5. Practical Example
Given:
Rake angle
Uncut chip thickness
Chip thickness
Calculate chip thickness ratio:

Calculate shear angle:

So,

6. Summary of Key Formulas

Understanding this relationship is essential in optimizing machining parameters for improved

cutting efficiency, reducing cutting forces, and enhancing tool life.
⁂

Merchant’s Force Circle Diagram in Metal Cutting

The Merchant’s circle diagram is a graphical method used to analyze and relate the forces
acting during orthogonal metal cutting. It provides insight into the magnitudes and directions of
cutting forces, friction forces, shear forces, and corresponding angles such as shear angle and
friction angle.

1. Assumptions of Merchant’s Circle Diagram

Cutting is orthogonal (cutting edge perpendicular to feed direction).
Chip formation occurs by simple shear along a single shear plane.
Constant shear and friction stresses.
Tool is sharp; no contact between tool flank and workpiece.
 No built-up edge forms on the tool.
Chip flows smoothly on the tool rake face.
No side flow of chip.

2. Forces in Merchant’s Circle

Cutting force, $ F_c $: The force acting in the direction of cutting velocity.
Thrust force, $ F_t $: The force acting perpendicular to cutting velocity (also called feed
force).
Resultant force, $ R $: The vector sum of cutting force and thrust force.

Friction force, $ F $ or $ P $: Force acting along the tool rake face against chip flow.
Normal force on rake face, $ N $: Force perpendicular to friction force.
Shear force on shear plane, $ F_s $: Force causing shear along the shear plane.
Normal force on shear plane, $ F_n $: Force perpendicular to shear force.

3. Diagram Construction (Conceptual)

Draw $ F_c $ horizontally and $ F_t $ vertically at right angles; their vector sum is $ R $.
The friction force $ F $ acts along the rake face inclined at friction angle $ \beta $.
The normal force $ N $ to friction force is perpendicular to it.
The shear force $ F_s $ acts along the shear plane at shear angle $ \phi $.
The normal shear force $ F_n $ acts perpendicular to shear force.
These forces form two force pairs: friction pair and shear pair .
Merchant’s circle is drawn as a single circle with diameter equal to the resultant force $ R $.

4. Important Angles
Rake angle, $ \alpha $: Angle of tool rake face.
Shear angle, $ \phi $: Angle of shear plane with respect to cutting velocity.
Friction angle, $ \beta $: Angle of friction between the chip and tool.

where $ \mu $ is the coefficient of friction.

5. Merchants Force Relations
By using the diagram and resolving forces, expressions for the forces are:
Shear force:

Normal shear force:

The diagram ensures equilibrium of forces and enables calculation of:

Shear stress on shear plane
Coefficient of friction
Power consumed

6. Applications
Determining unmeasured forces from measured ones (e.g., calculate cutting force if thrust
force is known).
Estimating shear angle for optimal cutting.
Evaluating friction on tool rake face.
Optimizing tool geometry and cutting conditions for better tool life.

7. Summary Diagram (Conceptual Representation)

|N (Normal force on rake face)

|
|\
| \ F (Friction force on rake face)
| \
(Tool rake face line)
-----------------------------> Cutting velocity (horizontal)
R (Resultant force)
/|
F_c / | F_t
/__| (Cutting and thrust forces)

Conclusion
The Merchant’s force circle diagram is a powerful graphical tool to analyze and understand the
complex force interactions in metal cutting, specifically for orthogonal cutting operations,
helping engineers optimize cutting conditions and tool design.
If required, a detailed step-by-step procedure to draw this diagram along with equations and
numerical examples can be provided.
⁂

Cutting Forces in Metal Cutting

Cutting forces are the forces exerted on the cutting tool by the workpiece material and are key
to understanding and optimizing machining operations. They influence power consumption, tool
life, surface finish, and machine stability.

