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ICS 29.240.20 NRS 034-1:2001

Edition 3.3
ISBN 0-626-13513-3 Edition 3.3: Incorporating Corrigendum and
Amendments 1 and 2

Rationalized User Specification

ELECTRICITY DISTRIBUTION -
GUIDELINES FOR THE PROVISION OF
ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION NETWORKS
IN RESIDENTIAL AREAS
Part 1: Planning and design of
distribution systems

Preferred requirements for applications in the

Electricity Supply Industry

N R S
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This Rationalized User Specification is

issued by the NRS Project
on behalf of the
User Group given in the foreword
and is not a standard as contemplated in the Standards Act, 1993 (Act 29 of 1993).

Rationalized user specifications allow user

organizations to define the performance and quality
requirements of relevant equipment.

Rationalized user specifications may, after a certain

application period, be introduced as national standards.

Amendments issued since publication

Amdt No. Date Text affected
Technical 24 March 2000 4.3.4.1 A formula was inserted
corrigendum 4.4.4. Last sentence deleted
B.5.1. First sentence deleted and replaced with
another
1&2 February 2001 Foreword revised to include amendments
Table 3a has been replaced with a hyperlink to
revised table 3a and3b
4.3.4.1 Replace formula (b)

Correspondence to be directed to Printed copies obtainable from

Standards South Africa Standards South Africa

Private Bag X191 Private Bag X191
Pretoria 0001 Pretoria 0001

Telephone: (012) 428-7911

Fax: (012) 344-1568
E-mail: [email protected]
Website: http://www.stansa.co.za

COPYRIGHT RESERVED
Printed on behalf of the NRS Project in the Republic of South Africa
by the Standards South Africa
1 Dr Lategan Road, Groenkloof, Pretoria
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1 NRS 034-1:2001

Contents
Page

Foreword ............................................................................................................................................ 3
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 4
Key words .......................................................................................................................................... 5
1 Scope .......................................................................................................................................... 7
2 Normative references ................................................................................................................. 7
3 Definitions and abbreviated terms .............................................................................................. 9
4 Panning and design .................................................................................................................... 9
4.1 Factors influencing network design ....................................................................................... 9
4.2 Planning procedure................................................................................................................ 10
4.3 Load modeling........................................................................................................................ 15
4.4 Voltage regulation on LV distributors .................................................................................... 21
4.5 Current-carrying capacity on LV distributors......................................................................... 22
4.6 Financial analysis of electricity projects ................................................................................ 23
4.7 Distribution system protection................................................................................................ 23
4.8 Earthing .................................................................................................................................. 26
4.9 Metering.................................................................................................................................. 27
5 Selection of equipment and materials .......................................................................................... 27
5.1 General................................................................................................................................... 27
5.2 Selection of cables and conductors....................................................................................... 28
5.3 Selection of transformers....................................................................................................... 31
5.4 Use of energy-limiting circuit-breakers .................................................................................. 32
6 Inspection and tests...................................................................................................................... 32

Figures

1 Cost of electrical infrastructure ..................................................................................................... 12

2 LV distribution topologies.............................................................................................................. 14
3 Typical Gaussian (normal) load distribution................................................................................. 15
4 Typical β load distributions ........................................................................................................... 16
5 Typical s-curve for a system......................................................................................................... 17
6 Typical low-voltage distribution system........................................................................................ 25
Annexes
B.1 Typical spreadsheet for calculating voltage drops .................................................................... 41
B.2 Checking for maximum voltage drop......................................................................................... 42
B.3 Example of branched network ................................................................................................... 42
B.4 Benchmark networks for 24 consumers.................................................................................... 43
B.5 Network for cases 1 to 3 ............................................................................................................ 46
B.6 Network for case 4 ..................................................................................................................... 47
B.7 Network for case 5 ..................................................................................................................... 47
B.8 Network for case 6 ..................................................................................................................... 48
D.1 Using a CSP transformer........................................................................................................... 60
D.2 Using a conventional transformer with one external fuse per phase ....................................... 60
D.3 Using a conventional transformer with two external fuses per phase...................................... 60
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NRS 034-1:2001 2

Contents (continued)
Page

Annexes
A Arrangements for supplying a residential area............................................................................ 33
B Description and use of the Herman-Beta algorithm .................................................................... 34
C Financial analysis ......................................................................................................................... 49
D Protection systems ....................................................................................................................... 57
E Bibliography .................................................................................................................................. 64
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3 NRS 034-1:2001

Foreword
This edition of NRS 034-1, Edition 3.3, cancels and replaces all other editions of NRS 034-1. This part
of NRS 034 supersedes part G of the Guidelines for the provision of engineering services in residential
townships, published in 1983 by the former Department of Community Development. Edition 3.3 of
NRS 034-1 was compiled to take account of amendments and editorial changes since the publication
of edition 3.1.

Edition 3.1 of this part of NRS 034 was amended by a working group that comprised the following
members:

R G Stephen (Chairman) Eskom

S Adams Nelson Mandela Municipality
W O Barnard National Electricity Regulator
M Dekenah Marcus Dekenah Consulting CC
C T Gaunt University of Cape Town
H J Geldenhuys Eskom
A P Hamalainen eThekwini Electricity
R Herman University of Stellenbosch
M J Hyde Cape Town Electricity Department
N Ijumba University of Durban, Westville
P A Johnson NRS Project Management Agency
L G Kritzinger Mangaung Electricity
D Narandas City Power, Johannesburg
A Smuts Tshwane Electricity Department

The compilers of this part of NRS 034 wish to acknowledge, in particular, the work done by Dr R
Herman in researching the application of the β function to voltage drop calculation techniques and M
Dekanah, the Project Manager for the NRS load research project, who has provided data used in the
compilation of this part of NRS 034.

The working group was appointed by the ESLC, which at the time of approval of amendment 2 and 3,
comprised the following members:

R Wienand (Chairman) eThekwini Metropolitan Council, AMEU

M N Bailey Eskom Distribution Technology
A J Claasen SABS Electrotechnical Standards
N Croucher City of Cape Town, (Cape Town Administration), AMEU
P Crowdy Eskom Distribution Technology
W G H Dykman City of Tshwane, AMEU
A H L Fortmann Technical Secretary, AMEU
P A Johnson Eskom Technology Standardization
J G Louw City of Cape Town (Tygerberg Adminsitration) AMEU
D Michie Nelson Mandela Metropolitan Municipality, AMEU
A J van der Merwe Mangaung Electricity, AMEU
J S van Heerden SABS NETFA
P S J van Niekerk City Power Johannesburg (Pty) Ltd, AMEU
H R Whitehead eThekwini Metropolitan Council, AMEU

ISBN 0-626-13513-3
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NRS 034-1:2001 4

NRS 034 consists of the following parts and sections, under the general title Electricity distribution
— Guidelines for the provision of electrical distribution networks in residential areas:
Part 1: Planning and design of distribution systems.
Part 2: Preferred methods and materials:
Section 1: Substations. (In course of preparation.)
Section 2: Underground cables. (Under consideration.)
Section 3: Overhead lines.
Section 4: Area lighting. (In course of preparation.)
Section 5: LV services. (In course of preparation.)
Part 3: Overhead distribution in very low, low and moderate consumption areas.

Part 4: Alternative technologies for rural areas. (Under consideration.)

Part 5: Contract specification. (In course of preparation.)

Annexes A, B, C and D are for information only.

NRS 034 serves as the basis for electrical distribution services that are provided in accordance with
the Guidelines for the provision of engineering services and amenities in residential township
development (commonly referred to as the red book) issued by the National Housing Board.

Recommendations for corrections, additions or deletions should be addressed to the NRS Project
Manager, c/o Electrical Engineering Standards Manager, SABS, Private Bag X191, Pretoria, 0001.

Introduction
Residential distribution planning and design essentially consist of the placement and sizing of
electrical equipment to satisfy predicted consumer loads. For low voltage feeders, voltage drop is the
predominant constraint in sizing. Owing to the stochastic (random variation with respect to time)
nature of domestic loads, a statistical description of the loads is required. If the load consists of a
large number of consumers (n), then the total load may be regarded as n times the mean value of after
diversity maximum demand (ADMD). This is due to the phenomenon known as central tendency.
However, as the number of consumers forming the load decreases (n’), so the uncertainty of the size
of a combined load increases and allowance should be made for the probability that the load will
exceed n’ times the mean value.

Historically, a factor derived from the number of consumers (coincidence factor) was used to account
for this so-called “lack of diversity”. Traditionally, the voltage drop calculation was based on a
balanced three-phase system and a further factor was used to compensate for the unbalance of
phases. These older formulas ignored the voltage drop in the neutral, particularly when the neutral
conductor resistance differed from that of the phase conductors.

Data loggers developed at the University of Stellenbosch during 1987 have been used to gather
statistical load data. Analyses of these data over years have led to the following observations:

– domestic loads can be modelled as currents;

– loads lie within a finite positive range of values – between zero and the circuit-breaker size;
– when a frequency of occurrence histogram of the load currents is plotted, it is best modelled by a
Beta probability density function (pdf); and
– the load pdf can be either skewed to the left or right (shape).
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5 NRS 034-1:2001
The statistical parameters of the Beta pdf are, a, b and scaling value c. In contrast, a Gaussian pdf
has parameters: mean (µ) and standard deviation (σ). The mean value of the load may be regarded
as the ADMD (in amperes or in kilovolt amperes at nominal 230 V). The Gaussian pdf has no limits
and cannot be skewed. It is therefore not a good representation of the domestic load. It is therefore
necessary to have three parameters to adequately describe load location, dispersion and shape.
This is achieved by the Beta pdf.

For those who are only familiar with the older ADMD/diversity factor combination, the new load model
can be derived in the following way:

– use the circuit-breaker size as the scaling value, c;

– set the estimated ADMD in amperes (i.e. the mean of target community) equal to ac/(a + b);
– for the given mean and c values, consider a as an indicator of shape (this is not strictly true as a, b
and c together give shape). The value of a needs to be obtained for the target community from the
NRS Load Survey project; and
– calculate the remaining load parameter, b = a (c/ADMD – 1).
Alternatively, all three load parameters, a, b and c may be obtained from the NRS Load Research
Project or may be estimated from table 3 of this part of NRS 034. Other load modelling issues are
dealt with in 4.3.

Beta distributed load currents can be transformed into another beta distribution of voltage drops by
using the Herman-Beta method. The Herman-Beta method is the most comprehensive and accurate
method available for calculating voltage drops in LV residential feeders. The Voltage Drop Working
Group of the NRS 034-1 committee has adopted the Herman-Beta method in these design guidelines.
A risk value has to be chosen by the designer since it is a probabilistic (rather than deterministic)
method. A common value is 10 %. The Herman-Beta method is suitable for use in spreadsheet
applications. Worksheets are available from the NRS Project Management Agency for both three-
phase and bi-phase (or dual-phase) systems.

Key words
Electricity distribution; Residential areas; Guidelines for planning and design.
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NRS 034-1:2001 6

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7 NRS 034-1:2001

GUIDELINE

Electricity distribution — Guidelines for the provision of electrical

distribution networks in residential areas

Part 1: Planning and design of distribution systems

Preferred requirements for applications in the Electricity Supply Industry

1 Scope
This part of NRS 034 covers the planning and design of economical residential electrical distribution
systems that are capable of meeting probable demands with safety and reliability, whilst maintaining
the voltage within the prescribed limits. It is a general guide to good technical practice for economical
overhead and underground systems.

2 Normative references
The following standards contain provisions which, through reference in the text, constitute provisions
of this part of NRS 034. At the time of publication, the editions indicated were valid. All standards are
subject to revision and parties to agreements based on this part of NRS 034 are encouraged to
investigate the possibility of applying the most recent edition of the standards listed below. Information
on currently valid national and international standards can be obtained from the South African Bureau
of Standards.

2.1 Regulations
Electricity Act, 1987 (Act 41 of 1987) (as amended). (Note, particularly, Government Gazette R103,
26 January 1996.)

Occupational Health and Safety Act, 1993 (Act 85 of 1993) (OHS Act).

Post Office Act, 1958 (Act 44 of 1958) (as amended).

2.2 Standards
IEC 60909:1991, Short-circuit current calculation in three-phase a.c. systems.
IEC 60947-2:1995, Low-voltage switchgear – Part 2: Circuit-breakers.
SABS 97:1999, Electric cables – Impregnated-paper-insulated metal-sheathed cables for rated
voltages from 3,3/3,3 kV up to 19/33 kV.
SABS 182-1:1973, Conductors for overhead electrical transmission lines – Part 1: Copper wires and
stranded copper conductors.
SABS 182-2:1973, Conductors for overhead electrical transmission lines – Part 2: Stranded aluminium
conductors.
SABS 182-3:1975, Conductors for overhead electrical transmission lines – Part 3: Aluminium
conductors, steel reinforced.

SABS 182-5:1979, Conductors for overhead electrical transmission lines – Part 5: Zinc-coated steel
wires for conductors and stays.
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NRS 034-1:2001 8

SABS 780:1998, Distribution transformers.

SABS 1019:1985, Standard voltages, currents and insulation levels for electricity supply.
SABS 1339:1992, Electric cables – Cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE)-insulated cables for voltages
from 3,8/6,6 kV to 19/33 kV.
SABS 1418-1:1986, Aerial bundled conductor systems – Part 1: Cores.
SABS 1418-2:1986, Aerial bundled conductor systems – Part 2: Assembled insulated conductor
bundles.
SABS 1524-0:1997, Electricity dispensing systems – Part 0: Glossary of terms and system overview.
SABS 1524-1:1994, Electricity dispensing systems – Part 1: Single-phase electricity dispensers.
VDE 0636-31:1983, Low voltage fuses: D system: Protection of cables and wiring up to 100 A and
500 V and up to 63 A 660 V a.c. or 600 V d.c.
SABS IEC 60269-1:1986, Low-voltage fuses – Part 1: General requirements.
SABS IEC 60521:1988, Alternating-current electromechanical watt-hour meters (classes 0.5, 1 and 2).
SABS IEC 61036:1996, Alternating-current static watt-hour meters for active energy (classes 1 and 2).
SABS IEC 61089:1991, Round wire concentric lay overhead electrical stranded conductors.
NRS 013:2000, Medium-voltage cables
NRS 034-0:2001, Electricity distribution – Guidelines for the provision of electrical distribution networks
in residential areas – Part 0: Definitions.
NRS 048-2:1996, Electricity supply – Quality of supply – Part 2: Minimum standards – For applications
by the National Electricity Regulator.

2.3 Codes of practice and guidelines

AMEU/ILESA/SANCI, Guide for the installation and maintenance of street lighting.
SABS 098-1:1990, Public lighting – Part 1: The lighting of public thoroughfares.
SABS 098-2:1973, Public lighting – Part 2: The lighting of certain specific areas of streets and
highways.
SABS 0142:1993, The wiring of premises.
SABS 0198-3:1988, The selection, handling and installation of electric power cables of rating not
exceeding 33 kV – Part 3: Earthing systems – General provisions.
SABS 0198-5:1988, The selection, handling and installation of electric power cables of rating not
exceeding 33 kV – Part 5: Determination of thermal and electrical resistivity of soil.
SABS 0198-12:1988, The selection, handling and installation of electric power cables of rating not
exceeding 33 kV – Part 12: Installation of earthing system.
SABS 0199:1985, The design and installation of an earth electrode.
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9 NRS 034-1:2001
SABS 0280:1998, Overhead power lines for conditions prevailing in South Africa.
NRS 016:1995, Electricity distribution – Code of practice for the earthing of low-voltage distribution
systems (under consideration for withdrawal, to be replaced by SABS 0292).
NRS 033:1996, Electricity distribution – Guidelines for the application design, planning and
construction of medium voltage overhead power lines up to and including 22 kV, using wooden pole
structures and bare conductors.
NRS 034-3:1999, Electricity distribution – Guidelines for the provision of electrical distribution networks
in residential areas – Part 3: Overhead distribution in very low, low and moderate consumption areas –
For applications in the electricity supply industry.

3 Definitions and abbreviations

For the purposes of this part of NRS 034, the definitions and abbreviations given in NRS 034-0 and the
following definitions apply:

NOTE — Definition 3.1 that was originally from NRS 034-0, has been modified.

3.1 beta distribution (β): A statistical distribution function that can be used to describe the electrical
load of a group of consumers at any given time.

3.2 dual-phase system (bi-phase system): A distribution system, with two live conductors and a
neutral, fed from a centre-tapped single-phase transformer winding.

3.3 node: A point of common connection of consumer service conductors to a feeder, or a branch
point in a feeder.

4 Planning and design

No design should be considered in isolation. The planner should take into account the relationship
between the area to be supplied and adjacent supply areas, proposed future developments and
environmental considerations.

When applying the guidelines to individual schemes, it is necessary to take into account all local
conditions and total life cycle cost (for example, capital outlay and the upgrading of operational and
maintenance requirements).

4.1 Factors influencing network design

4.1.1 The factors influencing network design that need to be considered fall into the following three
categories:

a) fixed parameters within which the electrical designer might have to work, which include
1) statutory requirements,
2) existing services (for example, oil pipelines),
3) existing residential area layout,
4) number of dwellings per hectare,
5) nature of the terrain,
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NRS 034-1:2001 10

6) geographic location (for example, coastal or inland), and

7) capital limitations;
b) factors over which the designer has limited or no control, which include:
1) consumer loads (see 4.3), and
2) diversity;
c) factors over which the designer should exercise control, which include
1) initial capital costs and life cycle costs,
2) new residential area layout,
3) number and positioning of metering points,
4) cable and conductor sizes and types of cable and conductor,
5) number, sizes, locations and types of substation,
6) voltage drop and unbalance, within limits of design load, and
7) quality of supply.
4.1.2 Climatic conditions should also be taken into account since they will influence the design of an
electricity distribution network.

For information on how to take account of climatic conditions in the design of overhead lines, see
SABS 0280.

Some examples of the effects of climatic conditions on overhead lines are given below:

a) Ambient temperature and wind affect the sag of overhead conductors and their current-carrying
capacity.
b) Wind affects pole supports, stays and clearance.
c) Lightning causes surge voltages to be induced in the network.
d) In cases where overhead lines are situated close to the coast, the combined effects of pollution
and high relative humidity on insulators have an adverse effect on the system. Salt fog can be
corrosive on conductors with steel reinforcing if not adequately greased.
4.2 Planning procedure

4.2.1 Co-ordination of services

An integrated approach should be followed to minimize the overall cost of those services that are
affected by the residential area layout.

4.2.1.1 The following engineering services should be considered when a residential area is being
planned:

a) the layout of stands for housing, parks, schools and roads;

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11 NRS 034-1:2001
b) gravity-dependent services such as stormwater drainage and sewerage;

c) water reticulation and fire hydrants;

d) electrical distribution and street lighting systems;
e) overhead and underground telecommunication systems; and
f) gas distribution systems.
4.2.1.2 In South Africa, the following organizations should be consulted, since their services might be
affected by the provision of electrical distribution systems:

a) Telkom (formerly the Department of Posts and Telecommunications), in terms of section 88(2) of
the Post Office Act, 1958 (Act 44 of 1958);
b) the provincial roads departments and the National Transport Commission;
c) Transnet, with regard to railways;
d) Petronet, with regard to oil pipelines;
e) private land owners and public supply authorities (including regional water boards), with regard to
water pipes;
f) all supply authorities, with regard to power line and cable servitudes and way-leaves;
g) the SA Gas Distribution Corporation (GASCOR) and private gas companies; and
h) local and regional authorities, with regard to municipal services.
4.2.2 External supply

Ensure that the external supply is adequate to cater for the estimated system peak load, which is
equal to the estimated maximum demand of the residential load plus other loads that contribute to the
system peak load, for example, street lighting, shopping centres and sports arenas.

