Session 2025-26

Unit I

Data science is the field of using scientific methods, processes, algorithms, and systems to
extract knowledge and insights from data.
Data is everywhere:
Businesses, governments, and individuals generate vast amounts of data every day. This
data can be about anything – customer behavior, website traffic, financial transactions,
scientific experiments, and more.
Extracting meaning:
Data science provides the tools and techniques to make sense of this data. It's not just
about looking at numbers, but about finding patterns, trends, and relationships within the
data that can be used to make better decisions.
Introduction to ethics in data sciences:

Data science is a rapidly evolving field that plays a crucial role in modern decision-making,
impacting sectors such as healthcare, finance, criminal justice, education, marketing, and
more. With the power to uncover patterns and drive insights from vast amounts of data, data
science also brings significant ethical responsibilities. Ethical considerations ensure that data
science is used fairly, responsibly, and in ways that respect individuals' rights and societal
norms.

• What is Ethics in Data Science?

Ethics in Data Science refers to the responsible and ethical use of the data throughout the
entire data lifecycle. This includes the collection, storage, processing, analysis, and
interpretation of various data.

 Key Ethical Principles in Data Science

 Privacy:

It means respecting an individual's data with confidentiality and consent.

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 Transparency:

Communicating how data is collected, processed, and used, So it will maintain

transparency.

 Fairness and Bias:

Ensuring fairness in data-driven processes and addressing biases that may arise in
algorithms, preventing discrimination against certain groups.

 Accountability:

Holding individuals and organizations accountable for their actions and decisions
based on data.

 Security:

Implementing robust security measures sensitive data and protects them from
unauthorized access and breaches.

 Data Quality:

Ensures the accuracy of the data, completeness and the reliability of the data to
prevent any misinformation.

 Why Ethics Matters in Data Science?

• Data can harm as well as help. Misuse can lead to discrimination, surveillance, or
misinformation.
• Algorithms affect real lives. From loan approvals to medical diagnoses, ethical
decisions can impact people’s futures.
• Trust is essential. Users and stakeholders need to trust that data is being used
responsibly.
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 DATA COLLECTION:
Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables of interest
in a systematic way. It's a crucial step in research, business analysis, and decision-making, as
it provides the raw material for analysis and insights. Data collection involves identifying
relevant sources, choosing appropriate methods, and ensuring the accuracy and reliability of
the collected information.
 Importance of Ethics in Data Collection?

Ethical considerations in data collection are essential to ensure that individuals' rights are
respected, trust is maintained, and the data gathered is both legally and morally sound. The
process of collecting data—especially personal or sensitive information—can have
significant consequences if not conducted ethically.

1. Protects Privacy and Confidentiality

Ethical data collection respects individuals' rights to control their personal information. This
includes:

 Obtaining informed consent before collecting data.

 Ensuring data is anonymized or de-identified where necessary.
 Preventing unauthorized access, leaks, or misuse of data.

Example: Collecting users’ browsing data without their consent can violate privacy laws and
damage reputations.

2. Ensures Accuracy and Integrity

Ethical practices help ensure that data is collected truthfully and without manipulation:

 Data should be collected honestly and reported accurately.

 Avoid fabricating or misrepresenting data to fit desired outcomes.
 Use reliable and unbiased sources.

Example: Manipulating survey questions to lead respondents to a certain answer

compromises the integrity of the data.

3. Promotes Fairness and Reduces Bias

Ethical data collection avoids reinforcing inequalities or discrimination:

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 Ensure that data collection methods are inclusive, covering all relevant populations.
 Avoid sampling biases that may exclude underrepresented groups.

Example: A hiring algorithm trained only on data from past male candidates may inherit
gender bias if women were historically underrepresented.

4. Builds Trust with Participants and the Public

Transparent and respectful data collection fosters trust:

 Individuals are more likely to share data if they know how it will be used and
protected.
 Trust is essential for long-term research relationships and public cooperation.