1. Components of Cutting Forces

For Orthogonal Cutting

Cutting Force ( )
Direction: Along the cutting velocity (tangential to the workpiece surface).
Function: Provides the primary resistance to the cutting action; main force responsible
for power consumption in cutting.
Usually the largest component.
Thrust Force ( )
Direction: Perpendicular to the cutting force and parallel to the feed direction.
Function: Acts normal to the surface being machined; influences tool deflection and
dimensional accuracy.
Resultant Force ( )
Vector sum of cutting and thrust forces:

For Oblique Cutting

Cutting Force ( ) (Tangential)
Thrust Force ( ) (Radial force perpendicular to )
Radial Force ( ) (Axial force along tool axis)
These three forces are mutually perpendicular, making analysis more complex.
2. Relation to Chip and Shear Forces
Shear Force ( )
Acts along the shear plane.
Responsible for shearing the material to form the chip.
Normal Shear Force ( )
Acts perpendicular to the shear plane.
Acts as backing-up force to resists shear.
Friction Force ( )
Acts along the tool rake face, opposing chip slip.
Normal Force on Rake Face ( )
Perpendicular to friction force on the rake face.

3. Important Relations
Merchant’s force circle can be used to relate these forces and angles.
Cutting power is primarily due to the cutting force:

where is cutting velocity.

4. Typical Magnitudes
is generally the highest magnitude force.
is about 30% to 60% of .
Radial force ( ) in oblique cutting is the smallest.

5. Practical Importance
Proper measurement and control of cutting forces improve:
Tool life by reducing wear.
Surface finish by minimizing deflections and vibrations.
Power consumption for economic machining.
Dimensional accuracy by controlling thrust forces.

6. Summary Table
Force Typical Magnitude
Direction Role
Component (relative)

Cutting Force ( Tangential to workpiece Produces chip formation, main

Highest
) surface cutting action
 Force Typical Magnitude
Direction Role
Component (relative)

Thrust Force ( Perpendicular to (feed Causes tool deflection, affects

30-60% of
) dir.) accuracy

Radial Force ( Axial, along tool axis Influences tool stability and
Smallest
) (oblique only) vibration

Conclusion: Understanding and managing cutting forces is crucial for optimizing metal cutting
processes, tool design, and machine tool selection.
If a more detailed force analysis or formulas are needed, please ask!
⁂

Detailed Analysis and Formulas of Cutting Forces

in Metal Cutting
1. Orthogonal Cutting Forces
Orthogonal cutting assumes the cutting edge is perpendicular to the cutting velocity. The three
main forces are:
Cutting force ( ): Along cutting velocity direction.
Thrust force ( ): Perpendicular to cutting velocity.
Resultant force ( ):

2. Force Components on Shear Plane and Rake Face

Force Description

Shear force ( ) Force that causes shear deformation on shear plane

Normal shear force ( ) Perpendicular to shear force, supports cutting action

Friction force ( ) Acts along rake face, opposing chip sliding

Normal force on rake face ( ) Perpendicular to friction force on rake face

3. Force Relationships (Using Merchant's Circle)

Merchant’s force circle relates forces and angles as follows:
Shear force :
 Normal force on shear plane :

Friction force and normal force on rake face :

where,
= rake angle,
= shear angle,
= friction angle.

4. Shear and Friction Stresses

Shear stress on shear plane, :

Friction stress on rake face, :

where
= width of cut,
= uncut chip thickness,
= length of contact between chip and tool rake face.

5. Cutting Power
Power consumed in cutting ( ):

where
= cutting speed.

6. Significance of Forces
Cutting force : Main force responsible for chip formation.
Thrust force : Affects tool pressure and deflection.
Shear force : Important for material shear deformations.
 Friction force : Influences tool wear and temperature at contact surface.

7. Summary Table of Formulas

Quantity Formula

Resultant force

Shear force

Normal force

Shear stress

Friction stress

Cutting power

Let me know if detailed derivations or numerical examples for any of these formulas are needed!

Power Required for Turning, Milling, and Drilling

Power required in machining operations depends on cutting forces and cutting speed. Below are
the formulas and explanations for power requirements in turning, milling, and drilling.