Calculate the estimated maximum demand of the residential load in kilovolt amperes (kVA), by using
the formula (see 4.3.2):

c ⎡ a×b ⎤
L = 0,23 × N × ⎢a + 1,28 ⎥
a + b ⎣⎢ N (a + b + 1) ⎦⎥

where

L is the maximum load in kilovolt amperes;

N is the total number of consumers;
a, b and c are the load current model parameters.
When sizing transformers, coincidental bulk loads such as those due to pumps, schools, shops, etc.,
should be added.

The location of the point of connection of the external supply should always be agreed upon with the
external supply authority as soon as planning starts (see annex A).
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NRS 034-1:2001 12

4.2.3 Internal network

Examine the layout of the stands and decide on the type of technology to be used by referring to
4.2.3.1. The dual-phase option is often a good choice when the most convenient number of consumer
connections at each node is a multiple of two.

To design the internal network,

a) determine the optimum number of service connections per service distribution point (SDP) that will
depend on variables such as:
1) the installed cost of an SDP,
2) the cost of the service connection from the SDP to each consumer, and
3) the additional voltage drop for long service connections.
b) remember that the supply to SDPs is normally radial from the substations,
c) link the SDPs to establish routes for distributors. Optimize the route lengths with regard to
substation costs and cable/conductor costs. The relationship is typically as shown in figure 1,

Total cost

LV distributor cost
Cost

Optimum range
of length

Substation and MV
distribution costs

Average length of LV distributors

Figure 1 — Cost of electrical infrastructure

d) determine the ideal positions of substations to supply the distributors. The overall cost of the
scheme is affected by the position of each substation. Position substations near load centres. In
cases where shopping centres, schools, petrol stations and other large power users are to be
supplied, so position the substation that supplies these loads that any spare transformer capacity
is utilized effectively for adjacent residential consumers. Optimize the position of each substation
by taking into consideration servitude requirements and practical sites,
e) calculate the number and size of the substations needed to supply the total estimated load while
taking into account the preferred transformer sizes, (see preferred transformer sizes in table 1),
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13 NRS 034-1:2001

Table 1 – Preferred transformer sizes

1 2 3

Pole-mounted MV/LV transformers

kVA
Three-phase Dual-phase (bi-phase) Single-phase

25 32 16
50 – –
100 – –
200 – –
Mini-substations

200 – –
315 – –
400 – –
500 – –
630 – –

f) consider both the optimum radius of LV distribution and the cost of looping the medium voltage
(MV) distribution to the substation (see 4.2.3(c)),
g) determine the LV distributor sizes in relation to the load and voltage drop (see 4.4),
NOTE — Tapering of conductor sizes will often give the lowest first-cost solution, but this advantage needs to be
evaluated against the potential cost of future upgrading.

h) design the backbone layout with due regard to the sharing of structures/trenches for MV, LV and
street lighting systems. Where feasible, the sharing of poles with overhead telephone services
should be considered,
j) determine circuit-breaker, isolator and other protection and control requirements,
k) design the street lighting layout with reference to SABS 098-1 and SABS 098-2 and the
AMEU/ILESA/SANCI Guide for the installation and maintenance of street lighting,
l) consider the means of future network upgrading for growth in load and check on the feasibility of
the design to make provision for upgrading,
m) determine the cost of the complete design, and the average cost for each residential property.
Compare these costs with known average costs for a similarly designed supply area. Re-check
the design for possible cost savings,
n) estimate the cost of losses over the economic life of the network and capitalize those losses.
Compare the costs, using increased sizes of cables or conductors (to minimize losses), and
identify the most cost-effective choice, and
p) where alternative materials are considered, include their impact on the lifetime maintenance costs
when deciding which materials to use.
NOTE— The initial capital available might preclude the most cost-effective long-term design.
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NRS 034-1:2001 14

4.2.3.1 LV distribution topology

Three types of LV distribution systems are available:

a) three-phase, 4-wire;
b) single-phase; and
c) dual-phase (bi-phase).
The arrangement of the conductors and transformers is shown in figure 2.

M.V. L.V. M.V L.V. Red

Red M.V L.V Line

White
Neutral

Blue Neutral

Neutral Blue

(a) Three-Phase, 4-Wire (b) Single-Phase (c) Dual Phase

Figure 2 – LV distribution topologies

4.2.3.2 Phase assignment of consumers

Voltage drop in a feeder is affected by the way consumers are connected to the supply. Generally,
with aerial bundled conductor (ABC) and overhead bare conductor feeders, up to four consumers may
be connected to a phase conductor using one clamp. Depending on the system topology, the physical
arrangement of the stands and the position of the poles or SDPs, consumers can be connected to the
phase conductors in a variety of patterns.

The following convention identifies the patterns:

cyc mmm; cos mmm; bal mmm

where

cyclic refers to assignment: red, white, blue, red, white, blue ...
cosine refers to assignment: red, white, blue, blue, white, red ...
balanced refers to assignment: red, white, red, white, and
m is the number of consumers connected to the same point.
Examples:
a) Cos400 refers to a three-phase cosine arrangement with four consumers connected to one phase
at a node
b) Cyc40 refers to a dual-phase cyclic arrangement with four consumers connected to one phase at
a node
c) Bal222 refers to a three-phase arrangement where a total of six consumers are connected at a
node, two consumers per phase
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15 NRS 034-1:2001

4.3 Load modelling

4.3.1 Uncertainty in load modelling

The largest source of uncertainty in LV distribution design is in the modelling of the design loads. A
good way to deal with uncertainty is to use probabilistic rather than deterministic design methods.
Research has resulted in probabilistic design algorithms appropriate to Southern African conditions.
This work is reflected in the following sections.

4.3.2 Electrical description of loads

Analysis of extensive load data collected in South Africa validates the assumption that domestic
electrical loads can be modelled as constant current sinks. This obviates the need for iterative
procedures in voltage drop calculations. Loads will therefore be referred to in terms of amperes rather
than kilovolt amperes or kilowatts. The heaviest loads generally have a large resistive heating
component resulting in a load power factor close to unity. It is therefore appropriate to consider loads
as currents at unity power factor for the purpose of voltage drop calculation.

A more accurate description of the load necessitates a statistical approach. Based on load research,
statistical probability functions have been derived for various loads. These functions are derived from
histograms of the load currents of all the consumers’ loads taken at representative instants. The
resulting distribution represents the consumer load that causes the greatest voltage drop (worst case)
in the system. This worst case could result from an increased demand or severe unbalance (or both).

It is necessary to model the connection of the actual loads to the system as accurately as possible
and, in this regard, it is particularly advantageous to use the Herman-Beta algorithm for voltage drop
calculations. A typical unbalanced connection might be where four consumers are connected to the
red phase at the end of the first section, four consumers are connected to the white phase at the end
of the second section and four consumers are connected to the blue phase at the end of the third
section.

4.3.3 Statistical description of loads

Load currents at maximum demand, or any other instant, are statistically distributed. This distribution
of currents can be represented as a histogram of frequency of occurrence (or probability) against
current (in amperes). A statistical expression, known as a pdf can be derived from the histogram. A
common pdf is the Gaussian or normal pdf, shown in figure 3. Such a distribution describes the mean
(average value) and also the dispersion (or spread of values, expressed as the standard deviation).
Negative loads Positive loads Standard
Probability of occurrence

deviation
0,04

0,03
Mean
0,02

-20 -16 -12 -8 -4 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56

Current (A)
Figure 3 −Typical Gaussian (normal) load distribution
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NRS 034-1:2001 16

While this symmetrical description is suitable for a large number of combined loads (>30), it is
generally unsuitable for smaller groups (as in reticulation design). In these cases, the pdf of the load
currents might be skewed to the right or the left, as shown in figure 4. The skewness depends on a
variety of factors such as the presence of hot water cylinders and circuit-breaker size.

Low consumption; c = 20 A
0,14
Probability of occurrence

Moderate consumption; c = 20 A
0,12
High consumption; c = 60 A

0,10 c Consumer circuit-breaker size

0,08

0,06 20 A circuit-breaker

0,04 60 A circuit-breaker

0,02
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Current (A)

Figure 4 − Typical load distributions

Two statistical parameters are required to describe a symmetrical distribution such as the Gaussian
pdf, but three parameters are needed when skewness is included. A convenient pdf for this purpose is
the Beta pdf with parameters: a, b and c (see table 3). By varying the relationship between a, b and c,
a family of curves can be derived that will fit most practical load distributions. The parameter c is the
scaling parameter and is often taken as the consumer circuit-breaker size.

The mean value of the Beta pdf is given by:

a
c
a+b
A Beta pdf may be rescaled to any new value, c’, as long as c’ is larger than the original mean value
(see annex B.4).

Loads described by the Beta pdf are used in voltage drop calculations by the Herman-Beta method.
While the derivation of the Herman-Beta algorithm can be complicated, the resulting calculation steps
are linear and may, for example, be incorporated into standard spreadsheet programs (see annex B).
The Herman-Beta method is the most accurate probabilistic approach for dealing with various load
types, network topology and consumer connection arrangements.

4.3.4 Estimating the a, b and c parameters of loads

4.3.4.1 General

Where the load data are available, the a and b parameters can be derived for any given values of c,
using the mean (µ) and the standard deviation (σ) of the data.

µ (c µ _ µ 2 _ σ 2 )
a =
cσ 2
(c _ µ )(c µ _ µ 2 _ σ 2 )
b =
cσ 2
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17 NRS 034-1:2001

4.3.4.2 Characteristics to be considered

Load estimation for urban or rural domestic consumers is very important in the cost of the
electrification system. Overestimation (“safe estimate”) will result in over capitalization, while
underestimation results in a poor quality of supply which could lead to expensive reinforcement later.

Several demographic factors affect load statistics. These include: income, availability of piped water,
type of dwelling, size of dwelling, size of household, ambient temperature, distance from main centres
and shift work.

Another issue is load growth. The per-consumer load generally increases from the time of
electrification, reaching a saturation level after some years (see figure 5). The exact nature of this
growth depends on the type of consumer. A convenient simplication for load growth is the use of two
load horizons: 7 years and 15 years.

Maturity
System load

Growth: connection of more

consumers and individual
consumer load growth.

Start of electrification

Time
Figure 5 − Typical s-curve for a system

The design parameters selected for any particular residential area will influence all major sizing
parameters and have a significant effect on both the initial capital costs and the system lifetime costs
(see table 2).

Table 2 − Characteristics to be considered and their effects on the electrical load

1 2
Characteristic Effect on design load
Economic class of present and future residents This will determine the appliances present in a household.
Social characteristics, e.g. number of persons or The estimated future usage patterns of appliances that
households on each stand contribute significantly to a consumer’s load at times of
peak demand, e.g. hotplate/stove, space heating, water
heating, washing machine, tumble dryer and air
conditioner, can increase the ADMD selected
Community habits (shift work, etc.) If a large percentage of a residential area’s population
works fixed hours (e.g. shift work at a mine or factory) the
parameters of the load model might have to be changed
(see 4.3.4.4)
Load control methods (“ripple control”, load limit Take cognisance of the influence of “ripple-control” on
switches or circuit-breaker tariffs) electric water heaters, where this is to be applied, and
reduce the ADMD accordingly
Cost, ease of use, availability of and social preference The estimated continued usage of alternative energy in the
for alternative energy sources future as a substitute for major energy appliances, e.g. the
use of coal stoves instead of electric stoves or hotplates,
can reduce the ADMD chosen
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NRS 034-1:2001 18

4.3.4.3 Consumer load classes

Load research has shown that domestic customers are broadly divided into two load classes; those
who have access to piped water and those who do not. The implication is the probable (if not certain)
use of electrical hot water cylinders (HWCs) by those who have access to piped water. Previous
consumer load classification neglected to cater for differences within the lower income groups (the
groups which account for most of the electrification projects). Current load research is aimed at
providing load forecasting algorithms and tools but this is still under development.

4.3.4.4 Selection of design parameters: a, b, c

Estimate the likely demographic characteristics as follows:

a) determine whether the target community will be supplied with piped water;
b) estimate the average monthly income of the community in 1998 Rands. The national consumer
price index (CPI) should be used where necessary to derive the 1998 Rand value from later
income data;
c) determine the type of dwelling: shack, brick, etc.;
d) determine whether climatic conditions need special consideration;
e) determine whether load limiting be employed. If so, reduce the circuit-breaker size c accordingly;
and
f) decide on the horizon year to be used, depending on the permanence of the infrastructure.
Having made an estimate, select the closest consumer load class from table 3a, taking into account
the description of consumer classes in table 3b. For the relevant value of c derive the values a and b.

4.3.5 Conductor parameters

Cables and conductors should be selected from the types and sizes recommended in the following
specifications, as applicable:

SABS 97: Paper-insulated, metal-sheathed cables

SABS 182 parts 1,2,3 and 5: Overhead conductors
SABS 1339: XLPE-insulated cables
SABS 1418 parts 1 & 2 LV aerial bundled conductor systems
SABS IEC 61089: Overhead stranded conductors
Where applicable and wherever practicable, cables and conductors should be selected from the
preferred types and sizes specified in the following rationalized user specifications:

NRS 013: MV underground cables

NRS 033: Conductors for MV overhead lines
NRS 034-3: Conductors and ABC for LV overhead lines
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19 NRS 034-1:2001

NRS 034: Classification of domestic consumers

Table 3a — Typical design load parameters for domestic consumers

Table 3a is administered by the NRS Project Management Agency (PMA) on behalf of the Electricity
Supply Industry. It has been removed from this document so that it can be updated regularly, based on
the analysis of the latest available load research data without this part of the specification having to be
revised. The current table can be viewed on the NRS website: www.nrs.eskom.co.za or obtained from
the NRS Projects Manager (see NOTE).

NOTE Contact details for the NRS Projects Manager are:

Telephone +27 11 800 3786
Fax +27 11 800 2070
Postal Address:
Technology Standardization
Resources and Strategy Group
PO Box 1091
Johannesburg 2000
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NRS 034-1:2001 20

NRS 034: Classification of domestic consumer

Table 3b – Description of consumer load classes
1 2 3 4 5
Consumer Derivation of income Description of dwellings Type of roads Water reticulation
load class
Rural Mainly from pensions and Mainly based on traditional Normally tracks Normally none
settlement subsistence farming. Some construction methods with difficult access
breadwinners work far away in
cities
Rural From pensions and Mixture of modern and Mainly gravel with Some communal
village subsistence farming. Some traditional construction methods main roads tarred stand-pipes
breadwinners are employed in
nearby industrialized areas and
commute daily
Informal From work in a nearby A range from shacks to newer A range, from None in informal
settlement town/city − largely from the "government subsidy" houses tracks in informal areas
informal sector made from blocks areas to gravel in Planned areas
Self-build schemes fall into this planned areas generally have
category water piped to a
Built area of dwellings generally tap in the yard of
less than 40 m2 each dwelling

Township From work in cities/towns, A range from low-income flats to Mostly tarred Piped to most
area pensions and some informal old township houses and newer houses − half of
employment government scheme houses which eventually
(mid-range), to small semi- have working
detached houses electrical hot-water
Built area of dwellings generally cylinders
50 m2 – 80 m2
Urban From blue-collar jobs in cities Houses ranging in size from All tarred Piped to all houses
residential І 80 m2 – 170 m2. Most houses
have some visible
repair/maintenance in progress
Urban From formal employment in The built-area of main dwellings All tarred Piped to all
residential cities, mostly white-collar jobs is typically 190 m2. None of the houses, all of
ІІ houses are multistorey which have
electrical hot-water
cylinders
Urban Mainly from professional jobs in Normally very-high density, in All tarred Piped to all
townhouse cities, level of employment is complexes that incorporate houses. A high
complex high security or other shared percentage of such
services. Dwellings are single or houses have
multi-storey. Floor area in the multiple electrical
range 80 m2 – 150 m2 per unit. hot-water cylinders
Urban Mainly from professional jobs in Large, constructed of brick or
multi- cities, level of employment is concrete, floor area 250 m2 −
story/estate very high 500 m2
In regions with some desirable
natural feature (e.g. a view)
The cable data required by the designer are the phase resistance Rp and the neutral resistance Rn.
Specifically, the resistances at the operating temperature have to be taken into account when the
voltage drop is being calculated. For underground conductors, an operating temperature of 30 °C is
assumed. For overhead conductors, an operating temperature of 40 °C is assumed in voltage drop
calculations, although higher temperatures are used for calculating the minimum ground clearance of
the conductors for safety considerations.
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21 NRS 034-1:2001

4.4 Voltage regulation on LV distributors

4.4.1 Limits of voltage variation

Base the LV design on a maximum calculated voltage variation of ± 10 % of the standard voltage at
the consumer’s point of supply. This means that the total voltage variation at the end consumer may
not exceed 20 %.

NOTE 1 The standard nominal voltage, as required by the applicable regulations of the Electricity Act, 1987 (Act 41 of
1987), is 230 V.
NOTE 2 The increase in allowed variation from ± 6 % to ± 10 % was promulgated on 26 January 1996 in Government
Gazette R103.
NOTE 3 Statistical monitoring of voltage regulation is required by the National Electricity Regulator (see NRS 048-3).

As a general guide, the following are typical contributions expressed as a percentage of the standard
nominal voltage to the percentage voltage variation at the most remote consumer:
MV source ± 1,5 % or a total of 3 % variation (this allows for variations at the MV substation
busbars, due to, for example, tap-changer steps and automatic voltage
regulator hysteresis)
MV distributor 3%
Transformer 2 % (unless high-loss transformers, such as completely self-protected (CSP)
transformers, are being used)
LV feeder 8%
Service connection 2%
Total 18 %
This allows a small reserve over the maximum permitted fluctuation at the consumer’s point of supply.
In most cases, this should satisfy the minimum standards for voltage regulation as set out in
NRS 048-2.

NOTE 1 Designing for a higher voltage variation means lower initial costs, but higher losses.

NOTE 2 See 5.3 for selecting transformers.

Where an LV system is being supplied by a long MV feeder, such as that found on rural overhead
lines, the voltage variation on the MV system might be higher, in which case a lower percentage
voltage variation will have to be adopted for the LV distributor and service connection.

4.4.2 Voltage drop calculation algorithm

The voltage drop in the LV distributor is calculated by means of the Herman-Beta algorithm, described
in B.1 and B.2. Although the algorithm is based on statistical analysis, it is easy to implement in a
spreadsheet. Two worksheets are available (for three-phase and for dual-phase systems) based on
two popular spreadsheet programs. Outputs from commercial computer packages using the Herman-
Beta algorithms should be examined for accuracy by applying the benchmark tests given in B.6.
Examples of typical calculation scenarios are given in annex B.5.