Example: Medical studies must clearly inform participants about how their data will be used
and stored.

5. Complies with Legal and Regulatory Standards

Unethical data collection can lead to legal consequences:

 Violating laws like GDPR, HIPAA, or CCPA can result in fines and lawsuits.
 Legal compliance is a minimum ethical standard, not the full scope.

Example: Collecting data on EU citizens without proper GDPR compliance can result in
multi-million-dollar penalties.

6. Prevents Harm to Individuals and Communities

Improper data collection can lead to:

 Emotional or psychological distress.

 Targeted exploitation or discrimination.
 Public backlash and social harm.

Example: Unauthorized use of location data in a political campaign could lead to public
outrage and distrust.
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 What is Data Analysis?

Data analysis is the systematic approach to applying statistical and logical techniques to
describe, illustrate, condense, recap, and evaluate data. It involves collecting and organizing
data to discover useful information for decision-making. The process can be descriptive,
exploratory, inferential, predictive, or causal. Common tools include statistical software
like R and Python, and data visualization platforms such as Tableau and Power BI.
What Is Analysis in Ethical Data Collection?

Analysis in ethical data collection refers to the careful examination and evaluation of how
data is gathered, with a focus on whether the methods used are morally and legally
responsible. It involves critically assessing the practices, principles, and outcomes of data
collection to ensure they align with ethical standards.

Elements of Ethical Analysis in Data Collection

1. Purpose Assessment

 Why is the data being collected?

 Is the purpose clear, justifiable, and beneficial to individuals or society?

Example: Analyzing if collecting location data for marketing truly serves users or just
exploits their behavior.

2. Consent Evaluation

 Has informed consent been properly obtained?

 Do users know what data is being collected, how, and why?

Ethical analysis checks: Were users misled? Was consent buried in unreadable terms?

3. Privacy and Confidentiality Review

 Are there strong safeguards to protect personal data?

 Is data anonymized when necessary?

Ethical red flag: Storing identifiable data without encryption or clear retention policies.
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4. Bias and Fairness Check

 Is the data collection inclusive and representative?

 Does it exclude or misrepresent certain groups?

Example: Analyzing survey methods to ensure people from rural areas or minority groups
aren't left out.

Key Features of Data Analysis:

1. Techniques Employed: Uses various statistical, mathematical, or computational

techniques to quantify, process, and manage data.
2. Scope: Involves collecting, cleaning, transforming, and modeling data to discover
useful information for business decision-making.
3. Tools: Often utilizes software and tools like Python, R, SQL, and Excel for analyzing
large datasets.
4. Objective: Aims to identify patterns, trends, or relationships within the data that are not
immediately obvious.
5. Output: Results in actionable insights that can influence decision-making and strategy,
often presented in the form of visual data representations like graphs, charts, and
dashboards.

 What is Data Interpretation?

Data Interpretation is a process where analyzed data is used to make conclusions on
the meaning and implications of some particular study and decide on how insights will be
applied in a practical environment.
It is simply translating numerical, graphical, or even text results from data analysis into
meaningful stories that can drive decision-making.
Interpretation is necessary to bridge raw data and actionable knowledge because it simply
focuses on the meaning of the findings in relation to the problem at hand and what they
suggest for future action or strategy.

Key Features of Data Interpretation:

1. Contextual Understanding: Requires understanding the context in which data exists;
interprets results in terms of what they mean for a specific question or decision.
2. Decision-Making: Focuses on translating analyzed data into information that can be
used to make decisions.
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3. Subjectivity: Involves a certain level of subjectivity as different interpreters might
conclude differently based on the same data set, depending on their perspective or
background.
4. Critical Thinking: Requires critical thinking skills to question and consider the
limitations of the data, including biases and anomalies.
5. Narrative Formulation: Often results in the formulation of a narrative or story that
explains what the data shows and why it matters in a given context.