1. Power Required for Turning

In turning, power is used to overcome the cutting force acting on the rotating workpiece.
Cutting power formula:

where,
= Power (Watts or kW),
= Tangential cutting force (Newtons),
= Cutting speed (m/min) (peripheral speed of the workpiece surface).
Cutting speed:

where,
= Diameter of the job (mm),
= Spindle speed (rpm).
Example:
If , , ,
2. Power Required for Milling
In milling, power depends on the tangential force on each tooth and cutting conditions.
Power formula:

where,
= Tangential cutting force on milling cutter,
= Cutting speed of the cutter (m/min).
Cutting speed for milling cutter:

where,
= Diameter of milling cutter (mm),
= Spindle speed (rpm).
Material Removal Rate (MRR):

where,
= Width of cut (mm),
= Depth of cut (mm),
= Feed rate (mm/min).
Power is also related to MRR and specific cutting force as:

where,
= Specific cutting force (N/mm²).

3. Power Required for Drilling

Drilling power depends on thrust force and cutting speed of the drill.
Power formula:
where,
= Thrust force (N),
= Cutting speed at drill periphery (m/min).
Cutting speed:

where,
= Drill diameter (mm),
= Drill rotation speed (rpm).
Thrust force depends on size and feed rate of the drill.

4. Summary Table of Power Formulas

Operation Power Formula Parameters

Turning : cutting force, : cutting speed

Milling or : tangential force, : MRR

Drilling : thrust force, : cutting speed

Note: Power values are often converted to horsepower by dividing watts by 746.

If you want numerical examples or details on calculating forces for each operation, let me know!
⁂

Cutting Fluids/Lubricants in Metal Cutting

Cutting fluids (also called coolants or lubricants) are specialized liquids, oils, or gases used in
metal machining to improve performance, tool life, and product quality. Their selection and
application are crucial for efficient and sustainable manufacturing.

1. Functions of Cutting Fluids

Cooling: Absorb and dissipate heat generated at the cutting zone, preventing thermal
damage to both tool and workpiece. [118] [119] [120]
Lubrication: Reduce friction between the tool and workpiece, minimizing tool wear and
power consumption. [119] [120] [118]
Chip Removal: Help evacuate chips from the cutting area, preventing chip clogging and
tool breakage. [120] [118] [119]
 Corrosion Protection: Form a protective layer on tool and workpiece surfaces, reducing
oxidation and rust. [121] [118] [119] [120]
Surface Finish Improvement: Minimize built-up edge and adhesion, resulting in smoother,
more precise surfaces. [118] [119] [120]

2. Types of Cutting Fluids

Type Main Features Typical Use Cases

Water-based High cooling, moderate lubrication High-speed, general machining

Oil-based Excellent lubrication, less cooling Heavy-duty, deep cuts, threading

Synthetic/Semi-synthetic Balanced cooling/lubrication, low residue Precision, CNC, eco-friendly ops

Gas-based Clean, eco-friendly, minimal residue High-precision, MQL, dry machining

3. Advantages of Using Cutting Fluids

Enhances tool life by reducing wear and thermal stress. [119] [120] [118]
Improves surface finish and dimensional accuracy. [120] [118] [119]
Enables higher cutting speeds and feeds without compromising quality. [120]
Reduces power consumption by lowering friction. [118] [120]
Prevents corrosion of both tool and workpiece. [121] [119] [118] [120]
Promotes safer, cleaner machining by flushing away chips and debris. [119] [118] [120]

4. Best Practices for Cutting Fluid Application

Select fluid type based on workpiece material, operation, and environmental needs. [119]
Apply using appropriate method: flood, mist, spray, or Minimum Quantity Lubrication
(MQL). [119]
Maintain fluid quality: filter regularly, monitor concentration and pH, and replace degraded
fluids. [119]
Consider eco-friendly options: water-soluble and biodegradable fluids are increasingly
preferred for sustainability. [121] [119]

5. Summary Table: Functions and Benefits

Function Benefit

Cooling Prevents overheating, extends tool life

Lubrication Reduces wear, improves finish

Chip Removal Prevents clogging, improves safety

 Function Benefit

Corrosion Protection Maintains tool/workpiece integrity

Surface Finish Achieves tighter tolerances, aesthetics

In summary: Cutting fluids are essential for modern machining, offering cooling, lubrication, chip
evacuation, and corrosion protection. Their correct selection and maintenance directly impact
productivity, cost, and product quality. [118] [120] [121] [119]
⁂

Tool Materials in Metal Cutting

Selecting the right tool material is crucial for efficient machining, tool life, and surface finish. Tool
materials must withstand high temperatures, maintain hardness, resist wear, and possess
adequate toughness. No single material excels in all properties, so selection depends on the
application and workpiece.