4.4.3 Voltage drop probability (risk)

The statistical basis of the Herman-Beta method implies the inclusion of uncertainty in the voltage drop
calculation. This uncertainty is addressed by the application of a level of risk expressed as a
percentage. A low risk value yields a safer design but will cost more. A high risk value leads to lower
cost but might incur violation of the specified voltage range. Risk and its impact on design is being
researched and the results will be published when available. Most probabilistic designs are based on
a 10 % risk (90 % confidence level). Stated simply, this means that when the actual load reaches its
design level, the designer is 90 % confident that all of the consumers will receive a voltage within the
statutory limits. The designer has the freedom to decide on the risk level.
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NRS 034-1:2001 22

4.4.4 Other sources of error in the voltage drop calculation

Apart from the risk of excessive voltage drop due to the statistical nature of the voltage drop algorithm,
there are other possible sources of inaccuracy. The main ones occur in the input data used, and
include

a) inaccuracies in the load measurements on which forecasts are based,

b) inaccuracies between the load model and the measured data,
c) choice of the load model, in other words, whether the chosen load parameters apply to the actual
residential area, and
d) inaccuracy of the network model, for example, inaccuracies in the estimates of conductor
resistance.
These sources of potential error collectively give rise to a design-data confidence level/design-data
uncertainty level. It is difficult to make any recommendations on how to assess these sources of
error.

4.5 Current-carrying capacity on LV distributors

The designer should take the current-carrying capacity of the distributors into consideration. The
current capacity of a conductor can be obtained from the manufacturers.

The total expected current in a feeder is calculated automatically by the Herman-Beta algorithm. To
determine the current per phase for more than ten connected consumers, the following slightly less
accurate formula, based on the central limit theorem, may be used:

c ⎡ a×b ⎤
Np × ⎢a + 1,28 ⎥
a+b⎢ N p (a + b + 1) ⎥
⎣ ⎦
where

Np is the total number of consumers on the heaviest loaded phase,

a, b, c are the load parameters.
The factor 1,28 is for a 10 % risk.

4.6 Financial analysis of electricity projects

Financial analysis of alternative schemes or alternative equipment should take into account more than
the initial cost. Operating, maintenance, upgrading, reinforcement and other “lifetime” costs have to be
included in financial evaluations. Financial analysis is described in greater detail and further examples
are given in annex C.

Example 1 − Cost of transformer losses

The capitalization of the cost of transformer losses estimates the financial value of future energy
losses reflected at the time of purchase of the transformer. The net present value (NPV) of a
transformer is given by:

N = A + C o Po + C1P1
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23 NRS 034-1:2001
where

N is the net present value NPV;

A is the installed cost of the transformer, in rands;
Co, C1 are the capitalized costs of no-load and load losses, per kilowatt of loss, in rands;
Po , P 1 are the no-load and load losses, in kilowatts.
Example 2 − Investment projects

The comparison of alternative schemes with different cash flows requires methods that take into
account the time-value of money. In most cases, payback period methods are mostly insufficient for
accurate analysis. NPV analysis is recommended for the evaluation of investment projects.

For example, NPV analysis is useful in comparing the costs of a project that could be implemented in
stages. If, at present, a project is carried out in one stage, the NPV of the project is equal to the actual
cost. Alternatively, the project could be carried out in two stages, with stage 1 costing C1 carried out
immediately and stage 2 costing C2 carried out in n years’ time. With a discount rate of i % per year,
the NPV is given by:

C2
N = C1 +
(1 + i )n
The financially more beneficial option will be the one with the lower NPV.

4.7 Distribution system protection

4.7.1 Medium-voltage system protection

4.7.1.1 Feeder protection

The following types of feeder protection should be used:

a) for an underground cable system: non-directional inverse definite minimum time lag (IDMTL)
overcurrent and earth fault protection;
b) for MV aerial bundled conductor systems: non-directional, extremely inverse overcurrent and earth
fault protection (see note 1 below); andc) for a bare overhead conductor system: non-
directional IDMTL overcurrent and earth fault protection plus sensitive earth fault protection with
single shot or multishot auto-reclose facilities.
NOTE 1 Extremely inverse overcurrent protection should be used where the fault level is high and the conductor size is
small. This is typical of MV aerial bundled conductor systems near the supply source. The use of extremely inverse
relays

should also be considered in cases where discrimination with high rupturing capacity fuses is needed, or where a faster
clearance time is needed.

NOTE 2 For systems where the MV earth fault current is limited, earth fault protection may be of the definite time delay
type with delay times variable in the range 0 s to 10 s. In cases where the conductor is small, such as on MV aerial
bundled conductor systems, special care has to be taken to avoid excessive rises in temperature.

NOTE 3 It is essential that proper care be taken in the selection of current transformer ratios to ensure that the
protection will operate correctly for the full range of fault currents that could appear on the feeder. In this regard, special
attention should be given to very long feeders.
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NRS 034-1:2001 24

4.7.1.2 Distribution transformer MV protection (MV/LV transformer)

MV protection at A in figure 6 may comprise one of the following:

a) a high rupturing capacity fuse or expulsion fuse; or

b) two overcurrent a.c. trip coils with a time-lag fuse, or a circuit-breaker, or a relay with an
unshunted a.c. earth fault trip coil; or
c) a link or an isolator, provided that the primary MV feeder protection will operate to clear a
disruptive fault on the distribution transformer.
NOTE 1 For pole-mounted distribution transformers connected to a bare overhead or an MV aerial bundled conductor,
surge arresters have to be fitted and connected as close to the MV transformer bushings as possible. (NRS 039 gives
guidance on the application of MV surge arresters.)

NOTE 2 A high rupturing capacity fuse is generally used in switchgear, whereas an expulsion fuse is used on overhead
MV feeder

MV/LV
transformer
MV/LV
substation
B

C C C C

LV feeder

Service
D D D D distribution point

Service connection

Consumer’s Consumer’s
meter premises

Consumer’s
distribution
board
lines.

Figure 6 − Typical low-voltage distribution system

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25 NRS 034-1:2001

4.7.2 Low-voltage system protection

4.7.2.1 A typical low-voltage system is shown in figure 6. Protection schemes applicable to

underground cable, aerial bundled conductor or bare overhead conductor systems are as follows:

a) at B: fuse or circuit-breaker that provides overload protection for the transformer and fault
protection for the LV busbars (see note 1 in 4.7.2.2);
b) at C: fuse or circuit-breaker that provides overload and fault protection for the main LV distributor
and service connection distribution box;
c) at D: fuse or circuit-breaker that provides fault protection for the service cable;
d) at E: fuse or circuit-breaker that provides overload protection for the service cable and the meter;
and
e) at F: fuse or circuit-breaker that provides overload and fault protection for the consumer’s
distribution board, in cases where the latter is supplied by the supply authority, for example, a ready
board.
4.7.2.2 Usually it will not be possible to obtain discrimination with protection at all the positions shown.
A realistic and more cost-effective system will be obtained if protection is omitted at one or more
points, as follows:
a) protection may be omitted at B, provided that the MV protection at A will operate for a fault on the
LV busbars and for a transformer overload;
b) protection may be omitted at C, provided that the protection at B will protect the outgoing feeders
over their full length. This is particularly appropriate in the case of small LV systems supplied from
a CSP transformer;
c) protection may be omitted at D or E, but not at both; or
d) protection may be omitted at F, provided that it is fitted at E (see (c) above).
NOTE 1 If a CSP transformer that complies with NRS 027 is used, protection is automatically provided at A and B.

NOTE 2 Attention has to be given to the selection of protective devices to ensure that correct discrimination is obtained
under both overload and fault conditions and that the devices are rated to withstand the maximum fault level imposed at
the point of application.

NOTE 3 In some cases, protection is provided at F by the metering equipment. The protection requirements for the
consumer’s installation are given in SABS 0142.

4.7.2.3 Inherent in the protection of MV and LV systems is the requirement that all faults have to
cause an overcurrent to operate the protection. For this reason, it is imperative that sound earthing
principles are followed to provide a low-resistance earth path for all earth faults. In particular, the
earthing of the LV systems should be in accordance with NRS 016. In addition, circuit-breaker or fuse
characteristics have to be appropriate for the expected fault characteristics. In cases where small
transformers and conductors of small diameter are used, fault levels might be low and circuit-breakers
need to be selected accordingly. Alternatively, the system should be designed to ensure that the
minimum fault current will operate the circuit-breaker.

4.7.2.4 Guidelines for the protection design of low-voltage systems for the overhead distribution
systems covered by NRS 034-3 are given in annex D.
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NRS 034-1:2001 26

4.8 Earthing

4.8.1 General

The following regulations and codes of practice, which are detailed in clause 2, cover aspects of
earthing electrical distribution systems:

4.8.2 Regulation 13 of the Electrical Machinery Regulations of the OHS Act, 1993

Regulation 13 details the items of equipment at any premises that shall be earthed and also the
responsibilities of the supply authority and the occupier/owner of the premises to correct such items
that are found, during tests, not to be earthed.

4.8.3 NRS 016

NRS 016 recommends methods for the earthing of distributors, with particular attention to the service
connection and the supply neutral conductor.

4.8.4 SABS 0142

A section of SABS 0142 details the materials and methods that can be used for earthing during the
wiring of premises, whether it be one room or a block of offices or flats. It also details the
responsibilities and certification requirements of wiring contractors.

4.8.5 SABS 0198-3

SABS 0198-3 covers general provisions for the earthing of electric power cables and the apparatus in
which the cables are terminated.

4.8.6 SABS 0198-5

SABS 0198-5 details the method of determining the thermal and electrical resistivity of soil, in order to
select the most suitable type(s) of earth electrode.

4.8.7 SABS 0198-12

SABS 0198-12 covers the installation of earthing systems. Reference is made to methods of providing
an earth electrode. The earthing of metal cable components is covered in detail.

4.8.8 SABS 0199

SABS 0199 details methods used to design and install a suitable earth electrode and to reduce the
earth resistance if, during post-installation tests, it is found to be too high.

4.9 Metering

4.9.1 Consumer metering

Metering of accuracy class 2 is recommended for all residential consumers.

In areas where meter reading and billing are preferred, the following alternatives are available:

a) Ferraris induction type meters that comply with SABS IEC 60521; and
b) static (electronic) type meters that comply with SABS IEC 61036.
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27 NRS 034-1:2001
In areas where there is no infrastructure for billing consumers or for reading meters, or where it is
preferable not to use credit metering, the use of electricity dispensers with a suitable vending
infrastructure should be considered.

Electricity dispensers should comply with SABS 1524-1. The vending infrastructure should comply
with those described in SABS 1524-0.

4.9.2 Statistical metering

The use of portable statistical metering equipment is recommended. Test metering and load modelling
at regular intervals will indicate when and where a system requires upgrading.

5 Selection of equipment and materials

5.1 General
Equipment and materials should be selected from the ranges covered by the applicable national
standards issued by the SABS and, where applicable, by rationalized user specifications (NRSs).

Preferred types and sizes of equipment and material for application in the electricity supply industry
are covered by a series of NRS standards that are detailed in clause 2 and in the bibliography.

All items selected should have characteristics that are appropriate to the conditions and to the
parameters on which the design of the distribution system is based, particularly with regard to,

a) the following electrical parameters, where applicable:

1) voltage: MV equipment and LV equipment, such as electricity dispensers, should be suitable
for the maximum steady voltage likely to be applied and also for overvoltages that are likely to
occur due to lightning;
2) current: the equipment should be suitable for the maximum steady r.m.s. current to be carried
in normal service and for the current likely to be carried in abnormal conditions for the period
(for example, the operating time of protective devices) during which it could be expected to
flow;
3) fault effects: the design and arrangement of equipment should be such that fault damage is
kept to a minimum, with graded protection and adequate earthing;
4) electromagnetic compatibility: equipment should not have a harmful effect on other equipment
or on the supply during normal service. In this context, factors that can have an influence
include power factor, inrush current, asymmetrical loads, harmonics and radio frequency
voltages generated by equipment;
b) the following mechanical parameters, where applicable:
1) factors of safety: for example, the loads and tensions applied to poles, stays and fittings,
should be within the limits given in the design guides and, where applicable, statutory
regulations;
2) clearances: the distance above ground and from fixed objects of equipment, in particular
overhead cables/conductors, should be within the limits given in the design guides and, where
applicable, statutory regulations.
NOTE Guidance on the application of these parameters to the design of overhead lines is given in SABS 0280.
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NRS 034-1:2001 28

5.2 Selection of cables and conductors

5.2.1 General
When cables and conductors are being selected, some of the main points to be considered are
a) maximum operating current,
b) cyclic pattern of the current,
c) voltage drop,
d) short-circuit requirement,
e) exposure to mechanical damage,
f) lifetime costs, including the cost of losses,
g) earthing requirement,
h) current ratings, including derating factors,
j) possibility of theft of cable and energy, and
k) ability to withstand ultraviolet radiation.
For the preferred types of cable or conductor available within the ranges covered by the relevant
SABS standards, see 4.3.5.

The permissible short-circuit current for a cable or conductor is determined by the maximum
permissible conductor temperature and the duration of the short-circuit current, in other words, the
time from the start of the short-circuit until it is broken by protective devices. The relevant formulas or
tables and charts listing the maximum permissible short-circuit currents for different time intervals can
be obtained from the cable manufacturers.

5.2.2 Fault currents/short-circuit ratings of cables

5.2.2.1 Fault current on the MV network

If the fault level in megavolt-amperes is known, the fault current on the MV network is given by:
Pf
If = (5.1)
Vs × 3

where

If is the fault current, in kiloamperes;

Pf is the MV fault level, in megavolt amperes;
Vs is the MV system voltage, in kilovolts.
The size of the cable can then be checked against the manufacturer’s tables of short-circuit ratings for
the expected fault clearance time.

Example:

For an MV fault level of 250 MVA and an 11 kV three-phase system, the fault current is:
250
If = = 13,12 kA (5.2)
3 × 11
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29 NRS 034-1:2001

5.2.2.2 Fault level at the LV terminals of the transformer

The MV fault level should be taken into account in the calculation of the LV fault current at the
transformer bushings. To allow for MV growth, use the maximum planned fault level at the step-down
MV substation or the rating of that substation’s switchgear.

The formula for the fault level at the LV terminals is:

1 000
If = (5.3)A simplified formula can be used which does not take
⎛ 1 Z p × 10 ⎞
⎜ + ⎟ × Vs × 3
⎝ Pf Tr ⎠
the MV fault level into account (i.e. assumes an infinite MV bus). It gives an LV fault level around 5
% higher than when equation 5.3 is used. The simplified formula is:
100 × Tr
If = (5.4)
Z p × Vs × 3

where

If is the fault current, in kiloamperes;

Pf is the MV fault level, in megavolt amperes;
Zp is the transformer impedance, as a percentage;
Tr is the transformer rating, in kilovolt amperes;
Vs is the LV system voltage, in volts.

Example:

For an MV fault level of 250 MVA an LV system voltage of 400 V and a transformer of 500 kVA and
5 % impedance, the fault current is:
1 000
If = = 13,88 (5.5)
⎛ 1 5 × 10 ⎞
⎜ + ⎟ × 400 × 3
⎝ 250 500 ⎠

Using the simplified formula, the calculated fault current would be 14,43 kA.

5.2.2.3 Maximum fault current at service distribution points (SDPs)

The three-phase fault level should be calculated at each node on the distributor where the cable size
changes to allow checking whether the fault current rating of the cable from the SDP will be exceeded.

The impedance at the transformer LV terminals is mainly reactive, whereas the LV feeder impedances
have both resistive and reactive components. For reasonable accuracy, the cable resistance and
reactance both have to be taken into account.

The impedance at any point is the vector sum of the impedance up to the transformer LV terminals
plus the sum of all LV feeder impedances. The feeder impedances should be taken at the same
temperatures used for voltage drop calculations, i.e. 30 °C for underground cables and 40 °C for
overhead lines and ABC.
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NRS 034-1:2001 30

The reactance up to the LV terminals, in ohms, referred to the LV side, is given by:
Vs
Xs = (5.6)
3 × I s × 1 000

where

Xs is the reactance up to LV terminals, in ohms;

Is is the three-phase fault current at LV terminals, in kiloamperes;

Vs is the LV system voltage, in volts.If the sum of the LV feeder impedances is Rf + jXf, then the
total impedance, in ohms, is:
2
⎛ Vs ⎞
Zt = R f2 + (X f + X s ) 2
= R f2 + ⎜⎜ X f + ⎟
⎟ (5.7)
⎝ 3 × I s × 1 000 ⎠

where

Rf is the sum of the feeder resistances;

Xf is the sum of the feeder reactances.
The three-phase fault current, in kiloamperes, is then given by:
Vs Vs
If = = (5.8)
1 000 × Z t 2
⎛ Vs ⎞
1 000 × R f2 + ⎜⎜ X f + ⎟
⎟
⎝ 3 × Is × 1 000 ⎠

Example:

For a fault level at the transformer LV terminals of 13,88 kA (see previous example) and a total LV
feeder impedance of (0,01299 + j 0,0061) Ω, the fault current in kiloamperes would be:
400
If = = 8,82 (5.9)
2
⎛ 400 ⎞
3 × 1 000 × 0,01299 2 + ⎜⎜ 0,0061 + ⎟
⎝ 3 × 13,88 × 1 000 ⎟⎠

5.2.2.4 Minimum fault level at ends of feeders

To ensure that fault protection devices operate successfully, the single-phase fault current at the end
of each branch and at the consumer’s point of supply should be calculated. This is particularly
significant in long, lightly loaded LV feeders. Since these feeders are longer than usual, their
impedance Z rather than resistance only, should be used. The fault current should be larger than 1,6
times the full load current.

5.2.2.5 Standardized procedure for short-circuit calculations

Methods for the calculation of short-circuit currents are given in IEC 60909 and other standard texts.
These methods can be applied to evaluate the maximum short-circuit current and the minimum short-
circuit current, in order to correctly select and adjust protection devices.
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31 NRS 034-1:2001

5.3 Selection of transformers

Networks should be so designed that the number of consumers to each transformer is optimized. The
following factors should be considered when transformers are being selected:

a) load density;
b) the limitations imposed by voltage drop considerations, taking into account the full range of
available transformer tappings;
c) the cyclic nature of the load; and
d) the range of available transformer ratings.
Transformers should be selected from the standard ratings specified in SABS 780. For new designs,
the standard no-load voltage specified in SABS 780 should be used. Transformers with non-standard
no-load voltages and special tapping arrangements might be required in cases where extensions to
existing networks are planned.

5.4 Use of energy-limiting circuit-breakers

Using energy-limiting circuit-breakers at the transformer, in order to use underrated switchgear on
subcircuits, for example, 2,5 kA MCCBs on a 15 kA fault level, should be done with caution.

Energy-limiting circuit-breakers are designed with a shorter tripping time than the circuit-breakers they
protect and protection grading might not be achieved. For example, on a subcircuit fault, the energy-
limiting circuit-breaker will trip before the subcircuit circuit-breaker trips. However, circuit-breakers that
limit the fault current and resulting stresses without immediate tripping might be suitable.

6 Inspection and tests

Before being energized, the system should be inspected for compliance with the OHS Act, 1993, and
with any other national or local regulations. The system should also be inspected to ensure that all
legal requirements for safety, labelling, and warning signs, etc., have been complied with, and that all
poles carry identity discs.

All labels should be permanent, indelible and, where appropriate, of a size that is legible from ground
level.
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NRS 034-1:2001 32

Annex A
Arrangements for supplying a residential area

A1 B1

Transforming
substation

A B A B
MV MV

a) By arrangement with the supply authority, b) External supply terminates at

external supply may terminate: boundary of residential area
1) inside residential area at A and B; or (points A and B).
2) outside residential area at A1 and B1.

Switching
substation

A B A B
MV MV

c) External supply terminates inside d) External supply terminates at boundary of

residential area at terminals of supply residential area (points A and B).
authority's switchgear (points A and B).