Aspect Data Analysis Data Interpretation

Process and organize raw data to Make sense of analyzed data, draw
Objective uncover patterns or trends. conclusions, and provide context.

Involves data collection, cleaning, Involves evaluating and synthesizing

transformation, and application of results to explain findings and suggest
Process analytical techniques. actions.

Answers "what" and "how" questions Answers "why" and "what next" based
Focus about the data. on the analysis results.

Nature More technical and quantitative. More qualitative and subjective.

Produces structured data, statistical Produces insights, conclusions, and

Outcome outputs, and models. actionable recommendations.

Role in Provides data and evidence to support Directly informs and influences
Decision- decisions. decision-making.
Making

Can be performed independently but is Relies on the results of data analysis

limited without interpretation. and cannot occur without it.
Dependency

.
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 Explain various tools and methods used for data interpretation?

 Statistical Tools: Descriptive Statistics, Inferential Statistics.

 Data Visualization Tools: Excel, Tableau, Power BI, Google Data Studio,
Python (Matplotlib, Seaborn), R (ggplot2).

 Data Mining Methods: Python (scikit-learn, pandas), R, RapidMiner, Weka.

 Mathematical Modeling: Linear and Non-linear Models,Time Series Analysis,
Optimization Models .
 Software Tools:

Microsoft Excel – Basic analysis, pivot tables, charts,SPSS – Statistical

analysis for social sciences,SAS – Advanced analytics, business intelligence,
Python/R – Programming for customized, scalable data interpretation.

 Ethical theories and framework:

What Are Ethical Theories?

Ethical theories are systematic frameworks used to understand, analyze, and guide human
behavior in terms of right and wrong, good and bad, or moral and immoral actions.

They help answer questions like:

 What should I do?

 What is the right thing to do?
 Why is this action considered moral or immoral?

Purpose of Ethical Theories:

 Provide principles for making ethical decisions.

 Help resolve moral dilemmas.
 Offer justifications for actions and beliefs.
 Support the development of codes of ethics in professions (e.g., medicine, law,
business).

Types of Ethical Theories:

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Ethical Theory Main Focus Example Question
Will this action produce the
Utilitarianism Outcomes/consequences
most happiness?
Am I following a moral rule
Deontology Duties, rules, obligations
or duty?
Am I acting like a good,
Virtue Ethics Character and moral virtues
virtuous person?
Is this action acceptable in
Ethical Relativism Cultural or individual norms
this culture?
Am I caring for the people
Care Ethics Relationships and empathy
involved?
Social agreements and Would rational people agree
Contractarianism
fairness to this rule?

What Is an Ethical Framework?

An ethical framework is a guide for making moral decisions by applying consistent
principles, values, or theories to assess what is right or wrong.

Purpose of an Ethical Framework:

 Helps clarify what values are important in a situation.

 Provides a logical process for solving ethical dilemmas.
 Supports fair, transparent, and justifiable decisions.
 Encourages consistency in moral reasoning.

1. Utilitarianism (Consequentialism)

The morally right action is the one that produces the greatest overall good (or least harm) for
the greatest number of people.

Strengths:

 Promotes general welfare and well-being

 Practical for decision-making (e.g., in policy, public health)

Limitations:

 Can justify immoral acts if they lead to good outcomes (e.g., sacrificing one to save
many)
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 Hard to measure and compare all consequences
 Minority rights can be overlooked.

Application:

Choose data practices that maximize overall benefit and minimize harm.

Example: In a pandemic, a government prioritizes vaccination for healthcare workers first —

this maximizes the benefit to the overall population.

2. Deontology (Duty-Based Ethics)

Actions are morally right or wrong based on rules or duties, regardless of consequences.

Strengths:

 Respects individual rights and dignity

 Clear rules make it easier to apply consistently
 Values moral integrity

Limitations:

 Can lead to rigid or unrealistic decisions (e.g., telling the truth even if it harms
someone)
 Doesn't consider outcomes, even catastrophic ones.