1. Essential Properties of Tool Materials

Hot Hardness: Ability to retain hardness at elevated temperatures (600°C–1800°C).
Toughness: Resistance to fracture and chipping, especially in interrupted cuts.
Wear Resistance: Ability to resist gradual material loss from the cutting edge.
Chemical Stability: Inertness to prevent reaction with workpiece material.
Shock Resistance: Withstand impact and vibration.
Low Friction: Reduce heat and wear at the tool–chip interface.

2. Common Tool Materials and Their Properties

Max. Temp Wear
Material Hardness Toughness Typical Uses
(°C) Resistance

Carbon Tool Low-speed tools, drills,

~250 Low Moderate Low
Steel taps

High-Speed General machining,

~600 Moderate High Moderate
Steel (HSS) milling, broaching

Cemented ~900– Inserts, high-speed

High Moderate High
Carbide 1000 cutting

~1200– High-speed finishing,

Ceramics Very High Low Very High
1800 hard alloys

Cubic Boron Extremely Extremely Grinding, hard ferrous

~1400 Low
Nitride (CBN) High High alloys
 Max. Temp Wear
Material Hardness Toughness Typical Uses
(°C) Resistance

Non-ferrous, glass,
Diamond ~700 Highest Low Highest
composites

3. Brief Description of Major Tool Materials

Carbon Tool Steel

Composition: 0.6–1.5% carbon, small Si and Mn.
Pros: Cheap, easy to shape, abrasion resistant.
Cons: Loses hardness above 250°C, not for high-speed or high-temp work.

High-Speed Steel (HSS)

Alloyed with W, Cr, V, Co for improved properties.
Pros: Retains hardness up to 600°C, tough, shock resistant.
Cons: Lower cutting speeds than carbides and ceramics.

Cemented Carbide
Made from tungsten/titanium/tantalum carbide with cobalt binder.
Pros: High hardness, wear resistance, can cut at high speeds and temps (up to 1000°C).
Cons: Less tough than HSS, can chip under shock.

Ceramics (Alumina, Silicon Nitride)

Pros: Extremely hard, inert, stable at very high temps (up to 1800°C), low friction.
Cons: Brittle, not suitable for interrupted cuts.

Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN)

Second hardest material after diamond.
Pros: High abrasion resistance, ideal for hard ferrous alloys, grinding.
Cons: Expensive, brittle.

Diamond
Hardest known material, high thermal conductivity, low friction.
Pros: Excellent for non-ferrous, glass, ceramics, composites.
Cons: Not suitable for steel (carbon diffuses into steel), expensive.
4. Coated Tools and Inserts
Coatings: Titanium nitride (TiN), titanium carbide (TiC), aluminum oxide (Al2O3) improve
wear resistance, reduce friction, and extend tool life.
Inserts: Replaceable tips made from carbides, ceramics, CBN, or diamond, clamped or
brazed onto tool holders for easy replacement and varied shapes.

5. Selection Guidelines
For high-speed, high-temp machining: Use cemented carbide, ceramics, CBN, or diamond
(for non-ferrous).
For general purpose, interrupted cuts: Use HSS or tough carbides.
For precision finishing: Use ceramics, CBN, or diamond.

Summary: Tool materials are chosen based on their ability to maintain hardness, resist wear, and
withstand shock at high temperatures. The right selection improves productivity, tool life, and
machining quality.
⁂

Tool Wear and Tool Life

Understanding tool wear and tool life is essential in metal cutting, as they directly affect
machining efficiency, surface finish, dimensional accuracy, and production costs. Let’s break
down the key concepts, mechanisms, types, and the relationship between tool wear and tool life.

1. Tool Wear: Definition and Importance

Tool wear is the gradual loss of material from the cutting tool due to mechanical, thermal,
and chemical interactions during machining.
Excessive tool wear leads to poor surface finish, loss of dimensional accuracy, increased
cutting forces, and ultimately, tool failure.