A A

LV
LV internal
MV network

B B

e) External supply terminates at boundary of f) External supply terminates at boundary of

residential area (points A and B). residential area (points A and B).

Key
Supply authority's existing system
External supply
Medium voltage internal network
Low voltage internal network
Residential area boundary
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33 NRS 034-1:2001

Annex B
(informative)

Description and use of the Herman-Beta algorithm

B.1 List of symbols

The symbols used in the formulations in annex B were chosen to avoid Greek or other non-alphabetic
symbols and, where possible, to avoid subscripts and superscripts. For example, ai is used rather
than ai.

Vs is the nominal supply voltage, in volts

a is the Beta probability density function parameter, alpha
b is the Beta probability density function parameter, beta
c is the scaling factor in amperes (usually the circuit-breaker size)
ai is the number of consumers connected to the a-phase at node i
bi is the number of consumers connected to the b-phase at node i
ci is the number of consumers connected to the c-phase at node i
N is the total number of nodes in the radial feeder section
Rp is the temperature-corrected resistance of the phase conductor per span
Rn is the temperature-corrected resistance of the neutral conductor per span
p is the percentage risk in the probabilistic calculation
G is the first statistical moment
H is the second statistical moment
ki is a resistance ratio
Ri is a phase resistance index
Vmax is the maximum consumer voltage
Vmin is the minimum consumer voltage
Vd is a voltage drop
L, Kare node counters
Vc is the consumer voltage
vc is the normalized consumer voltage
av is the alpha parameter of scaled consumer voltage
bv is the beta parameter of scaled consumer voltage
BETAIN is the Beta inverse function
DVrmaxi is the real component of maximum volt drop at node i
Dvjmaxi is the imaginary component of maximum volt drop at node i
Dvmini is the minimum volt drop at node i
E() is the expected value of ()
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NRS 034-1:2001 34

Annex B
(continued)

B.2 Step-wise procedure for calculating bi-phase system voltage drops (for
spreadsheet application)

B.2.1 Step 1 − Select the network parameters

B.2.1.1 Supply voltage, Vs.

B.2.1.2 Load description in Beta pdf form: a, b, c. Where c is the scaling factor – usually the circuit-
breaker size.

B.2.1.3 Specify the number of consumer connections at each load node, i: ai and bi.

B.2.1.4 Specify total number of nodes in the radial section, N.

B.2.1.5 Specify the phase and neutral conductor resistances for each section: Rp and Rn, allowing for
temperature rise.

B.2.1.6 Specify a risk value: p, in percent.

B.2.2 Step 2 − Calculate constants G and H

a
G =
a+b
a(a + b)
H =
(a + b)(a + b + 1)

B.2.3 Step 3 − Calculate Ri and ki

i
Ri = ∑ Rn(j)
j =1

Ri
ki = i

∑ Rp(j)
j =1

where

Rn(j) is the neutral conductor resistance for section (i – 1) to (i);

Rp(j) is the phase conductor resistance for section (i – 1) to (i).
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35 NRS 034-1:2001

Annex B
(continued)

B.2.4 Step 4 − Calculate maximum and minimum voltages, Vmax and Vmin

N
Vmax = Vs + ∑ Vimax
i =1

N
Vmin = Vs _ ∑ Vimin
i =1

where

Vimax is ki × c × bi × Ri
Vimin is (1 + k)Ri × c × ai.
B.2.5 Step 5 - Calculate the constants qi and pi and the expected values: E(Vi) and
E(Vd)

pi = c × Ri × ai(1 + ki)

qi = c × Ri × bi × ki

E(Vi) = G(qi _ pi)

N
E(Vd) = ∑ E(Vi)
i=1

B.2.6 Step 6 − Calculate ri and si and the expected values: E(Vi2) and E(Vd2)

[
ri = c 2 × Ri 2 bi × ki 2 + ai(1 + ki) 2 ]
si = c 2 × Ri 2 [bi(bi _ 1)ki 2 _ 2ai × bi(ki + 1)ki + ai(ai _ 1)(ki + 1) 2 ]
E(Vi 2 ) = ri × H + si × G 2
N N N
E(Vd 2 ) = ∑ E(Vi
i=1
2
) = ∑∑ E(Vd
K =1 K =1
K ) × E(VdL )
L ≠K

B.2.7 Step 7 − Calculate expected values E(Vc) and E(Vc2)

E(Vc) = Vs + E(Vd)

E(Vc 2 ) = Vs 2 + 2Vs × E(Vd) + E(Vd 2 )

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NRS 034-1:2001 36

Annex B
(continued)

B.2.8 Step 8 − Calculate the scaled values of E(vc) and E(vc2)

E(Vc) _ Vmin
E(vc ) =
Vmax _ Vmin

E(Vc 2 ) _ 2 Vmin × E(Vc) + Vmin 2

E(vc 2 ) =
(Vmax _ Vmin) 2

B.2.9 Step 9 − Calculate the Beta parameters of (vc): av and bv

E(vc 2 ) _ E(vc)
av =
E(vc 2 )
E(vc) _
E(vc)
av _
bv = av
E(vc)

B.2.10 Step 10 − Select a risk percentage p and calculate percentile value v%

Use the Beta inverse function:

v % = BETAIN[p 100, av, bv ]

B.2.11 Step 11 − Rescale the consumer voltage, Vc%

Vc % = v % (Vmax _ Vmin) + Vmin

B.3 Step-wise procedure for calculating three-phase system voltage drops (for
spreadsheet application)

B.3.1 Step 1 − Select the network parameters

B.3.1.1 Supply voltage, Vs.

B.3.1.2 Load description in Beta pdf form: a, b, c. Where c is the scaling factor – usually the circuit-
breaker size.

B.3.1.3 Specify the number of consumer connections at each load node, i: ai, bi. and ci.

B.3.1.4 Specify total number of nodes in the radial section, N.

B.3.1.5 Specify the phase and neutral conductor resistances for each section: Rp and Rn.

B.3.1.6 Specify a risk value: p, in percent.

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37 NRS 034-1:2001

Annex B
(continued)

B.3.2 Step 2 − Calculate constants G and H

a
G =
a+b
a(a + b)
H =
(a + b)(a + b + 1)

B.3.3 Step 3 − Calculate Ri and ki

i
Ri = ∑ Rn(j)
j =1

Ri
ki = i

∑ Rp(j)
j =1

where

Rn(j) is the neutral conductor resistance for section (i – 1) to (i);

Rp(j) is the phase conductor resistance for section (i – 1) to (i).
B.3.4 Step 4 − Calculate maximum and minimum voltages, Vmax and Vmin

Real parts are indexed with r and imaginary parts with j. The symbol D is used to indicate voltage drop
and i index indicates the i-th node.

DVmaxi = 0,5ki × Ri × c(bi + ci)

3
DVjmaxi = ki × Ri × c(bi _ ci)
2
DVmini = (1 + ki)Ri × c × ai

2 2
⎛ N ⎞ ⎛ N ⎞
Vmax = ⎜ Vs +
⎜
⎝
∑ i=1
DVrmaxi ⎟ + ⎜
⎟
⎠
⎜
⎝
∑
i=1
DVjmaxi ⎟
⎟
⎠
N
Vmin = Vs _ ∑ DVmini
i=1
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NRS 034-1:2001 38

Annex B
(continued)

B.3.5 Step 5 − Calculate the constants: C1i, C2i, C3i, C4i, C5i and C6i

ki
C1i = (1 + ki)ai _ (bi + ci)
2
C2i = ki 2 [(ai + ½bi + ¼ci) + (2ki + 1) ai]

C3i = F1i × ki 2 + F2i × ki + F3i

where

F1i = ai(ai _ 1) _ ai(bi + ci) + ¼(bi + ci _ 1)(bi + ci)

F2i = ai(2ai _ bi _ ci _ 2)

F3i = ai(ai _ 1)

3ki 2
C4i = (bi + ci)
4

C5i =
3ki 2
4
[
(bi _ ci) 2 _ (bi + ci) ]
3
C6i = ki(bi _ ci)
2
B.3.6 Step 6 − Calculate the expected values: E(Dvri), E(DVr), E(DV2ri) and E(DV2r)

E(DVri) = C1i × Ri × c × G
N
E(DVr) = ∑ E(DVri)
i=1

[
E(DV ri) = Ri 2 × c 2 C2i × H + C3i × G 2
2
]
N N N
E(DV 2 r) = ∑
i=1
E(DV 2 ri) + ∑∑ E(DVr
K =1 L =1
K )E(DVrL )
L ≠K

B.3.7 Step 7 − Calculate expected values: E(DVji), E(DVj), E(DV2ji) and E(DV2j)

E(DVji) = C6i × Ri × c × G
N
E(DVj) = ∑ E(DVhu)
i =1

[
E(DV 2 ji) = Ri 2 × c 2 C4i × H + C5i × G 2 ]
N N N
E(V 2 j) = ∑ E(DV
i =1
2
ji) + ∑∑ E(DVj
K =1 L =1
K) × E(DVj L )
L ≠K
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39 NRS 034-1:2001

Annex B
(continued)

B.3.8 Step 8 − Calculate E(Vc) and E(V2c)

⎡ E(DVr) E(DV 2 j) ⎤
E(Vc) = Vs ⎢1 _ + ½ ⎥
⎢⎣ Vs Vs ⎥⎦

E(V 2 c) = V 2 s _ 2Vs × E(DVr) + E(DV 2 r) + E(DV 2 j)

B.3.9 Step 9 − Calculate the scaled values of E(vc) and E(v2c)

Lower-case symbols are used to indicated the scaled values.

E(Vc) _ Vmin
E(vc) =
Vmax _ Vmin

E(V 2 c) _ 2 Vmin + V 2 min

E(v 2 c) =
(Vmax _ Vmin) 2

B.3.10 Step 10 − Calculate the Beta parameters of (vc): av and bv

E(vc 2 ) _ E(vc)
av =
E(vc 2 )
E(vc) _
E(vc)
av _
bv = av
E(vc)

B.3.11 Step 11 − Select a risk percentage p and calculate percentile value v%

Use the Beta inverse function:

v % = BETAIN[p 100, av, bv ]

B.3.12 Step 12 – Rescale the consumer voltage, Vc%

Vc % = v % (Vmax _ Vmin) + Vmin

B.4 Beta parameter relationships

B.4.1 Mean (average) value of a Beta pdf parameters: a, b, and c

a
mean = × c
a+b
For load currents this would be equivalent to the ADMD in amperes.
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NRS 034-1:2001 40

Annex B
(continued)
B.4.2 Standard deviation of a Beta pdf with parameters: a, b, and c
ab
Std = c ×
(a + b) 2
(a + b + 1) )
B.4.3 Conversion from one base to another, i.e. from c1 to c2, given a1, b1 and c1
Then for a new base, c2
a ×A
a2 = _ 1
b 1c 2

(A _ c 1 + c 2 )
b2 = A ×
b1c 1c 2

where

A = a 1 (c 1 _ c 2 ) _ b1c 2 + c 1 _ c 2

This conversion is valid for

a1
c2 > × c1
a1 + b1

B.5 Using worksheets for calculating voltage drops in feeders

B.5.1 General
Worksheets for calculating voltage drops are available from the NRS Project Manager. For details
access the NRS web page www.eskom.co.za/nrs, or telephone (011) 800-3696. Worksheets are
available for calculating voltage drops in feeders, 2phX4.xls or 2phQ6.wb2 for dual- or bi-phase
systems and 3phX4.xls or 3phQ6.wb2 for three-phase systems. Hand calculation using the Herman-
Beta method is not recommended. Figure B.1 shows a typical worksheet appearance.
INPUTS
Vs 230 Temps Deg C Code R/km@t2 R/km@t1
a 2.86 ABC25 1.345 1.2
b 13.2 t1 20 ABC35 0.973 0.868
c 80 t2 50 ABC50 0.719 0.641
Risk % (p) 10 ABC70 0.497 0.443
ABC95 0.359 0.32
%-tile Vc 210.74 211.46 211.85 V A10 2.107 1.89
%Volt drop 8.37 8.06 7.89 %V N3 0.030 0.02685
%-tile Isum 141.5 141.5 141.5 A N3S 0.023 0.020138
Mean Isum 114.0 114.0 114.0 A USER3 0.015 0.013425
Stdev Isum 21.0 21.0 21.0 A USER4 0.504 0.45
Count 8 8 8
Nodes (N) 6 6 6
Phase Red White Blue Cable
Node No. ai bi ci Length k code R/km Rp
1 4 30 1.13 ABC35 0.973 0.029
2 4 30 1.13 ABC35 0.973 0.029
3 4 30 1.13 ABC35 0.973 0.029
4 4 30 1.13 ABC35 0.973 0.029
5 4 30 1.13 ABC35 0.973 0.029
6 4 30 1.13 ABC35 0.973 0.029

Figure B.1 − Typical spreadsheet for calculating voltage drops

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41 NRS 034-1:2001

B.5.2 Voltage profiles

Subject to allocation of consumers to phases on a feeder, the largest voltage drop might not occur at
its extremity. It is recommended that the last three nodes be examined for maximum voltage drop.
This is done in the following way:

4,0,0 0,4,0 0,0,4 0,0,4 0,4,0 4,0,0

A B C D E F
Figure Bd.2

Figure B.2 – Checking for maximum voltage drop

Consider the arrangement shown in figure B.2. The phase assignment at each node is given, starting
with the red phase. Complete the entries for all the nodes as shown in figure B.1. The calculated
voltages on the phases as well as the percentage voltage drop will be indicated. These values are for
the last node (F). To calculate the voltages at node E, the 4 consumers on the red phase at node F
are added to those at node E: i.e. node F is eliminated and the loading on E becomes 4,4,0. This will
give the voltage at node E. The process is repeated for further upstream nodes.

B.5.3 Dealing with branched feeders

Figure B.3 shows an example of a typical branched network often encountered in practical distribution
circuits. Voltage drops are required to be calculated for the main feeder (0-1-2-3-4) and for the spur
(2-5-6). This can be done by firstly considering the main feeder section (0-1-2-3-4) and adding the
total number of consumers per phase connected to the phases of the spur (2-5-6). This means that at
node 2 we now have (1+1+1 = 3) on the a-phase, (2+1+2 = 5) on the b-phase and (1+2+1 = 4) on the
c-phase. The loading on the rest of the nodes remains the same.

Figure B.3 – Example of branched network

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NRS 034-1:2001 42

Annex B
(continued)

To deal with the spur (2-5-6) we lump the loads of 3 and 4 at node 2 and then considering the section
(0-1-2-5-6) we calculate the voltage drops as before.

B.6 Benchmark tests for software using the Herman-Beta algorithms

B.6.1 Group A benchmarks

B.6.1.1 General

This group of tests is selected to illustrate the perturbation in voltage drop caused by adjustment of
certain parameters while the other parameters remain fixed. A total of 24 cases are examined; 12

6 - P o le , 4 c u s t o m e r s p e r P o le

8 - P o le , 3 c u s t o m e r s p e r P o le

each for the bi-phase and three-phase topologies. In each case 24 consumers are fed from the
feeder. This presupposes that there are two types of plot layout, as shown in figure B.4. The sending
end voltage in all cases is 230 V phase-to-neutral.

Figure B.4 – Benchmark networks for 24 consumers

B.6.1.2 Loads

Load pdfs may be skewed to the right or to the left. The loads used in these benchmark tests and their
parameters are shown in table B.1.
Table B.1 – Load types

1 2 3 4 5
Type a b c Mean
A A
L1 1,65 7,370 60 11
L2 3,50 2,860 20 11
L3 0,60 0,491 10 5,5
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43 NRS 034-1:2001

Annex B
(continued)
B.6.1.3 Phase assignment
Consumers may be connected to different phases in accordance with a predetermined pattern. These
connection patterns may be termed “cosine” or “cyclic”.

Connections red, yellow, blue, blue, yellow, red, for example, are connected according to a “cosine”
pattern while red, yellow, blue, red, yellow, blue, is an example of a “cyclic” pattern. In the designation
Cos211 the implication is a three-phase, “cosine” arrangement with the two consumers on one phase
and one consumer on each of the other phases. An example of a bi-phase designation is cyc40 or
bal22 (i.e. 2 consumers per “phase”).

B.6.1.4 Line resistance

The distance between nodes is assumed to be equal and the phase conductor resistance per section
is taken as a typical practical value of 0,027 Ω at 20 °C. The ratio of the neutral-to-phase resistance is
k and is taken as either 1,0 or 1,4. Operating temperatures of 20 °C and 60 °C for the conductors are
considered.

B.6.1.5 Risk

Quantile values of voltage drop depend on the choice of risk (alternatively, the level of confidence) in
probabilistic calculation methods. Two values of risk are considered: 10 % and 20 %.