Application:

Follow moral rules and data governance policies — even if breaking them might lead to a
better outcome.

Example: A data scientist refuses to use data collected without user consent, even if the data
could improve a model’s accuracy — because using it would violate privacy rights and
ethical duties.

Example: A doctor refuses to lie to a patient about their diagnosis, even if the truth causes
distress — because honesty is a moral duty.
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3. Virtue Ethics

Focuses on developing good character traits and acting in accordance with what a virtuous
person would do.

Virtue ethics provides guidance on how to live a good life and make ethical decisions by
considering what a virtuous person would do in a particular situation.
Examples:
If a virtuous person is honest, they would be honest in various situations, not just when it is
convenient or beneficial.

Strengths:

 Focuses on personal growth and long-term moral development

 Encourages holistic ethical living, not just decision-making
 Adaptable to context

Limitations:

 Less clear guidance on what to do in specific situations

 Definitions of "virtue" can vary across cultures or people.

Application:

Focus on the character and integrity of the data scientist or team.

Example: A nurse acts compassionately and with courage, not just out of duty or outcome,
but because they are cultivating moral excellence.

 Ethical decision making frameworks

Ethical decision-making frameworks provide structured approaches for navigating complex
situations where moral considerations are paramount. These frameworks help individuals and
organizations identify ethical issues, evaluate alternatives, and make choices aligned with
ethical principles. They provide a roadmap for resolving ethical dilemmas, promoting
fairness, and fostering trust.
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Five-Step Ethical Decision-Making Model

1. Recognize the ethical issue.

2. Gather relevant facts.
3. Evaluate alternatives using ethical frameworks.
4. Make a decision and test it (e.g., “What if it were on the front page?”).
5. Act and reflect on the outcome.

Here are several widely used frameworks, each with its own strengths depending on the
situation:

1. Utilitarianism (Consequentialism):

Choose the action that produces the greatest good for the greatest number. It focuses on
maximizing benefits and minimizing harm.

 Key Questions:
o What are the potential outcomes of each option?
o Who will be affected, and how?
o Which choice leads to the best overall consequences?

Weakness: Can justify unethical means if they lead to good outcomes.

2. Deontological Ethics (Duty-Based)

Act according to moral rules or duties, regardless of consequences. Emphasizes justice,

fairness, and rights.

 Key Questions:
o What rules, rights, or obligations are relevant?
o Are we respecting the dignity and autonomy of individuals?
o Would I want everyone to act this way in a similar situation
(universalizability)?

Weakness: Can lead to rigid decisions that ignore context or outcomes.

3. Virtue Ethics
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Make decisions that align with virtuous character traits (e.g., honesty, courage, compassion).
Focuses on personal development and long-term character.
Key Questions:

o What would a virtuous person do?

o Does this decision reflect integrity and moral character?
o Will this action help me become a better person?

Weakness: Less guidance on specific actions in complex scenarios.

4. Ethic of Care

Focus on relationships, empathy, and care for others, especially the vulnerable. Emphasizes
compassion, context, and connection.

 Key Questions:
o Who is affected, and what are their needs?
o Are we maintaining or strengthening important relationships?
o Are we being empathetic and responsive to others' situations?

Weakness: Can be subjective and hard to apply consistently.

5. Rights-Based Ethics

Protect and respect the moral rights of individuals (e.g., rights to privacy, life, freedom).
Safeguards individual autonomy and dignity.

 Key Questions:
o Whose rights are involved?
o Are any rights being violated?
o Can these rights be balanced fairly?

Weakness: Rights can conflict, requiring prioritization.

6. Justice and Fairness

Ensure fair treatment, equity, and distribution of benefits and burdens. Promotes equality and
impartiality.
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 Key Questions:
o Is this fair to all parties?
o Are we treating like cases alike?
o Are we distributing resources or risks equitably?

Weakness: Difficult to define fairness in complex or unequal contexts.