2. Types of Tool Wear

Type of Wear Location on Tool Main Causes Effects on Machining

Flank (relief) Loss of accuracy, rough

Flank Wear Abrasion, adhesion, friction
surface finish

Tool face (rake Diffusion, abrasion, high temp, Weakens tool, may cause
Crater Wear
face) chip flow breakage

Nose Wear Tool nose radius Abrasion, friction Poor finish, increased forces

Near depth-of-cut
Notch Wear Work hardening, chip flow Localized tool failure
line
 Type of Wear Location on Tool Main Causes Effects on Machining

Edge Mechanical shock, brittle tool

Cutting edge Sudden tool failure
Chipping material

3. Mechanisms of Tool Wear

1. Abrasive Wear: Hard particles in the workpiece or chip scratch and remove tool material,
similar to grinding. [135] [136] [137]
2. Adhesive Wear: Localized welding between tool and workpiece/chip, followed by tearing
away of tool material. [136] [137] [135]
3. Diffusion Wear: At high temperatures, atoms from the tool and workpiece diffuse into each
other, weakening the tool. [137] [138] [135] [136]
4. Oxidation Wear: Chemical reaction with oxygen at high temperatures forms oxides, which
are easily removed, accelerating wear. [135] [136]
5. Fatigue Wear: Repeated mechanical and thermal cycling causes microcracks and eventual
tool fracture. [136] [135]
6. Chemical Wear: Reaction with cutting fluids or workpiece material leads to chemical
degradation of the tool. [135] [136]
7. Attrition: Micro-chipping or tearing of the tool surface due to intermittent contact or
vibration. [138]

4. Forms of Tool Wear (Visualized)

Flank Wear: Flat worn area on the tool flank, measured as wear land width (VB). Most
common and used for tool life criteria.
Crater Wear: Cavity formed on the rake face due to chip flow and high temperature.
Measured by depth and width of the crater.
Nose Wear: Wear at the tool nose, affecting finish and accuracy.

5. Tool Life
Tool life is the span during which a cutting tool performs satisfactorily before it needs
regrinding or replacement.
Tool life is typically defined by a certain amount of flank wear (e.g., VB = 0.3 mm for carbide
tools) or when surface finish or dimensional accuracy becomes unacceptable.
Taylor’s Tool Life Equation
The most widely used empirical relationship:

Where:
= Cutting speed (m/min)
= Tool life (minutes)
= Tool life exponent (depends on tool/work material)
= Constant for a given tool-workpiece combination
Interpretation:
Higher cutting speeds reduce tool life exponentially.
The value of is typically 0.1–0.2 for HSS, 0.2–0.5 for carbides.

6. Factors Affecting Tool Wear and Tool Life

Cutting speed, feed, and depth of cut (higher values increase wear)
Tool material and geometry
Workpiece material hardness and abrasiveness
Cutting fluid/lubrication
Machine tool rigidity and vibration

7. Summary Table: Tool Wear Mechanisms and Effects

Mechanism Typical Cause Main Effect on Tool

Abrasion Hard inclusions, chip flow Flank/crater wear

Adhesion Friction, high temp Flank/nose wear, BUE

Diffusion High temp, chemical affinity Crater wear, rapid failure

Oxidation High temp, oxygen Surface softening, wear

Fatigue Repeated stress/thermal Microcracks, chipping

Chemical Fluid/workpiece reaction Surface degradation

Attrition Vibration, interrupted cut Edge chipping, roughness

In summary: Tool wear is an inevitable process in machining, governed by several mechanisms.

Monitoring and controlling tool wear is essential for maintaining tool life, product quality, and
cost-effectiveness. Taylor’s equation provides a practical way to relate cutting speed and tool
life for process optimization.
⁂
Machinability
Machinability is the relative ease with which a material can be cut or shaped by machining
processes to achieve a satisfactory surface finish at low cost and with minimal tool wear. It is a
key property in manufacturing, affecting productivity, tool life, and overall cost. [143] [144] [145]

1. Definition
Machinability describes how easily a material can be removed by a cutting tool, considering
factors like cutting forces, tool life, surface finish, and power consumption. [146] [145] [143]
Materials with good machinability require less cutting force, allow higher cutting speeds,
produce better surface finish, and cause less tool wear.