Table B.2 – Group A benchmark tests specifications

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
I Bi-phase, 24 consumers
Test Connections Load Risk % Temp °C k-ratio Remarks
6 Nodes
1 Bal 22 L1 10 20 1,0 Best case for bi-phase
2 Single-phase L3 10 20 1,0 Compare with test #24 : same results
8 Nodes
3 Cos 30 L1 10 20 1,0 Compare #4 - effect of k
4 Cos 30 L1 10 20 1,4 Compare #3 - effect of k
5 Cyc 30 L1 10 20 1,0 Compare #3 - effect of cyclic : cosine
6 Cyc 30 L1 10 60 1,0 Compare #5 - effect of temperature
7 Cos 21 L1 10 20 1,0 Compare #3 - Improved balance at each node
8 Cos 21 L2 10 20 1,0 Demand limited load, same mean as #7
9 Cos 21 L3 10 20 1,0 Light load: mean = 5,5 A, alpha < 1
10 Cyc 21 L1 10 20 1,0 Compare #7 - effect of cyclic : cosine
11 Cyc 21 L1 20 20 1,0 Compare #10 - effect of risk
12 Single-phase L3 10 20 1,0 Compare with #14 : same results
II Three-phase, 24 consumers
8 Nodes
13 Bal 111 L1 10 20 1,0 Best case for three-phase
14 Single-phase L3 10 20 1,0 Compare with test #12 : same results
6 Nodes
15 Cos 400 L1 10 20 1,0 Compare #16 - effect of k
16 Cos 400 L1 10 20 1,4 Compare #15 - effect of k
17 Cyc 400 L1 10 20 1,0 Compare #15 - effect of cyclic : cosine
18 Cyc 400 L1 10 60 1,0 Compare #17 - effect of temperature
19 Cos 211 L1 10 20 1,0 Compare #15 - Improved balance at each node
20 Cos 211 L2 10 20 1,0 Demand limited load, same mean as #19
21 Cos 211 L3 10 20 1,0 Light load: mean = 5,5 A, alpha < 1
22 Cos 220 L1 10 20 1,0 Compare #15 - alternate clustering
23 Cos 220 L1 20 20 1,0 Compare #22 - effect of risk
24 Single-phase L3 10 20 1,0 Compare #2 - same results
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NRS 034-1:2001 44

Annex B
(continued)

Table B.3 – Percentage voltage-drop calculations for group A, bi-phase tests

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Node
Test 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Phase (r=’red’ phase, y = ‘yellow’ phase)
r y r y r y r y r y r y r y r y
1 2,40 2,40 4,44 4,44 6,1 6,11 7,40 7,40 8,29 8,29 8,7 8,76
2 3,61 6,63 9,0 10,93 12,19 12,8
3 2,40 2,40 3,90 5,16 5,77 7,01 8,00 7,93 9,29 9,23 9,62 10,88 10,31 11,57 11,34 11,24
4 2,61 2,61 4,14 5,71 6,18 7,72 8,72 8,64 10,13 10,06 10,40 11,97 11,16 12,73 12,39 12,29
5 2,40 2,40 3,90 5,16 5,77 7,01 6,71 9,22 8,02 10,50 8,36 12,14 9,05 12,82 8,73 13,84
6 2,79 2,79 4,53 6,00 6,70 8,14 7,79 10,71 9,31 12,19 9,70 14,10 10,51 14,89 10,14 16,08
7 2,40 2,40 4,32 4,74 6,18 6,59 7,98 7,95 9,27 9,25 10,04 10,46 10,73 11,15 11,31 11,28
8 1,98 1,98 3,52 3,92 5,03 5,43 6,51 6,50 7,54 7,53 8,13 8,53 8,66 9,07 9,15 9,13
9 1,18 1,18 2,12 2,33 3,03 3,23 3,91 3,89 4,54 4,53 4,91 5,12 5,25 5,46 5,53 5,52
10 2,40 2,40 4,32 4,74 6,18 6,59 7,55 8,39 8,84 9,67 9,62 10,88 10,31 11,57 10,44 12,14
11 2,11 2,11 3,76 4,17 5,38 5,78 6,54 7,35 7,65 8,46 8,29 9,52 8,88 10,10 8,96 10,61
12 3,61 6,78 9,5 11,81 13,67 15,0 16,03 16,51

Table B.4 – Percentage voltage-drop calculations for group A, three-phase tests

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Node
Test 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Phase (r = ‘red’ phase, y =’yellow’ phase, b = ‘blue’ phase)
r y b r y b r y b r y b r y b r y b r y b r y b
13 1,70 1,70 1,70 3,20 3,20 3,20 4,52 4,52 4,52 5,64 5,64 5,64 6,56 6,56 6,56 7,27 7,27 7,27 7,76 7,76 7,76 8,02 8,02 8,02
14 3,61 6,78 9,51 11,81 13,67 15,08 16,03 16,51
15 1,70 1,70 1,70 2,12 3,64 3,64 2,82 4,29 5,83 3,78 5,22 6,71 4,99 6,40 6,24 6,44 6,16 6,01
16 1,84 1,84 1,84 2,16 4,04 4,04 2,86 4,68 6,57 3,92 5,69 7,53 5,31 7,06 6,88 7,05 6,73 6,56
17 1,70 1,70 1,70 2,12 3,64 3,64 2,82 4,29 5,83 3,78 5,22 6,71 3,31 6,41 7,87 3,09 6,18 9,29
18 1,97 1,97 1,97 2,46 4,23 4,23 3,27 4,99 6,78 4,39 6,06 7,80 3,85 7,44 9,15 3,58 7,19 10,79
19 1,70 1,70 1,70 2,88 3,26 3,26 3,95 4,31 4,70 4,87 5,23 5,61 5,65 6,00 5,97 6,27 6,20 6,16
20 1,37 1,37 1,37 2,28 2,63 2,63 3,11 3,45 3,81 3,83 4,17 4,52 4,44 4,78 4,76 4,95 4,91 4,89
21 0,83 0,83 0,83 1,41 1,60 1,60 1,93 2,11 2,30 2,38 2,56 2,74 2,76 2,93 2,91 3,06 3,03 3,01
22 1,70 1,70 1,70 2,88 2,88 3,64 3,55 4,34 5,06 4,50 5,25 5,96 5,69 5,61 6,32 6,30 6,23 6,09
23 1,47 1,47 1,47 2,46 2,46 3,18 2,99 3,73 4,42 3,78 4,50 5,19 4,83 4,78 5,46 5,36 5,32 5,22
24 3,61 6,63 9,08 10,93 12,19 12,83
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45 NRS 034-1:2001

Annex B
(continued)

B.6.2 Group B benchmarks

The group A tests (see table B.3) investigate the effects that parameter variation has on the voltage
performance of networks with identifiable topology and load connection patterns. In the group B tests
(see table B.4) the emphasis is on the effect that randomness has on voltage drops in a network. Six
cases are investigated for this purpose.

Case 1, Test 25: Three-phase, 4-wire network with uneven node spacing (see figure B.5)

For this case a standard resistance of 0,868 Ω per kilometre is used and the distances between the
nodes are given in metres. A Cos 400 consumer assignment is used. The neutral-to-phase
resistance ratio is taken as 1 and the load type L1 is assumed for all consumers. The following
lengths are specified between nodes: A-B: 50 m; B-C: 125 m; C-D: 70 m; D-E: 45 m; E-F: 225 m and
F-G: 170 m.

Case 2, Test 26: Three-phase, 4-wire network with even spacing but unbalanced phase
allocation (see figure B.5)

The same conductor is used throughout with characteristic resistance of 0,868 Ω per kilometre, k
equals 1, and the distance between nodes is fixed at 50 m. Consumer allocations on the phases at
each node are: B: 5,1,4; C: 1,2,1; D: 1,2,2; E: 1,1,3; F: 4,2,5 and G: 2,1,1. Loads are all type L3.

Case 3, Test 27: Three-phase, 4-wire network with uneven spacing and unbalanced phase
allocation (see figure B.5)

In this case the conductor type and node spacing are the same as case 1 and the consumer allocation
is unbalanced. The consumer allocations chosen for this case are: B: 1,0,0; C: 0,1,5; D: 2,0,2; E:
3,4,2; F: 1,0,0 and G: 0,3,0. Load type is L3.

A B C D E F G

Figure B.5 – Network for cases 1 to 3

Case 4, Test 28: Three-phase underground system with distribution kiosks feeding current
limited loads

This case investigates a typical underground low voltage distribution system where 12-way distribution
kiosks are used. Phase and neutral resistance per kilometre is 0,443 Ω. The first two kiosks have
four consumers per phase and the last seven consumers are allocated in a 2,2,3 arrangement. Load
type L2 is chosen for this case. The system layout is shown in figure B.6.
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NRS 034-1:2001 46

Annex B
(continued)

AA B C D

1 75 1 50 1 35
4 ,4,4 4 ,4,4 2 ,2,3

Figure B.6 – Network for case 4

Case 5, Test 29: Three-phase spine with two single-phase spurs

This case examines the arrangement shown in figure B.7.

A B C D
70# 70# 70#

100m 2,1,1 100m 1,2,1 100m 1,1,2

50m 35# 50m 35#

E 4,0,0 G 0,4,0

50m 35# 50m 35#

F 4,0,0 H 0,4,0

Figure B.7 – Network for case 5

The 70 mm2 conductor linking nodes A, B, C and D is a three-phase 4-wire feeder with characteristic
resistance of 0,443 Ω/km. The neutral-to-phase resistance ratio, k, is taken as 1,4. Conductor sizes
for the single-phase spurs (B-E-F and D-G-H) are all 35 mm2 characteristic resistance of 0,868 Ω/km.
The distances between the nodes are shown as are the phase allocations of consumers. All loads are
type L3.
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47 NRS 034-1:2001

Annex B
(concluded)

Case 6, Test 30: Bi-phase spine with two single-phase spurs (see figure B.8)

A B C D
70# 70# 70#

100m 2,2 100m 2,2 100m 2,2

50m 35# 50m 35#

E 4,0 G 0,4

50m 35# 50m 35#

F 4,0 H 0,4

Figure B.8 – Network for case 6

This case is similar in respects to the previous case, as may be seen from figure B.8. The only
difference is that the spine, A-B-C-D, is a two-conductor, bi-phase feeder of the same size as the
three-phase spine in Case 5. Because it is a bi-phase system, the phase allocations at nodes B, C, D
are all 2,2. Loads are all of type L3.

Results for the group B tests are given in table B.5.

Table B.5 – Percentage voltage-drop calculations for group B tests

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
Node
Test B C D E F G H
Phase (r = ‘red’ phase, y = ‘yellow’ phase, b = ‘blue’ phase)
r y b r y b r y b r y b r y b r y b r y b
25 1,33 1,33 1,33 2,19 5,18 5,18 2,97 5,89 7,61 3,65 6,53 8,22 7,98 10,73 6,54 11,92 10,12 5,92
26 2,28 0,86 2,83 3,59 1,93 5,00 4,85 2,59 7,11 6,07 2,90 8,89 7,24 3,15 10,02 7,68 3,29 10,15
27 1,05 1,33 1,62 3,05 4,80 5,80 4,59 6,73 6,41 5,19 8,14 6,43 5,90 11,68 5,.61 5,44 14,64 5,17
28 4,60 4,60 5,57 6,97 6,97 8,78 7,64 7,64 10,23
29 2,63 2,63 −0,26 2,34 5,73 −0,11 1,95 8,36 −0,10 4,70 5,77 10,45 11,51
30 2,37 2,37 2,06 5,51 1,46 8,36 4,39 5,45 10,41 11,46
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NRS 034-1:2001 48

Annex C
(informative)

Financial analysis

C.1 Introduction
Economic considerations are important in the evaluation of the desirability of different projects with
different cash flows (investment and income) over the lifetime of the project. For example, the time-
value of money needs to be taken into account in comparisons of a high first cost, low maintenance
project with alternatives that provide a technically comparable solution.

The basis of lifetime costing is the conversion of “discounting” of all future income and expenditure to
the “present value”. The net present value (NPV) of a project is the algebraic sum of initial costs, and
discounted future costs and income. A project with a positive NPV is viable and the project with the
highest NPV is the most profitable.

The method of financial analysis given in this annex is based on the concept that an investor will be
indifferent as to whether he receives R100 now and invests it with a return of 10 % per year or whether
he receives R110 in a year’s time.

C.2 Calculation of present value (PV)

The price of an item or service in n years’ time is:

Cn = (1+ i ) n

where

n is the number of years;

Cn is the cash flowing in n years’ time, expressed in current prices, as if expended today;
i is the inflation rate (per unit per year).

The PV of a future income or expense in year n is given by:

n
⎡1 + i ⎤
PV = Cn ⎢ ⎥ (C1)
⎣1 + d ⎦
where

d is the discount rate (per unit per year).

NOTE 1 Per unit (p.u.) is the value of the annual percentage divided by 100, for example 12 % per year becomes 0,12.
NOTE 2 The discount rate, also known as the required rate, cut-off rate, target rate or cost of capital, is the assumed
minimum desired rate of return. All expected future cash flows are discounted to the present by applying the above
equation.

For example, if the value of i is 0,12 (12 % per year) and the value of d is 0,2 (20 %), then payment in
two years’ time for something that costs R200 at current (today’s) prices, is equivalent to receiving the
present value now:
2
⎡ 1 + 0,12 ⎤
PV = 200 ⎢ ⎥ = R174,22
⎣ 1 + 0,2 ⎦
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49 NRS 034-1:2001

Annex C
(continued)

The factor r – 1 is called the net discount rate, which should not be confused with the net discount rate
1 + d
d, from which equation (C1) can be simplified by using r = to give:
1 + i
Cn _
n
PV = n
= Cn r (C2)
r
The PV of an expense incurred every year (such as an annuity), that inflates at i per year and is
discounted at rate d, is:

rn _ 1
PV = C a (C3)
r n (r _ 1)
where

Ca is the annual cash flow in each of n years, expressed in current prices;

r is the net discount rate (p.u.) + 1.

For example, the PV of a maintenance expense, expressed in current prices of R1 000 per year in
each of the next three years, where the net discount rate is 8 %, can be calculated as follows:

(1,08 3 _ 1)
PV = R1 000 = R2 577
1,08 3 (1,08 _ 1)
Usually, evaluation is simplified by using the net discount rate instead of separate inflation and
discount rates. This assumes that the costs of components of the cash flow projection do not change
in relation to other components in the analysis. If some prices are changing in relation to other prices,
the discount and inflation rates have to be modified. All inflation and discounting can be treated
separately, or inflation can be expressed in relative terms, using the net discount rate. As long as both
rates are expressed in the same way (such as including or excluding general inflation), the resulting
PV will be the same. The PV should be determined from a stream of costs and benefits expressed in
current prices and discounted at a net discount rate, unless significant differences in the inflation rates
of different components are expected to arise in the period being analysed. A fixed amount received
or paid in n years’ time without taking inflation into account, such as a payment defined in a contract,
has a PV of:

_
PV = Cn [1+ d ]
n

Since the inflation of this component is zero, its analysis in a stream of costs discounted at a net
discount rate must take the inflation rate into account. Therefore, expressed in terms of r and i, the
present value PV is:

[1+ i ]
_ _
n n
PV = Cn r

C.3 Selection of the net discount factor

The calculation of the present value requires the use of a discount rate that reflects the opportunity
cost of capital. In developed countries, where investment risks are relatively low and capital is readily
available, net discount rates of 3 % to 6 % are commonly adopted. However, developing countries
have a scarcity of capital – a key constraint on development in these countries. Also, investment risks
are relatively high.
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NRS 034-1:2001 50

Annex C
(continued)

The South African Central Economic Advisory Service (a department of the Treasury) requires a
minimum rate of return of 8 % in real terms to justify capital investment projects in South Africa.
Higher real rates of return, for example 10 % or even as much as 15 %, are recommended where
there are serious constraints on the availability of capital.

The net discount rate is not the real rate of interest (i.e. interest rate minus inflation rate), although the
real interest rate can, for short periods, be similar to the net discount rate. Net discount rates generally
exceed the real interest rate, which itself exceeds zero in stable economic circumstances.

The net discount rate does not consist of components related separately to interest and risk. It is a
composite indicator of the opportunity cost of capital. Financial risk can be assessed by a sensitivity
analysis, using price changes in costs and benefits and modified projections to ascertain the range of
possible outcomes.

A net discount rate of 8 % to 10 % is recommended by the World Bank and should be used in present
value analyses of electricity projects in South Africa.

C.4 Financial and economic analysis

There is a difference between a financial and an economic analysis.

Financial analysis uses existing and projected market prices to evaluate benefits and costs. It is
based on cash flow and is entirely quantitative. Financial analysis is an assessment from the
viewpoint of the purchaser.

Economic analysis adjusts market prices which are distorted by factors such as price control, taxes or
unemployment, to their true value in the economy. The elements of a financial analysis which are
modified in an economic analysis can include unskilled labour, fuel and the cost of land.

The details of these modifications fall outside the scope of this annex. However, their relevance is
indicated in the following simple example. Where diesel fuel is subsidized, supply from an
unsubsidized network connection may not appear to the user to be competitive with a diesel-driven
supply on a lifetime basis (financial analysis using the market cost of fuel). However, from an
economic analysis, where the cost of fuel without a subsidy is used, the network supply can be
economical for the country. The user would normally choose the diesel-driven supply, but his choice
could be influenced by the application of an equivalent subsidy for the network alternative.

Economic analysis is important in energy policy formulation, but is less significant for a supply utility or
a consumer constrained to operate according to market prices.

C.5 Scope of analysis

In a major analysis, it is necessary to take into account
a) the capital investment costs,
b) all energy purchases and sales, and
c) all operating, administrative and maintenance costs
incurred over the lifetime of the project. Unless inconsistent with the application, projects should be
evaluated over 20 years or 25 years, since this is the average economic life of distribution equipment.
Beyond 25 years, there is generally little significant effect. The NPV of the project will reflect its
desirability.
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51 NRS 034-1:2001

Annex C
(continued)

In a more restricted analysis, only the marginal capital investment and incremental cash flows need be
considered. An analysis of this type is illustrated in C.6. If the project is expected to show a short-
term return, it can be assessed by a discounted payback period, instead of analysis over 20 years.

In evaluating two alternatives that have different conditions at the end of the evaluation period, it might
be necessary to estimate the value of the continued use of the asset. In an extreme but simple
example, the use of entirely consumed materials such as candles, compared with connection to a
network, must be based on the lifetime of the network. If, in this example, the comparison is made
over a shorter period, a value must be assigned to the remaining value of the network assets. Another
situation arises more frequently where a major investment can be deferred, but not replaced, by a
temporary alternative scheme with a useful life of only two to seven years, after which the same major
investment is required. In this case, the deferred investment should be given a residual value at the
end of the evaluation period, for example 20 % of its current price, to represent its unutilized capacity
for generating further returns.

NOTE The cost of losses in cables is covered in IEC 61059.

C.6 Financial analysis examples

C.6.1 Analysis of incremental cash flow

C.6.1.1 Problem

A supply system is being planned. There are two options:

a) to invest R2 million now; or

b) to invest R1,5 million now and R800 000 (in today’s terms) in seven years’ time.
The difference in losses and other performance aspects is negligible and can be ignored. Which
investment option is more attractive if the net discount rate is 8 % per year?

C.6.1.2 Analysis

Eliminate the common costs so that the options are reduced to

a) spending R500 000 now, or

b) spending R800 000 in seven years’ time.
The present value of option (b) is:

800 000
= R466 792
(1 + 0,08) 7

Therefore, it is attractive to defer the expenditure for seven years.

A sensitivity analysis shows that if the deferred expenditure were to exceed R857 000 (in today’s
terms), the alternative decision would be more attractive. The risk of the expenditure exceeding the
break-even amount needs to be assessed in risk analysis, quite separately from the financial model.
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NRS 034-1:2001 52

Annex C
(continued)

C.6.2 Discounted payback period

C.6.2.1 Problem

An expenditure of R20 000 now will reduce annual maintenance costs by R4 200 per year. The
simple payback period is 4,76 years. What is the discounted payback period, if the net discount rate
per year is 8 %?

C.6.2.2 Analysis

Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Year 6 Year 7

Present cost 4 200 4 200 4 200 4 200 4 200 4 200 4 200

Present value 3 889 3 601 3 334 3 087 2 858 2 647 2 450

Cumulative PV 3 889 7 490 10 824 13 911 16 769 19 416 21 866

Therefore, the discounted payback period is approximately 6,24 years.

This analysis, being a constant annual sum (in present terms), could be treated as an annuity. Where
the annual sum changes, the tabular layout is necessary.

NOTE The relationship (where there is an annuity) between the simple and the discounted payback period, say y and n
respectively, can be derived from equation (C3) and is:

⎛ 1 ⎞
log ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 1 _ y ( r _ 1) ⎟
⎝ ⎠
n=
log r

Therefore, if the cost saving at present-day prices was R2 000, the simple payback period, y, would be ten years and
the discounted payback period would be

⎛ 1 ⎞
log ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 1 _ 10(1,08 _ 1) ⎟
⎝ ⎠
n=
log 1,08

= 20,9 years

C.6.3 Cost of transformer losses

C.6.3.1 Problem

Assume that the maximum load on a transformer in a new installation will increase over five years and
then remain constant for the next fifteen years. What is the value of the losses?
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53 NRS 034-1:2001

Annex C
(continued)

C.6.3.2 Analysis

The no-load losses will be constant, but the load losses will increase with the load. The cash flow is
modelled in table C.1 for a typical distribution transformer. Under the conditions illustrated, the cost of
no-load losses is R7 481/kW and that of load losses is R2 295/kW of the rated loss. These costs per
kilowatt are independent of the rating and losses of the transformer but depend on the load conditions
modelled, in particular the loading and loss load factors and the tariff for demand and energy.

The loss load factor is the ratio of actual energy in relation to the load losses under typical loading
conditions to the relevant energy losses that would occur if the transformer was fully loaded at all
times. The loss load factor LLF is empirically related to the load factor LF by the relation:

LLF = aLF + ( 1 _ a) LF 2

where

a typically has a value of between 0,1 and 0,4.

Research is being done on typical loss load factors for distribution. The costs of losses can be used
as capitalization factors in evaluating different transformers.

This type of model can also be used to evaluate the extra losses incurred when a transformer is
overloaded.

If two transformers with power ratings of 100 kVA and 200 kVA respectively and that comply with
SABS 780, are loaded in the same way to a load of 160 kVA, the NPV of the extra losses of the
smaller transformer is about R7 800. This extra cost should be offset against the initial saving derived
from the smaller transformer.

NOTE The PV per kilowatt of load loss on the 100 kVA transformer is R9 182 when the transformer is loaded to 160 %
of its rating.
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NRS 034-1:2001 54

Annex C
(continued)

Table C.1 − Cost of losses of a distribution transformer

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Year 1 2 3 4 5 20 TOTALS
Load (p.u.) 0,216 0,4 0,56 0,696 0,8 0,8
Loss load factor 0,23 0,25 0,27 0,29 0,31 0,33
No-load loss (kW) 0,5 0,5 0,5 0,5 0,5 0,5
No-load energy (kWh) 4 380,0 4 380,0 4 380,0 4 380,0 4 380,0 4 380,0
Load loss (kW) 0,11 0,37 0,72 1,11 1,47 1,47
Load energy loss (kWh) 216,21 805,92 1 705,97 2 830,40 3 997,36 4 255,26
No-load costs
Demand 162,00 162,00 162,00 162,00 162,00 162,00
Energy 219,00 219,00 219,00 219,00 219,00 219,00
Total 381,00 381,00 381,00 381,00 381,00 381,00
PV 352,78 326,65 302,45 280,05 259,30 81,74 3 740,71
PV/kW of no load loss 7 481,43
Load costs
Demand 34,77 119,23 233,69 360,99 476,93 476,93
Energy 10,81 40,30 85,30 141,52 199,87 212,76
Total 45,58 159,53 318,99 502,51 676,80 689,69
PV 42,20 136,77 253,23 369,36 460,52 147,97 5 279,92
PV/kW of load loss 2 295,62
NOTE 1 Years 6 to 19 have been calculated but, to save space, they have not been included in the table.
NOTE 2 Factors used in table C.1:
Transformer rating: 160 kVA
No-load loss: 0,5 kW
Rated load loss: 2,3 kW
Demand cost: 324 R/kW per year
Energy cost: 0,05 R/kWh
Net discount rate: 8 % per year
Normal max. loading (p.u.): 0,8

C.6.4 Losses in a network

C.6.4.1 Problem

The implementation cost of a particular reticulation network was estimated to be R14 560 lower than
that of an alternative. The annual repayment on this amount was given as R2 326.

The additional losses related to the lower cost design were estimated to cost R1 815 per year once the
system is fully loaded.

The apparent saving by adopting the lower cost installation is R511 per year. However, if energy costs
increase by 10 % per year, the saving will disappear in year 4. However, the cost of additional losses
in the first three years is only 25 %, 50 % and 75 % because the system is not yet fully loaded.
Assuming a net discount rate of 9 % and a life of 20 years, which installation is financially more
attractive?
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55 NRS 034-1:2001

Annex C
(concluded)

C.6.4.2 Analysis

The relative cash flow of the more expensive installation is:

Year 0 Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Years

4 to 20
R R R R R
Investment −14 560
Saving in losses at full load 0 1 815 1 815 1 815 1 815
Saving not realized 0 −1 362 −907 −453 0

The NPV of the losses is the PV of the saving in losses at full load over 20 years minus the PV of the
saving not realized during the early years. The PV of the annuity is:

rn_ 1 ⎡ 1,09 20 _ 1 ⎤
Ca n _ = 1 815 ⎢ 20 ⎥
r (r 1) ⎢⎣ 1,09 (0,09) ⎥⎦

= 1 815 × 9,128

= 16 568

The PV of the saving not realized because of partial loading is:

_ _ 2 _ 3
1 362 1,09 907 109
, 453 1,09
_ _ _
= 1 250 763 350
_
= 2 363

Therefore, the NPV of the whole investment model is:

_ _ _
14 560 + 16 568 2 363 = 355

C.6.4.3 Conclusions

The financial model indicates that the lower losses of the more expensive installation are insufficient to
justify the higher investment (the NPV is negative). If the system were fully loaded from the first year,
the more expensive system would be advantageous (NPV = R2 008).

Sensitivity analysis assesses the effects of cost variations on the financial decision. For example, an
increase of only 5 % in the value of annual losses of R1 815 per year would change the NPV to a
positive value and the more expensive network would be worthwhile.
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NRS 034-1:2001 56

Annex D
(informative)

Protection systems

D.1 Introduction
Ideally, the design of an LV system has to be such that the protective devices are co-ordinated with
the complete system in the initial planning. Often in the past, designs have been based on load
requirements and the protection was incidental. Due to the infrequency of operation, the lack of
protection co-ordination might only become evident when it is too late.

The protection applied to cost-effective electrification schemes requires a balance between cost and
performance. There are no cost-effective designs that are ideal. Instead, the most beneficial
compromise between a number of options should be selected. This annex deals only with conductor
thermal protection and overcurrent grading.

This annex describes an approach to low-voltage protection performance, gives information on the
application of high rupturing capacity (HRC) fuses and circuit-breakers and gives examples of practical
applications for the cost-effective protection of low consumption and moderate consumption areas.

D.2 An approach to LV protection performance (co-ordination)

D.2.1 Calculate the expected range of fault levels on the LV feeders.

D.2.2 Superimpose the appropriate protection curves on the same axes as the thermal limit (damage)
curves of the transformer and LV feeders and of the service cable.

NOTE The thermal limit curves (damage curves) can be obtained from the manufacturers of the equipment.

D.2.3 Ensure that the protection elements will provide adequate protection over the expected range
of fault levels.

D.2.4 Ensure that the protection is sensitive enough to respond to faults at the far end of the
protection range.

D.2.5 It might be necessary to limit the length of LV distributors to ensure that fault levels will be high
enough to operate the protection equipment.

D.3 High rupturing capacity (HRC) fuses and circuit-breakers

D.3.1 HRC fuses

D.3.1.1 Application of HRC fuses

SABS IEC 60269-1 defines three utilization categories of fuses, i.e. gG, gM and aM. Class gG fuses
are suitable for the protection of LV distribution networks. Class gL fuses of VDE 0636-31 have the
same utilization class as gG of SABS IEC 60269-1 and are therefore also suitable for the protection of
LV distribution networks.
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57 NRS 034-1:2001

Annex D
(continued)

D.3.1.2 Selection of HRC fuse rating

The inherent overload capability of class gG fuses (see SABS IEC 60269-1) has to be taken into
account when a fuse rating is being selected for a particular application. Two current levels are defined
by SABS IEC 60269-1, as follows:

a) conventional non-fusing current (Inf): a value of current specified as that which the fuse-link is
capable of carrying for a specified time (conventional time) without melting; and
b) conventional fusing current (If): a value of current specified as that which causes operation of the
fuse-link within a specified time (conventional time).
Table D.1, which has been extracted from SABS IEC 60269-1, gives the overload capability of class
gG fuses.

Table D.1 − Conventional times and currents for class gG fuses

1 2 3 4
Rated current In for Conventional time Conventional Conventional
class gG fuses non-fusing current fusing current
h (Inf) (If)
In < 16 1
16 ≤ In < 63 1
63 ≤ In < 160 2 1,25 In 1,6 In
160 ≤ In < 400 3
400 < In 4

Table D.1 implies that class gG fuses rated at 63 A ≤ In < 160 A will allow a current of 1,25 In to flow for
2 h without melting. A current of 1,6 In, however, will melt the fuses within 2 h.

D.3.1.3 Advantages and disadvantages of HRC fuses

D.3.1.3.1 The advantages of HRC fuses are:

a) very fast operation at high currents enables current limiting and the reduction of electromagnetic
stress on connected plant;
b) discrimination of upstream and downstream fuses for large currents is possible, if fuses are
selected properly;
c) they are static devices suitable for application in unfriendly environments, for example high
humidity; and
d) they can be used with convenient fuse carriers that allow operation from ground level.
D.3.1.3.2 The disadvantages of HRC fuses are:

a) they are single-phase devices. In the event of the operation of one fuse on a three-phase system it
is recommended that all three fuses be replaced;
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NRS 034-1:2001 58

Annex D
(continued)

b) fuses that have operated are often replaced with an incorrectly rated fuse, leading to protection
maloperation; and
c) consumers with a three-phase supply might be reduced to a supply with only one or two phases.
D.3.2 Circuit-breakers

D.3.2.1 Application of circuit-breakers

The tripping characteristics of a low-voltage circuit-breaker can generally be divided into two parts, i.e.
overload and short-circuit operation. Overload operation is achieved by introducing a time delay,
either through a thermal device or through a hydraulically controlled mechanism within the circuit-
breaker. Short-circuit operation is magnetically controlled and of fixed duration. When thermal
magnetic circuit-breakers are used, their full-load rating is specified at an operating temperature,
usually 65 °C. Thermal devices are temperature sensitive. Tripping current settings have to be
corrected if the ambient temperature is greater than the temperature specified by the manufacturer at
rated value. If necessary, electronic trip units can be used that are not influenced by temperature
fluctuations. However, the maximum permissible circuit-breaker current is dependent on temperature
and the trip settings might have to be limited.

D.3.2.2 Selection of circuit-breaker rating

LV circuit-breakers should comply with SABS 156, time-delay type, or with IEC 60947-2,
category B type.

D.3.2.3 Advantages and disadvantages of the use of circuit-breakers

D.3.2.3.1 The advantages of circuit-breakers are:

a) they can be reset after operation; and
b) all three phases are tripped for a single-phase fault.
D.3.2.3.2 The disadvantages of circuit-breakers are:
2
a) for large fault currents, total discrimination might not be possible; the manufacturer's I t versus I
and t versus I curves should be consulted;
b) they require an additional enclosure; and
c) they are not easily operated from ground level.
D.4 Preferred practical applications for cost-effective protection of low
consumption and moderate consumption areas

D.4.1 General

For cost-effective electrification schemes, the protection functions of some of the classic protection
elements shown in figure 6 (see 4.7.1) are combined or even removed. It is important for the designer
to take cognizance of the protection and operational implications of these options. Subclauses D.4.2
and D.4.3 cover the options that are most popular in practice.
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59 NRS 034-1:2001

Annex D
(continued)

D.4.2 Using a completely self protecting (CSP) transformer

NOTE CSP options (formerly specified in NRS 027) are given in SABS 780:1998.

The layout using a CSP transformer is shown in figure D.1.

CSP transformer LV distributors Service connections

(aerial bundled conductors) (split-concentric cable)

"B" "D" "E"

Internal 120 A pole-top box-

oil-immersed breaker per four 60 A or 20 A
breaker customer-break
service connections

Figure D.1 − Using a CSP transformer

D.4.3 Using a conventional transformer that complies with SABS 780
The two preferred options, when conventional transformers are used, are shown in figures D.2 and
D.3.

Transformer LV distributors Service connections

(aerial bundled conductors) (split-concentric cable)

"B" "D" "E"

120 A pole-top box-

External breaker per four 60 A or 20 A
HRC fuse customer-break
service connections

Figure D.2 − Using a conventional transformer with one external fuse per phase

LV distributors Service connections

(aerial bundled conductors) (split-concentric cable)
Transformer
"B" "D" "E"

120 A pole-top box- 60 A or 20 A

breaker per four customer-break
service connections
External
HRC fuse

Figure D.3 − Using a conventional transformer with two external fuses per phase
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NRS 034-1:2001 60

Annex D
(continued)

D.4.4 Cost and operational comparison of the cost-effective options

D.4.4.1 Options
Three basic protection options are given in D.4.2 and D.4.3. In practice, these protection options can
be implemented as follows:

a) a CSP 100 kVA or 200 kVA transformer with a 120 A pole-top circuit-breaker for every four service
connections;
b) a conventional 100 kVA transformer with MV drop-out fuse links, one 160 A LV pole-top fuse unit
and one 120 A pole-top circuit-breaker for every four service connections; and
c) a conventional 100 kVA transformer with MV drop-out fuse links, two 125 A LV pole-top fuse units
and one 120 A pole-top circuit-breaker for every four service connections or a 200 kVA
transformer with MV drop-out fuse links, two 160 A LV pole-top fuse units and one 120 A pole-top
circuit-breaker for every four service connections.

D.4.4.2 Costs

The cost of the transformer and the cost of associated protection hardware for the options given in
D.4.4.1 (a), (b) and (c) are compared in table D.2. The comparison is based on the cost of the
following materials and excludes labour costs and the costs of pole hardware:

a) the transformer;

b) drop-out fuse links, if used;

c) LV fuses, if used; and

d) the LV fuse carrier, if used.

For the sake of comparison, options D.4.4.1(b) and D.4.4.1(c), without the inclusion of the MV drop-out
fuse links, are included as options D.4.4.1(d) and D.4.4.1(e).

D.4.4.3 Comparison
The overload capability of the transformer is determined by dividing the total cost of the components
by the number of consumers that can be supplied from the transformer. The comparison is based on
100 kVA and 200 kVA transformers used at an ADMD of 0,6 kVA and 2 kVA per stand. Option (a) has
been allocated a per-unit cost of 1.

Table D.2 − Relative cost comparison of protection options

1 2 3 4 5
Option Per-unit cost of components
(see D.4.4.1) 100 kVA transformer 200 kVA transformer
0,6 kVA per 2 kVA per stand 0,6 kVA per stand 2 kVA per stand
stand
(a) 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00
(b) 1,30 1,31 N/A N/A
(c) 1,38 1,40 1,20 1,25
(d) 1,23 1,24 N/A N/A
(e) 1,31 1,33 1,16 1,20
NOTE The unit costs are based on the cost of the transformer and the cost of associated protection hardware in
1996. Although the actual costs of these items might change, it can be expected that the per-unit costs will remain
relatively stable. However, the user is advised to verify actual costs before committing to a particular option.
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61 NRS 034-1:2001

Annex D
(continued)

D.4.4.4 Advantages and disadvantages of option (a)

D.4.4.4.1 The advantages of option (a) are:

a) it has the lowest material costs;

b) it has no protection discrimination problems;
c) it is of simple construction − MV and LV protection is inside the transformer;
d) it has a larger number of consumers connected for each transformer;
e) it provides 100 % transformer overload protection; and
f) it provides good feeder protection, provided that the LV distributor length is limited.
D.4.4.4.2 The disadvantages of option (a) are:
a) it is applied with limited sectionalizing capabilities on the MV. Typically, five transformers will be
used for each off-load section point;
b) it has the possibility of internal MV fuse failure, due to incoming surges; however, very few of these
incidents have been reported;
c) it allows limited MV sectionalizing, since there is no visible point of isolation of the MV at the point
of work;
d) it has no visible isolation with the LV breaker in the "open" position;
e) it has only one point of isolation for the entire LV distributor network; and
f) it has limited quality of supply.
D.4.4.5 Advantages and disadvantages of option (b)

D.4.4.5.1 The advantages of option (b) are:

a) it gives improved feeder protection compared with option (a). The practical restriction imposed on
feeder length by statutory voltage drop limitations will be sufficient to prevent unacceptably low
fault currents;
b) it has an MV point of isolation at each transformer which will enable a better quality of supply than
option (a); and
c) it has a visible point of isolation with the LV fuses open.
D.4.4.5.2 The disadvantages of option (b) are:
a) it shows a 20 % to 30 % increase in transformer and associated protection hardware costs, when
compared with option (a);
b) it is of more complicated construction when compared with option (a) and requires external MV
and LV fuse assemblies;
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NRS 034-1:2001 62

Annex D
(concluded)

c) it has fewer consumers connected for each transformer than option (a);
d) it provides limited overload protection of the 100 kVA and 200 kVA transformers;
e) it could cause discrimination problems with the fuse and pole-top circuit-breaker on 100 kVA
transformers; and
f) it has only one point of isolation for the entire LV distributor network and therefore quality of supply
is limited.
D.4.4.6 Advantages and disadvantages of option (c)

D.4.4.6.1 The advantages of option (c) are:

a) it has an MV point of isolation at each transformer, which will enable a better quality of supply
when compared with option (a);
b) it has a visible point of isolation with the LV fuses open;
c) it has two points of isolation for the LV distributor network, which will enable a better quality of
supply when compared with options (a) and (b); and
d) it provides 100 % protection of the feeders.
D.4.4.6.2 The disadvantages of option (c) are:

a) it shows a 30 % to 40 % increase in transformer and associated protection hardware costs when

compared with option (a);
b) it is of more complicated construction when compared with options (a) and (b) and requires
external MV and two LV fuse assemblies;
c) it has fewer consumers connected to each transformer than option (a);
d) it provides no overload protection of the transformer; and
e) it could cause discrimination problems with the fuse and pole-top circuit-breaker on 100 kVA
transformers that are more severe than those posed by option (b).
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63 NRS 034-1:2001

Annex E

Bibliography

E.1 Introduction
This bibliography has been prepared for the benefit of electrical engineers involved in electrical
planning and design and associated research in South Africa, and is based on a report by the
Distribution Working Group of the Electric Power Co-ordinating Committee (EPCC).

The co-operation of the EPCC in the development of this bibliography is acknowledged. The
Distribution Working Group of the Electric Power Co-ordinating Committee (EPCC-DWG) identified the
need for a bibliography that would bring together the most important international references and the
applicable papers that have been published in South Africa. The list has been sorted into the main
subject groups appropriate to distribution engineering. A short introduction to each group identifies the
most important concepts in the key references and indicates the scope of work covered by the papers
in that section.

The entries in each section are arranged in chronological order. The content of some earlier
documents might have been superseded by the content of more recent documents in the section. The
reader should therefore ensure that the latest available information is used.

References that appear as normative references in this part of NRS 034 are not included in the
bibliography. The bibliography has been divided into the following sections:

E.2:Load modelling and consumer characteristics

E.3:Load forecasting in distribution systems
E.4:Distribution system planning, analysis and design
E.4.1: General
E.4.2: Low-voltage systems
E.4.3: Medium-voltage systems
E.4.4: Power system analysis
E.5:Distribution system reliability and quality of supply
E.6:Distribution system economics
E.7:Overhead lines, cables, conductors and fittings
E.8:Distribution transformers and miniature substations
E.9:Low-voltage circuit-breakers and fuses
E.10: Earthing and earth leakage protection
E.11: Street lighting
E.12: Tariffs and metering.
E.2 Load modelling and consumer characteristics
The way in which loads are modelled has a major impact on calculations of estimated voltage drop in
LV networks supplying domestic consumers. Diversity and unbalance that arise from stochastic
variation of the loads have to be taken into account.

Present load modelling programs used widely in South Africa use diversity and unbalance correction
factors that are largely based on work done in the UK in the 1950s. More load measurement and
analysis is required in this area to effectively characterize these loads and define simplified
parameters for modelling loads in the Southern African context (this work is being co-ordinated
through NRS 034 Working Group).

The impact of demand-side management techniques will need to be included in load modelling
although, for domestic consumers, this is generally limited to load shifting water heating and air
conditioning.
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NRS 034-1:2001 64

Bibliography
(continued)

Two references by R Herman are related to research undertaken to establish equipment needs and
the methodology for collecting load data for modelling domestic electrical loads in South Africa. Gower
describes an application of an ACE report to South African conditions. Anderson, Janson and Klevis,
and Sarikas and Thacker attempt to relate maximum demand to annual energy usage.