2. Criteria for Assessing Machinability

Machinability is typically evaluated using:
Tool life: Longer tool life at a given cutting speed indicates better machinability.
Surface finish: Smoother surfaces are easier to achieve with high-machinability materials.
Cutting forces and power: Lower forces and power requirements mean higher
machinability.
Chip formation: Easy chip breaking and removal are desirable.

3. Factors Affecting Machinability

Factor Influence on Machinability

Material hardness Harder materials are harder to machine, lower machinability

Toughness Tough materials resist cutting, lower machinability

Microstructure Fine, uniform grains improve machinability

Thermal conductivity High conductivity helps dissipate heat, improving machinability

Chemical composition Alloying elements can improve or worsen machinability

Work hardening Materials that harden during cutting are harder to machine

Cutting tool material & geometry Proper selection improves machinability

Cutting conditions Speed, feed, depth, and lubrication all play a role
4. Machinability Index and Measurement
Machinability Index: Often expressed as a percentage relative to a standard material (e.g.,
AISI B1112 steel is set at 100%).
Measurement Methods:
Tool life tests (comparing tool life at a set cutting speed)
Surface finish evaluation
Measurement of cutting forces and power
Chip form and breakability

5. Examples of Machinability Ratings

Material Machinability Index (%) Notes

Free-machining steel 100 Standard reference

Aluminum alloys 200–300 Very easy to machine

Stainless steel 40–60 Difficult to machine

Titanium alloys 20–30 Very difficult to machine

Brass 150–200 Excellent machinability

6. Improving Machinability
Add alloying elements (e.g., sulfur, lead in steel) to promote chip breaking and reduce tool
wear.
Optimize cutting conditions (speed, feed, depth, lubrication).
Use appropriate tool materials and geometries.

7. Summary
Machinability is a multi-factor property that determines how efficiently and economically a
material can be machined. It is influenced by material properties, tool selection, and machining
conditions, and is measured by tool life, surface finish, cutting forces, and chip control. [145] [143]
[146]

Force Measurement in Metal Cutting: All Aspects

Measuring cutting forces is essential for understanding, optimizing, and controlling machining
processes. Accurate force measurement helps in tool design, process optimization, machinability
studies, and monitoring tool wear or breakage.
1. Why Measure Cutting Forces?
Process Optimization: Adjust cutting parameters for efficiency and quality.
Tool Development: Evaluate new tool materials and geometries.
Machinability Testing: Compare how different materials respond to cutting.
Tool Condition Monitoring: Detect tool wear, breakage, or overload.
Machine Health: Prevent excessive loads that could damage machines.

2. Main Methods of Force Measurement

A. Dynamometers
The most common and reliable devices for measuring cutting forces in machining are
dynamometers. [153] [154] [155] [156] [157]

Types of Dynamometers:
Strain Gauge Dynamometers: Use strain gauges bonded to elastic elements. Deformation
under force changes electrical resistance, which is measured and converted to force.
Piezoelectric Dynamometers: Use piezoelectric crystals (like quartz) that generate an
electric charge when deformed by force. Highly sensitive and suitable for dynamic, multi-
component force measurement.
MEMS-based Dynamometers: Use micro-electro-mechanical systems (tiny resonators) to
detect force via frequency changes. Emerging technology for high-precision, small-scale
applications. [155]

Configurations:
Stationary Dynamometers: Fixed to the machine table; workpiece is mounted on top. Used
in turning, milling, drilling, grinding, etc.
Rotating Dynamometers: Mounted in the spindle; rotate with the tool. Used for measuring
forces and torque in rotating tools (e.g., milling, drilling). [154] [156] [153]

Force Components Measured:

Turning: Cutting force (Fc), feed force (Ff), radial force (Fr)
Milling: Tangential force (Ft), feed force (Ff), passive/radial force (Fp)
Drilling: Thrust force (axial), torque
Data Acquisition:
The dynamometer outputs electrical signals proportional to force.
Signals are amplified (charge amplifier for piezoelectric types), digitized, and analyzed
using software.

B. Indirect Methods
Spindle Motor Current: Cutting force or torque can be estimated from the spindle motor's
current draw, as torque is proportional to current. This method is less accurate due to
friction and other machine losses, but useful for real-time monitoring. [158]
Displacement Sensors: In some research, spindle or tool displacement is measured and
related to force, but this is less common in industry.