Hamilton and Bary were two of the original researchers into load characteristics and are often quoted
in later references. Rusck’s methods of representation of measured loads using coincidence factors
based on a Gaussian statistical distribution were the basis of much work for the next two decades after
publication in 1956. Willis, Vismor and Powell describe aspects of sampling load curve data using
modern recording technology.

HAMILTON, RF. The summation of load curves. Transactions of the SAIEE, October 1944, vol. 63,
p. 729.
Covers a survey of the demand of groups of consumers.

BARY, C. Coincidence factor relationships of electric load characteristics. Transactions of the SAIEE,
September 1945, vol. 64, p. 623.

RUSCK, S. The simultaneous demand in distribution network supplying domestic consumers. ASEA
Journal,1956, p. 59.
Gives a representation of measured loads using coincidence factors based on a Gaussian statistical
distribution.

SARIKAS, RH. and THACKER, HB. Distribution system load characteristics and their use in planning
and design. Proceedings of the AIEE, August 1957, p. 564.
Attempts to relate maximum demand with energy usage using polynomial curve fitting. This is one of
the early papers on load modelling and has been referred to by authors such as Gönen.

DAVIS, MW., KRUPA, TJ. and DIEDZIC, MJ. The economics of direct control of residential loads on
the design and operation of the distribution system. IEEE (Transactions on Power Apparatus and
Systems), March 1983, vol. PAS-102, no.3, p. 646.
Defines load management terms, develops a new approach for evaluating the cost-effectiveness of
control strategies and reports how a field experiment implemented on a distribution circuit was
designed to measure the effects of a utility load management programme.

WILLIS, HL., VISMOR, TD. and POWELL, RW. Some aspects of sampling load curve data on
distribution systems. IEE, November 1985, vol. PAS-104, p. 3221.
Discusses aspects of sample rate, filtering and digital sampling.

GOWER, AH. A statistical approach to the determination of consumer design ADMDs using average
annual energy consumption figures. SAIEE (Workshop on: Towards cost-effective power distribution
and reticulation), August 1987.
Applies the principles of the British ACE Report 49 to South African conditions.

ANDERSON, A., JANSON, A. and KLEVIS, J. Model for load simulations by means of load pattern
curves. CIRED (Tenth International Conference on Electricity Distribution), Brighton, 1989, p. 545.
Describes a load forecasting model based on recorded daily demand curves. The data are collected
using a measuring and memory device attached to the energy meters.

HARDING, IL. and HOCHSTEIN, B. An integrated information management system for distribution
networks. CIRED (Tenth International Conference on Electricity Distribution), Brighton, 1989, p. 373.
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65 NRS 034-1:2001

Bibliography
(continued)

HERMAN, R. Domestic electricity load data collection and modelling. Report of the National Energy
Council, September 1990.
Covers a research project undertaken to establish equipment needs and methodology for collecting
electrical load data and for modelling electrical loads in South Africa.

HERMAN, R. and GAUNT, CT. Measurement and representation of maximum demand for individual
and grouped consumers including constraints. CIRED, Liege (Eleventh International Conference on
Electricity Distribution), April 1991.
Includes further work on the analysis of collected data (see the previous reference), particularly the
effect of constraints, for example, tariff circuit-breakers.

HERMAN, R. and KRITZINGER, JJ. The statistical description of grouped domestic electrical load
currents. Electric Power Systems Research, Paper no. 27 (1993), pp. 43-48.
Shows that the Beta probability density function is most appropriate for the parametric, statistical
description of domestic loads at the time of maximum demand.

HERMAN, R., MARITZ, JS. and ENSLIN, JHR. The analysis of voltage regulation using the Beta
distribution model. Electric Power Systems Research, Paper no. 29 (1994), p. 213-216.
Based on a doctoral dissertation on voltage regulation calculation, this paper presents a probabilistic
method of calculating voltage drops based on the Beta probability density function. The method has
subsequently been named the Herman Beta method.

SELLICK, R. and GAUNT, CT. Comparing methods of calculating voltage drop in low-voltage feeders.
Transactions of the SAIEE, September 1995, p. 96-111.
Examines a variety of current South African voltage drop calculation methods using carefully selected
benchmark networks and loads. The results are compared with Monte-Carlo simulations. The
conclusions are that the Herman Beta method is the most reliable.

M. DEKENAH CONSULTING CC. The NRS national load research project: 1994-1996. March 1997
and October 1997. (Available from the NRS Project Manager.)

E.3 Load forecasting in distribution systems

Load forecasting has one of the biggest impacts on the phased capital investment requirement of
distribution systems. As for load modelling, the effective categorizing of consumers’ loads in terms of
the After Diversity Maximum Demand (ADMD) forecast levels and growth profile is very important.
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NRS 034-1:2001 66

Bibliography
(continued)

The trend in distribution load forecasting is towards a geographically based methodology using
geographic information system (GIS) technology.

Load forecasting falls into two classes, i.e. long-term and short-term forecasting. Long-term
forecasting is generally used for design purposes. Huck and Mahmoud cover over 130 publications on
forecasting up to 1981. Willis, Tram and Rackliffe deal with forecasting on a geographical basis and
quote 108 references. Lee Lewis and Northcote-Green compare 14 distribution load forecasting
methods.

HUCK, GE. Load forecasting bibliography – Phase 1. IEEE, January 1980, vol. PAS-00, p. 53.
Gives 74 references that deal with the general philosophy of load forecasting, including short notes on
each paper.

MAHMOUD, AA. Load forecasting bibliography – Phase 2. IEEE, July 1981, vol. PAS-100, p. 3217.
Gives 62 references that concentrate on engineering economics, issues and parameters of load
forecasting.

LEE LEWIS, H. and NORTHCOTE-GREEN, JED. Spatial electric load forecasting: A tutorial review.
Proceedings of the IEEE, February 1983, vol. 71, p. 232.
Deals with the forecasting of electric loads on a geographical basis. Gives a comprehensive review of
techniques employed in spatial electric load forecasting (108 references).

LEE LEWIS, H. and NORTHCOTE-GREEN, JED. Comparison tests of fourteen distribution load
forecasting methods. IEEE, June 1984, vol. PAS-102, p. 1190.
Evaluates the methods on the basis of usefulness as a planning tool, and deals with forecast accuracy
and cost of application.

NAGURA, S., MASUMOTO, T., ENDO, K., et al. Development of a mapping system for distribution
facility management. CIRED (Tenth International Conference on Electricity Distribution), Brighton,
1989, p. 520.

WILLIS, HL., TRAM, H. and RACKLIFFE, G. Short range load forecasting for distribution system
planning – An improved method for extrapolating feeder load growth. IEEE (Proceedings of 1991, IEEE
Power Engineering Society), Transmission and Distribution Conference, September 1991, p. 294.
Describes a new method of extrapolating feeder peak load histories to produce estimates of future
peak load histories.

E.4 Distribution system planning, analysis and design

This area covers a wide range of issues to optimize the configuration and investment made in
distribution systems so as to meet consumers’ load requirements within acceptable quality of supply
limits with the lowest net present value cost.

Consumers’ quality of supply requirements will probably lead to negotiations between suppliers and
major consumer representatives to determine the expected levels of service and the associated capital
and running costs that will be reflected in the tariffs.
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67 NRS 034-1:2001

Bibliography
(continued)

References relating to design procedures in South Africa are by Gaunt, Ben-Dov, Harley and
Seymore, Swanepoel, Dekenah and Gaunt. The two IEEE papers, by Gönen and Mahmond, and
Gönen and Ramires-Rosado, are excellent bibliographies of power system planning and distribution in
the USA. The paper by Davies and Paterson, is a classical work on calculating voltage drop using a
statistical description of the stochastic domestic loads. Walkden uses the methods of Davies and
Paterson to derive a procedure for the selection of optimum cable sizes. Brodsky, Wrobel and Willis
consider different voltage modelling methods in load flow calculations. Wepener and Gaunt describe
the choice between 11 kV and 22 kV for distribution voltage.

E.4.1 General

COLE, JEH. Standardization of plant and equipment for public electricity supply. Proceedings of the
IEE, September 1972, vol. 119, no. 9, p. 1319.
Reviews the aims and experiences of the London Electricity Board in standardizing all major items of
plant and equipment used in the supply of electricity at voltages ranging from 66 kV to 240 V, including
switchgear, transformers, underground-link disconnection boxes and fusible cut-outs.

SABS 0121:1977, Cathodic protection of buried and submerged structures.

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NRS 034-1:2001 68

Bibliography
(continued)
GÖNEN, T. and MAHMOUD, AA. Bibliography of power system planning. IEEE, June 1983, vol. PAS-
102, p. 1778.
Lists 72 papers under the headings analysis, models and techniques.

SABS 03:1985, The protection of structures against lightning.

SABS 1222:1985, Enclosures for electrical equipment (classified according to the degree of protection
that the enclosure provides).

GAUNT, CT. Implications of planning and design decisions in electricity distribution. Twelfth AMEU
technical meeting, Potchefstroom, September 1988.

HOMER, IR. and SNOWDEN, PJA. Distribution control – The impact of new technology. CIRED (Tenth
International Conference on Electricity Distribution), Brighton, 1989, p. 355.

CARR, J. and McCALL, LV. Divergent evolution and resulting characteristics among the world’s
distribution systems. IEEE (Proceedings of 1991 IEEE Power Engineering Society), Transmission and
Distribution Conference, September 1991, p. 672.
Discusses the factors which affected the evolution of the world’s distribution systems, and their
divergence, with implications for application in lesser developed countries.

Distribution Technology Division, Eskom. Distribution standard.

A compilation of practices, available from the Distribution Technology Manager, Private Bag X1074,
Germiston, 1400.

SABS 1186:1993, Symbolic safety signs.

LEE WILLIS, H. Power distribution planning reference book. New York, Marcel Dekker, 1997.
A comprehensive book with an American bias.

E.4.2 Low-voltage systems

GILLETT, JK. The reticulation of an all-electric town. Transactions of the SAIEE, October 1951,
vol. 42, no. 10, p. 301 and p. 344.
Describes the design and performance of the distribution system of Welkom.

DAVIES, M. and PATERSON, RG. Phase unbalance in low-voltage distribution systems. Proceedings
of the IEEE, December 1962, p. 535.
A particularly rigorous mathematical analysis of a statistical approach to voltage calculations in
unbalanced low-voltage cables.

British Electricity Board. Report on the design of low-voltage underground networks for new housing.
ACE Report no. 1.0.5, 1986.

WALKDEN, FW. Optimising the design of low-voltage cable networks. Proceedings of the IEEE,
January 1986, vol. 133-C, p. 49.
Describes a procedure for selecting cables for radially connected low-voltage networks so that the
volume of the conductor is minimized. Includes voltage regulation and currents ratings (four
references).

BEN-DOV, E., HARLEY, RG. and SEYMORE, WJ. Design of an optimal reticulation system for a
residential area. IEEE, February 1987, vol. PWRS-2, p. 210.
Presents an algorithm for the optimal placement of transformers and substations and the sizing of
cables.
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69 NRS 034-1:2001

Bibliography
(continued)

SWANEPOEL, JJ. RSA Guidelines – percentage voltage drops and phase currents. Electricity SA,
March/April 1989.
Outlines the development of calculation factors for voltage drop in low-voltage radial feeders.

DEKENAH, M. and GAUNT, CT. Simulation of domestic consumer loads and voltage drop on LV
distribution feeders based on data collected from load restricted consumers. Transactions of the
SAIEE, March 1993, vol. 84, no. 1, p. 21.
Describes a method of simulating feeder performance based on coincident probability distribution of
demand at system peak, based on loss-of-diversity and unbalanced voltage drop factors.

Durban Electricity. Durban Electricity planning code of practice.

Gives procedures for planning electrical reticulation.

E.4.3 Medium-voltage systems

WEPENER, E. and GAUNT, CT. Optimum voltage for industrial township distribution. SAIEE
(Workshop on: Towards cost-effective power distribution and reticulation), August 1987.
Gives the selection of the medium-voltage level for industrial township distribution.

CECCHETTI, E., NOFERI, PL., BARBARITO, M. et al. Compact lines for urban areas: a new solution.
CIRED (Tenth International Conference on Electricity Distribution), Brighton, 1989, p. 190.

CALDERON, F. Tests of 34,5 kV expulsion fuses at the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power.
IEEE (Proceedings of 1991 IEEE Power Engineering Society), Transmission and Distribution
Conference, September 1991, p. 523.
Presents the results of the Fuse Performance and Application Revaluation (FUSEPAR) Programme.

E.4.4 Power system analysis

This topic covers the analytical methods and mathematical theory that are used for the analysis of load
flow and voltage regulation of the distribution power systems and to analyse the response of those
systems to short-circuits following faults on the network.

The majority of the references in this section are books that deal with a variety of topics in power
system engineering. The texts by Stevenson, Elgerd, Moorhouse and Gross are of a general nature
and cover the broad spectrum of power systems aspects. The texts by Gönen, Lackervi and Holmes,
and the Westinghouse Electricity Corporation’s reference book concentrate on distribution systems.
The somewhat dated, yet useful book by Starr, deals with electricity utilization. Seidman and Mahrous
deal with classical solution methods for hand calculations.

Central Station Engineers of Westinghouse Electricity Corporation. Electrical transmission and

distribution reference book. Fourth edition, 1950.

STARR, AT. Generation, transmission and utilisation of electrical power. Fourth edition, London:
Pitman, 1957.
Covers generation, transmission, overhead lines (mechanical and electrical design), underground
cables, voltage regulation stability, switchgear and protection, illumination, electric traction and
industrial utilization.
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NRS 034-1:2001 70

Bibliography
(continued)

STEVENSON, WD. Elements of power system analysis. Fourth edition, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1962.
Presents the more important problems of power system analysis. Deals with three-phase faults on
synchronous machines, asymmetrical faults, power system stability and economic operation.

GÖNEN, T. Electric power distribution system engineering. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968.

MOORHOUSE, CE. Power source, links and loads. London: Pitman, 1974.
Presents a general approach, using simple matrix methods, and brings together several system and
machine topics which are often treated separately.

ELGERD, OI. Electric energy systems theory: an introduction. Second edition, New York: McGraw-Hill,
1982.
Covers power system components and overall system behaviour, and also automatic closed loop
control of generators, optimum operation, load flow analysis and emergency control.

JOHNSTON, F. Applying short-circuit ratings to service equipment. ECM Magazine, Riverton N.J.,
August 1983.
Reviews the nature of short-circuits to aid in the understanding of standard US requirements. Covers
short-circuit, series connection, protection device and power fault systems.

SEIDMAN, AH. and MAHROUS, H. Handbook of electric power calculations. New York: McGraw-Hill,
1983.

ROEPER, R. Short-circuit currents in three-phase networks. Berlin: Siemens, 1985.

Introduces time functions of short-circuit currents close to and remote from the generator and deals
with calculations based on symmetrical components and the evaluation of short-circuit impedances.
Indicates the possibilities of determining short-circuit currents with the aid of digital computers.

GÖNEN, T. and RAMIREZ-ROSADO, IJ. Review of distribution system planning models: a model for
optimal multistage planning. Proceedings of the IEEE, New York, November 1986, vol. 133-C, p. 397.
Discusses the multistage planning model and allows for constraints of radiality and voltage drops in a
mixed integer programming framework (25 references).

GROSS, CA. Power system analysis. New York: Wiley, 1986.

Serves as an introductory course to power system analysis.

BRODSKY, FJ., WROBEL, FS. and WILLIS, HL. Comparison of distribution circuit voltage modelling
and calculation methods. IEEE, April 1987, vol. PWRD-2, p. 572.
Focuses on how different modelling methods incorporated into three-phase power flow analyses affect
computed results. Highlights theory of distribution design and some fundamental shortcomings in
existing design guidelines, including the effect of circuit-breaker restriction on maximum demand.

MIRANDA, V. and MATOS MACC. Distribution system planning with fuzzy models and techniques.
CIRED (Tenth International Conference on Electricity Distribution), 1989, p. 472.

GOEDDE, GL., DUGAN, RC. and ROWE, LD. Full-scale lightning surge tests of distribution
transformers and secondary systems. IEEE (Proceedings of 1991 IEEE Power Engineering Society),
Transmission and Distribution Conference, September 1991, p. 691.
Describes tests to determine the impulse characteristics of the secondary system of a residential
service.
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71 NRS 034-1:2001

Bibliography
(continued)

MEYER, A. and DWOLATZKY, B. The effective computer generation of designs for township electrical
distribution. IEEE (Proceedings of 1991 IEEE Power Engineering Society), Transmission and
Distribution Conference, September 1991, p. 659.
Describes how a distribution system designer would use computer software with a graphical user
interface to route and select cables in a new scheme.

LACKERVI, E. and HOLMES, E. Electricity distribution network design. Second edition, 1995. IEE
Power Engineering Series 9.

GRANGER, JJ. and STEVENSON, WD. Power system analysis. New York: McGraw Hill, 1994.

GLOVER, JD. and SARMA, M. Power systems analysis and design. Boston: PWS-Pub., 1995.

Merlin Gerin. Calculation of short-circuit currents. Cahiers techniques No. 158. (Available from
Schneider, Service Commercial et Technique. F 38050 Grenoble Cedex 09 (Fax 76419860).)

KNOWLTON, AE. Standard handbook for electrical engineers. International Student Edition.

E.5 Distribution system reliability and quality of supply

Reliability analysis in electrical power engineering is mostly applied to generation and transmission
planning. Application at the distribution level is not as well described. Gilligan, Settembrini, Fisher and
Hudak consider the reliability of distribution systems and Marinello distinguishes between momentary
and permanent outages. The other authors address the reliability of particular components.

PROCTER, K. Effects of fluorescent lighting loading on distribution systems. Electrical Times,

August 1972.
Examines the distortion effects of fluorescent lighting loads on the supply waveform.

MAY, HS. The design of overhead electric lines for improved reliability. CIRED (Tenth International
Conference on Electricity Distribution), Brighton, 1989, p. 196.

IEC 61000-2-1:1990, Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) – Part 2: Environment – Section 1:

Description of the environment – Electromagnetic environment for low-frequency conducted
disturbances and signalling in public power supply systems.

IEC 61000-2-2:1990, Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) – Part 2: Environment – Section 2:

Compatibility levels for low-frequency conducted disturbances and signalling in public low-voltage
power supply systems.

GILLIGAN, SR. A method for estimating the reliability of distribution circuits. IEEE (Proceedings of
1991 IEEE Power Engineering Society), Transmission and Distribution Conference, September 1991,
p. 724.
Describes how the expected reliability performance of primary distribution circuits can be estimated by
a direct assessment of the configuration and exposure of the circuit.

HORTON, WF. and GOLDBERG, S. Determination of failure rates of underground distribution system
components from historical data. IEEE (Proceedings of 1991 IEEE Power Engineering Society),
Transmission and Distribution Conference, September 1991, p. 718.
Shows how failure rates of underground distribution system components can be determined from
historical data.
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NRS 034-1:2001 72

Bibliography
(continued)

HORTON, WF., GOLDBERG, S. and VOLKMAN, CA. The failure rates of overhead distribution system
components. IEEE (Proceedings of 1991 IEEE Power Engineering Society), Transmission and
Distribution Conference, September 1991, p. 713.
Describes a study of a number of rural and urban overhead distribution feeders to develop generic
service time failure rates for seven overhead component types.