3. Key Requirements for Force Sensors

Rigidity: To avoid deformation that could affect accuracy.
Sensitivity: To detect small force changes.
Accuracy: To ensure reliable, repeatable measurements.
Dynamic Response: To capture rapid force fluctuations, especially in milling or interrupted
cuts.
Multi-component Measurement: Ability to measure forces in multiple directions (X, Y, Z
axes) simultaneously.

4. Applications and Benefits

Process Analysis: Understand chip formation, tool wear, and vibration.
Parameter Optimization: Select optimal speed, feed, and depth of cut.
Tool and Material Development: Test new tool materials or coatings and compare
machinability of different workpiece materials.
Quality Control: Ensure consistent machining by monitoring force trends.
Safety: Detect overloads, tool breakage, or collisions in real time.

5. Recent Trends
Wireless Data Transmission: Modern dynamometers can transmit force data wirelessly for
easier integration and real-time monitoring. [155]
Integration with CNC Systems: Direct feedback to CNC controllers for adaptive machining.
Miniaturization: MEMS-based sensors for micro-machining and high-precision applications.
6. Summary Table: Force Measurement Methods in Machining
Method Principle Typical Use Pros Cons

Strain Gauge Resistance Turning, milling, Robust, cost- Limited dynamic

Dynamometer change drilling effective response

Piezoelectric Electric charge All machining, High sensitivity, Needs charge

Dynamometer (quartz) dynamic ops dynamic amplifier

Rotating Piezo/strain, Measures torque, Complex,

Milling, drilling
Dynamometer spindle multi-axis expensive

MEMS-based Micro-machining, Miniaturized,

Frequency shift Emerging, costly
Sensor research precise

Spindle Motor Real-time Simple, non- Less accurate,

Indirect (current)
Current monitoring intrusive indirect

In summary:
Cutting force measurement is most commonly done with dynamometers (strain gauge or
piezoelectric), which provide accurate, multi-axis force data in real time.
These measurements are vital for process optimization, tool and material development, and
ensuring machining safety and quality.
New trends include wireless data, integration with CNC, and MEMS sensors for advanced
applications.
⁂

Key Formulas in Metal Cutting

Below is a consolidated list of the essential formulas related to metal cutting processes, tool
mechanics, forces, power, tool life, and chip formation. These formulas are fundamental for
analyzing and optimizing machining operations.

1. Chip Formation and Shear Mechanics

Shear (cutting) geometry relationships in orthogonal cutting:
Chip thickness ratio:

Shear angle ( ):

Special case, zero rake ( ):

2. Cutting Forces and Merchant’s Circle
Orthogonal cutting force components:
Resultant force ( ):

Friction angle ( ):

Shear force ( ):

Normal force on shear plane ( ):

Shear stress ( ):

Friction stress ( ):

3. Power and Energy

Cutting power ( ):

Cutting speed in turning or drilling:

Material removal rate (MRR) in milling:

Power via specific cutting force and MRR:

4. Tool Life
Taylor’s tool life equation:

where = cutting speed, = tool life, = exponent, = constant.

5. Machinability
Machinability index (relative measure)

6. Drilling Torque and Power

Torque ( ) and thrust ( ) relation to power:

where in N·mm, in rpm; or using thrust force and speed:

Symbols and Units

, : chip thickness before and after cutting (mm)
, , : rake, shear, and friction angles (degrees)
, , , : cutting, thrust, shear, friction forces (N)
: spindle speed (rpm)
, , , , : diameter, width, depth, feed, contact length (mm)
: cutting speed (m/min)
: power (W or kW)
: specific cutting force (N/mm²)
: tool life (min)

This collection of formulas provides the mathematical foundation for analyzing metal cutting
processes, from chip formation and forces to power consumption and tool life optimization.

Introduction to CNC Machining and CNC

Operation
CNC (Computer Numerical Control) machining represents a revolutionary advancement in
manufacturing that transformed traditional manual machining into highly automated, precise,
and efficient processes. Understanding CNC principles is fundamental for modern manufacturing
operations.
1. Definition and Concept
CNC machining is an automated manufacturing process where pre-programmed computer
software controls the movement of factory tools and machinery. Unlike manual machining where
operators directly control tools, CNC systems use coded instructions to achieve precise,
repeatable operations.
CNC Full Form: Computer Numerical Control
Core Principle: Digital control replaces manual intervention
Process Type: Subtractive manufacturing (material removal)

2. Evolution and History

Era Technology Control Method

1940s-1950s NC (Numerical Control) Punched tape, manual programming

1960s-1970s Early CNC Computer integration begins

1980s-Present Modern CNC CAD/CAM integration, advanced controllers

3. Basic Working Principle

The CNC machining process follows a systematic workflow:

Step 1: Design Phase

CAD (Computer-Aided Design): Create 3D digital models with precise dimensions
Design specifications: Define tolerances, surface finish requirements

Step 2: Programming Phase

CAM (Computer-Aided Manufacturing): Convert CAD models into machine instructions
G-code generation: Create numerical control programming language
Toolpath planning: Define cutting sequences and strategies

Step 3: Setup and Operation

Workpiece mounting: Secure material in machine fixture
Tool loading: Install appropriate cutting tools
Program execution: Run automated machining cycle
Step 4: Quality Control
Inspection: Verify dimensional accuracy
Surface finish evaluation: Check quality standards

4. Key Components of CNC Systems

Component Function

Machine Control Unit (MCU) Brain of the system; interprets programs and controls machine operations

Drive System Converts electrical signals into mechanical motion via servo motors

Feedback System Monitors position and speed; ensures accuracy through closed-loop control

Input Devices Enter programs via keyboard, USB, network connection

Display Unit Shows programs, machine status, and operational data

Machine Tool Physical cutting equipment (spindle, slides, tool holders)

5. Programming Languages

G-Code (Geometric Code)

Controls tool movement and cutting operations
Examples:
G01: Linear interpolation (straight line cutting)
G02/G03: Circular interpolation (arc cutting)
G90/G91: Absolute/incremental positioning

M-Code (Miscellaneous Code)

Controls auxiliary functions
Examples:
M03/M04: Spindle start clockwise/counterclockwise
M05: Spindle stop
M08/M09: Coolant on/off

6. Types of CNC Machines

Machine Type Primary Operation Typical Applications

CNC Mills Rotating cutting tool removes material Complex 3D parts, prototypes, molds

CNC Lathes Rotating workpiece, stationary tool Cylindrical parts, shafts, threaded components
 Machine Type Primary Operation Typical Applications

CNC Drilling Hole creation and enlargement Mass production of holes

CNC Grinding Precision surface finishing High-accuracy dimensional control

CNC Routers High-speed cutting of softer materials Wood, plastic, foam processing

7. Coordinate Systems

Cartesian Coordinate System

X-axis: Horizontal movement (left-right)
Y-axis: Horizontal movement (front-back)
Z-axis: Vertical movement (up-down)

Machine Coordinates vs. Work Coordinates

Machine coordinates: Fixed reference from machine home position
Work coordinates: Relative to workpiece zero point for programming convenience

8. Advantages of CNC Machining

Precision: Achieves tolerances of ±0.001" or better
Repeatability: Identical parts produced consistently
Complex geometries: Machines intricate shapes impossible manually
Speed: Higher production rates than manual methods
Flexibility: Easy program changes for different parts
Safety: Reduced operator exposure to cutting tools
Quality: Consistent surface finish and dimensional accuracy

9. CNC Operation Process

Machine Setup
1. Workpiece mounting: Secure in vises, fixtures, or chucks
2. Tool installation: Load cutting tools in spindle or tool changer
3. Work coordinate setting: Establish part zero reference point
4. Tool length measurement: Set tool offsets for accurate positioning
Program Execution
1. Program loading: Transfer G-code to machine controller
2. Dry run: Simulate program without cutting to verify paths
3. First article inspection: Check initial part for accuracy
4. Production run: Execute full machining cycle

Quality Control
1. In-process monitoring: Check critical dimensions during machining
2. Final inspection: Verify all specifications met
3. Statistical process control: Track trends for continuous improvement

Summary: CNC machining revolutionized manufacturing by combining computer control with

traditional machine tools, enabling unprecedented precision, consistency, and automation in part
production. Understanding these fundamental principles is essential for effective CNC operation
and programming.
⁂

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