MARINELLO, CA. The effect of reducing momentary outages on distribution reliability indices. IEEE
(Proceedings of 1991 IEEE Power Engineering Society), Transmission and Distribution Conference,
September 1991, p. 698.
Studies the effect of converting momentary outages to permanent outages on distribution feeders and
the relationship of momentary outages to good power quality.

SETTEMBRINI, RC., FISHER, JR. and HUDAK, NE. Reliability and quality comparisons of electric
power distribution systems. IEEE (Proceedings of 1991 IEEE Power Engineering Society),
Transmission and Distribution Conference, September 1991, p. 704.
Examines the design and operating parameters of seven common distribution systems and compares
the performance of each in terms of reliability and power quality.

MULUKUTLA, SS. and GULACHENSKI, E. A critical survey of considerations in maintaining process

continuity during voltage dips while protecting motors with reclosing and bus transfer practices. IEEE
(Proceedings of 1991 IEEE Power Engineering Society), Transmission and Distribution Conference,
September 1991, p. 266.
Discusses various protective schemes against out-of-phase reclosing and transfer, and riding through
voltage dips.

PALMER, RH., HACKMAN, DE., UNGER, MW. et al. Predicting and testing the effectiveness of
voltage correcting capacitors on two 12 kV distribution lines. IEEE (Proceedings of 1991 IEEE Power
Engineering Society), Transmission and Distribution Conference, September 1991, p. 653.
Describes the calculation of the quantity and locations of voltage-correcting capacitors on distribution
lines using two different computer models.

SABS ISO 9001:1994, Quality systems – Model for quality assurance in design, development,
production, installation and servicing.

SABS ISO 9002:1994, Quality systems – Model for quality assurance in production, installation and
servicing.

SABS ISO 9003:1994, Quality systems – Model for quality assurance in final inspection and test.

NRS 047:1996, Electricity supply – Quality of service.

NRS 048-1:1996, Electricity supply – Quality of supply – Part 1: Overview of implementation of

standards and procedures.

NRS 048-2:1996, Electricity supply – Quality of supply – Part 2: Minimum standards.

NRS 048-3:1998, Electricity supply – Quality of supply – Part 3: Procedures for measurement and
reporting. Second edition.

NRS 048-4:1998, Electricity supply – Quality of supply – Part 4: Application guidelines for utilities.

NRS 048-5:1998, Electricity supply – Quality of supply – Part 5: Instrumentation and transducers for
voltage quality monitoring and recording.
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73 NRS 034-1:2001

Bibliography
(continued)

E.6 Distribution system economics

Engineering economics, as treated in the following references, mostly refers to the financial implication
of choosing between alternative actions. Grainger and Kendrew, and Hickok address the cost of
distribution losses in the system in general, and Nickel and Braunstein, the cost of losses in
transformers. Hass and Gustafson, Kirshner and Giorsetto, and Steese, Merrick and Kennedy assess
the changes in costs of losses through system management. Taylor and Boal give a good general
description of the wider economic analysis of power systems and Palser describes the formulas used
in financial analysis.

TAYLOR, EO. and BOAL, GA. Power system economics. London: Edward Arnold, 1969.

HICKOK, HN. Electrical energy losses in a power system. IEEE (Transactions on Industrial
Applications), October 1978, vol. 1A-14, no. 5, p. 373.
Provides typical loss data on electrical equipment and discusses measurement problems. Examines
system design criteria for reducing losses.

HASS, GK. and GUSTAFSON, MW. Electric distribution system losses affected by load management,
New York: IEEE, 1979.
Explores the application of a distribution loss model that has been designed to discretely measure
resistance, no-load and reactive losses for a given system and mode of operation.

NICKEL, DL. and BRAUNSTEIN, HR. Distribution transformer loss evaluation. IEEE (Transactions on
Power Apparatus and Systems), 1981, vol. PAS-100, no. 2, p. 788.
Examines methods for the evaluation of distribution transformer loss. The total levelized annual cost
method is extended to properly account for conditions of energy cost inflation, load growth and
transformer changeout.

PALSER, DC. An introduction to engineering economics. Forty-seventh AMEU convention, Durban,

May 1981.
Serves as an introduction to engineering economics. Considers the basic principles of compounding
and discounting and the application of these principles to the various discounted cash flow methods of
investment appraisal.

KIRSHNER, D. and GIORSETTO, P. Statistical tests of energy savings due to voltage reduction. IEEE,
June 1984, vol. PAS-103, p. 1205.
Focuses on the energy savings that can be achieved by conservative voltage reduction.

GRAINGER, JJ. and KENDREW, TJ. Evaluation of technical losses on electrical distribution systems.
CIRED (Tenth International Conference on Electricity Distribution), Brighton, 1989, p. 488.

STEESE, JG., MERRICK, SB. and KENNEDY, BW. Estimating methodology for a large regional
application of conservative voltage reduction. IEEE (Transactions on Power Systems), August 1990,
vol. 5, p. 862.
Focuses on the energy savings that can be achieved by conservative voltage reduction.

IEC 60287-3-2:1995, Electric cables – Calculation of the current rating – Part 3: Sections on operating
conditions – Section 2: Economic optimization of power cable size.
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NRS 034-1:2001 74

Bibliography
(continued)

E.7 Overhead lines, cables, conductors and fittings

Many books and papers have been published on the general design and installation of overhead lines
and cables. This section of the bibliography identifies fourteen South African codes of practice, and
relevant specifications. Clarke and Scott, and Coney describe particular aspects of aerial bundled
conductors that are commonly used in South Africa.

HEINHOLD, L. Power cables and their applications. Berlin: Siemens, 1970.

Contains formulas, graphs, tables, explanations of theoretical relationships and numerous definitions.

BS 16:1974 (1991), Specification for telegraph material (insulators, pole fittings, etc.).

SABS 1036:1976, Hollow insulators for use in high voltage electrical equipment.

SABS 1268:1979, Polymeric or rubber insulated, combined neutral/earth (CNE) cables with solid
aluminium phase conductors and a concentric copper wire waveform combined neutral/earth
conductor.

SABS 1294:1981, Precast concrete manhole sections and slabs.

TANAKA, T. and GREENWOOD, A. Advanced power cable technology. Florida : CRC Press, Boca
Raton, 1983, vols.1 and 2.
Describes general features of various kinds of cable.

SABS 1411-1:1986, Materials of insulated electric cables and flexible cords – Part 1: Conductors.

SABS 1411-2:1987, Materials of insulated electric cables and flexible cords – Part 2: Polyvinyl chloride
(PVC).

SABS 1411-4:1987, Materials of insulated electric cables and flexible cords – Part 4: Cross-linked
polyethylene (XLPE).

SABS 1411-6:1987, Materials of insulated electric cables and flexible cords – Part 6: Armour.

CONEY, R. Application and protection of aerial bundled conductors. Eskom, SAIEE (Workshop on:
Towards cost-effective power distribution and reticulation), August 1987.

HARDIE, R. Some technical and cost aspects of medium voltage XPLE and PILC electric cables,
Aberdare Cables, Johannesburg, 1988.
Compares various aspects of the two types of cable.

SABS 0198-1:1988, The selection, handling and installation of electric power cables of rating not
exceeding 33 kV – Part 1: Definitions and statutory requirements.

SABS 0198-2:1988, The selection, handling and installation of electric power cables of rating not
exceeding 33 kV – Part 2: Choice of cable type and methods of installation.

SABS 0198-4:1988, The selection, handling and installation of electric power cables of rating not
exceeding 33 kV – Part 4: Current ratings.

SABS 0198-6:1988, The selection, handling and installation of electric power cables of rating not
exceeding 33 kV – Part 6: Transportation and storage.
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75 NRS 034-1:2001

Bibliography
(continued)

SABS 0198-7:1988, The selection, handling and installation of electric power cables of rating not
exceeding 33 kV – Part 7: Safety precautions.

SABS 0198-8:1988, The selection, handling and installation of electric power cables of rating not
exceeding 33 kV – Part 8: Cable laying and installation.

SABS 0198-9:1988, The selection, handling and installation of electric power cables of rating not
exceeding 33 kV – Part 9: Jointing and termination of extruded solid dielectric-insulated cables up to
3,3 kV.

SABS 0198-10:1988, The selection, handling and installation of electric power cables of rating not
exceeding 33 kV – Part 10: Jointing and termination of paper-insulated cables.

SABS 0198-11:1988, The selection, handling and installation of electric power cables of rating not
exceeding 33 kV – Part 11: Jointing and termination of screened polymeric-insulated cables.

SABS 0198-13:1988, The selection, handling and installation of electric power cables of rating not
exceeding 33 kV – Part 13: Testing, commissioning and fault location.

SABS 0198-14:1988, The selection, handling and installation of electric power cables of rating not
exceeding 33 kV – Part 14: Installation of aerial bundled conductor (ABC) cables.

BLIGNY, J., JACQUENET, J., LENCOT, G. et al. Quick splicing of MV extruded cables laid in rural
areas. CIRED (Tenth International Conference on Electricity Distribution), Brighton, 1989, p. 243.

SABS 1507:1990, Electric cables with extruded solid dielectric insulation for fixed installations
(300/500 V to 1 900/3 300 V).

SABS 1411-3:1990, Materials of insulated electric cables and flexible cords – Part 3: Elastomers.

McALLISTER, D. Electric cables handbook. First edition, Granada, 1990.

SAUNDERS, RH., MEAL, DV., GELDENHUYS, HJ. et al. Covered conductors: Insulation co-ordination
and material considerations based on a battery of tests. ENER-C 90991, January 1990.

SABS 177-3:1990, Insulators for overhead lines of nominal voltage exceeding 1 000 V – Part 3:
Ceramic and glass line post insulators.

BS 65:1991, Specification for vitrified clay pipes, fittings and ducts, also flexible mechanical joints for
use solely with surface water pipes and fittings.

SABS 97:1999, Electric cables – Impregnated-paper-insulated metal-sheathed cables for rated

voltages from 3,3/3,3 kV up to 19/33 kV.

NRS 020:1991, Electricity distribution – Cable ties for use with aerial bundled conductors.

FEE, J. and QUIST, D. A new cable pulling friction measurement method and results. IEEE
(Proceedings of 1991 IEEE Power Engineering Society), Transmission and Distribution Conference,
September 1991, p. 1.
Provides a better understanding of the variables that produce cable-pulling tension, and explains how
better estimates of tension can be made possible.
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NRS 034-1:2001 76

Bibliography
(continued)

SPISAK, GC. and WILKENS, WD. Power, control and communication cable selection criteria for
transmission and distribution facilities. IEEE (Proceedings of 1991 IEEE Power Engineering Society),
Transmission and Distribution Conference, September 1991, p. 191.
Discusses the key selection criteria for power, control and communication cables when used in
transmission and distribution facilities.

SABS 470:1993, Concrete poles for telephone, power and lighting purposes.

NRS 032:1993, Electricity distribution – Service distribution boxes: Pole-mounted types – For
overhead single-phase a.c. service connections at 230 V.

SABS 753:1994, Pine poles, cross-arms and spacers for power distribution, telephone systems, and
street lighting.

SABS 754:1994, Eucalyptus poles, cross-arms and spacers for power distribution and telephone
systems.

SABS 0280:1998, Overhead power lines for conditions prevailing in South Africa.

NRS 041:1995, Electricity transmission and distribution – Code of practice for overhead power lines for
conditions prevailing in South Africa.
Comprises a revision of the SAIEE code of practice for overhead power lines, 1966. (Withdrawn,
replaced by SABS 0280:1998.)

NRS 018-1:1995, Fittings and connectors for low-voltage overhead power lines using aerial bundled
conductors – Part 1: Strain and suspension fittings for self-supporting conductors.

NRS 018-2:1995, Fittings and connectors for low-voltage overhead power lines using aerial bundled
conductors – Part 2: Strain and suspension fittings for insulated neutral supporting conductors.

NRS 018-3:1995, Fittings and connectors for low-voltage overhead power lines using aerial bundled
conductors – Part 3: Strain and suspension fittings for bare neutral supporting conductors.

NRS 018-4:1996, Fittings and connectors for low-voltage overhead power lines using aerial bundled
conductors – Part 4: Strain and suspension fittings for aerial service cables.

NRS 018-5:1995, Fittings and connectors for low-voltage overhead power lines using aerial bundled
conductors – Part 5: Current-carrying connectors and joints.

NRS 022:1996, Electricity distribution – Stays and associated components.

NRS 062:1998, Concentric single-phase aerial service cable for service connections with combined
neutral and earth conductors.

NRS 063:1998, Split-concentric single-phase aerial service cable for service connections with
combined neutral and earth conductors.

Durban Electricity, Durban Electricity overhead lines code of practice.

Gives procedures for erecting overhead lines and associated work.

Durban Electricity, Durban Electricity underground cables code of practice.

Gives procedures for laying and jointing underground cables and associated work.
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77 NRS 034-1:2001

Bibliography
(continued)
CLARKE, EG. and SCOTT, ED. Coupling between aerial bundled conductors and telephone cables on
the same pole. Eskom, Engineering Investigations Report, TRR/E89/T008, Johannesburg.
Describes tests to determine electrostatic and electromagnetic induction between MV and LV ABCs
and a telephone cable accommodated on the same wooden poles. Psophometric voltages are also
measured.

E.8 Distribution transformers and miniature substations

Transformers play an essential role in the distribution system. For network planning and design, the
transformers are usually considered as a simple black box. Norman addresses the standardization of
transformer parameters from a system viewpoint. The IEEE standard describes how cyclic loading
influences the effective rating of a transformer. The code of practice describes operating and
maintenance aspects.

NORMAN, HB. Proposed parameters for the standard power transformers for the Electricity Supply
Commission. SAIEE Transactions, October 1972, p. 234.
For the majority of its future applications, Eskom intends to specify standard values for the main
electrical parameters of its system transformers. This paper gives details of the proposed values for
these standard parameters and outlines some of the principle reasons for their selection.

SABS 1029:1975, Miniature substations.

SABS 1030:1975, Standard longitudinal miniature substations of rating not exceeding 315 kVA.

SABS 1037:1985, Standard transformer bushings.

SABS 1473-1:1989, Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies – Part 1: Requirements for
type-tested and partially type-tested assemblies.

SABS 1473-2:1996, Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies – Part 2: Busbar trunking
systems.

NRS 004-1:1991, Mini-substations – Part 1: Mini-substations for rated a.c. voltages up to and including
12 kV.

NRS 006:1991, Switchgear – Metal-enclosed ring main units – For rated a.c. voltages above 1 kV and
up to and including 24 kV.

BARANOWSKI, JF. and HOPKINSON, PJ. An alternative evaluation of distribution transformers to

achieve the lowest total owning cost. IEEE (Proceedings of 1991 IEEE Power Engineering Society),
Transmission and Distribution Conference, September 1991, p. 571.
Proposes a new evaluation method that will provide the user with a distribution transformer design that
has a lower operating temperature rise thus improving both the transformer’s efficiency and the
consumer’s total owning cost.

BISHOP, MT., LEIX, KL. and MEUNCH, FJ. Considerations in the use of an individual CL fuse in pole
type transformers. IEEE (Proceedings of 1991 IEEE Power Engineering Society), Transmission and
Distribution Conference, September 1991, p. 516.
Reviews the application of an individual current-limiting fuse on pole type distribution transformers.

BORGMEYER, VL. and MARISIDDAIAH, M. Design considerations for pad mounted transformer
enclosures. IEEE (Proceedings of 1991 IEEE Power Engineering Society), Transmission and
Distribution Conference, September 1991, p. 567.
Looks at influences on transformer enclosure design, especially influences related to product integrity.
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NRS 034-1:2001 78

Bibliography
(continued)

BOYD, EL. Internal spark gap protection of distribution transformers from low-voltage side current
surges. IEEE (Proceedings of 1991 IEEE Power Engineering Society), Transmission and Distribution
Conference, September 1991, p. 577.
Discusses the development of an internally mounted low-voltage spark gap as a protection device.
Transformer tests and field trials of the prototype have demonstrated its effectiveness.

GORMAN, ML. and GRAINGER, JJ. Transformer modelling for distribution system studies – Parts 1
and 2, IEEE (Proceedings of 1991 IEEE Power Engineering Society), Transmission and Distribution
Conference, September 1991, p. 539.
Discusses a distribution transformer modelling procedure that represents the distribution transformer
with a minimum of input data for network, load and fault studies thereby allowing the transformer to be
routinely included as part of the distribution network.

SOYSAL, AO. A method for wide frequency range modelling of power transformers and rotating
machines. IEEE (Proceedings of 1991 IEEE Power Engineering Society), Transmission and
Distribution Conference, September 1991, p. 560.
Describes a method for state space formulation of machine windings.

PIERCE, LW. An investigation of the temperature distribution in cast-resin transformer windings, IEEE
(Proceedings of 1991 IEEE Power Engineering Society), Transmission and Distribution Conference,
September 1991, p. 592.
Details experiments that were carried out to determine the hottest spot temperature allowance for a
cast-resin dry type transformer. The locations of the hottest spot for the primary and secondary
winding were determined.

SCHNEIDER, KC. and HOAD, RF. Initial transformer sizing for single-phase residential load. IEEE
(Proceedings of 1991 IEEE Power Engineering Society), Transmission and Distribution Conference,
September 1991, p. 287.
Describes a method for determining the correct economic size of distribution transformers using end-
use appliance load profiles and the thermal model in ANSI/IEEE standard C57.91:1981.

IEEE standard C57.91:1995, Cyclic loading of transformers in urban dormitory areas.

Durban Electricity, Durban Electricity substations code of practice.

Gives procedures for the commissioning and maintenance of equipment in substations and associated
work.

E.9 Low-voltage circuit-breakers and fuses

The need for moulded-case circuit-breakers was created in the period leading up to 1920, when
numerous new applications for electrical motors resulted in a demand for a device that would ensure
safe operation and, at the same time, protect the electrical circuits. During this period, individual
motors were used for the first time in industrial plants to operate machine tools and in private homes to
operate appliances such as refrigerators and washing machines. These numerous applications
created problems. Plant electricians were constantly changing fuses that had been blown during
motor start-up. The same problem of replacing blown fuses occurred in homes when circuits were
overloaded. Inspectors were concerned about fire hazards because fuses were being bridged with
coins and hairpins or fuses with higher current ratings were being installed.

The work of manufacturers prepared the ground for the eventual development of the compact
moulded-case circuit-breaker, which was introduced by the Westinghouse Electric Corporation in
1927. Technology developments in recent decades have been significant.
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79 NRS 034-1:2001

Bibliography
(continued)

This section of the bibliography lists several references to applications of moulded-case circuit-
breakers and identifies the more important national and international standards applicable to these
devices.

SABS 156:1977, Moulded-case circuit-breakers.

VDE 0636-1:1983, Low-voltage fuses – Part 1: General requirements.

VDE 0636-31:1983, Low-voltage fuses – Part 31: D system; Protection of cables and wiring up to
100 A and 500 V, and up to 63 A 660 V a.c. or 600 V d.c.

BEATTY, WE. and LOVETT, DW. Operation of current limiting circuit-breakers. ECM Magazine,
December 1983.
Examines the design, operation, standards and ratings of current limiting moulded-case circuit-
breakers in relation to earlier fused applications.

COHEN, V. and SUTTON, G. Guide to the application of moulded-case circuit-breakers. Vector

Magazine, The Communications Group Technical Press Division, 1983/1984.
A protection guide that gives the fundamentals of low-voltage protection and methods of calculating
short-circuit currents.

HAFFERTY, J. Testing and listing of circuit-breakers in series. ECM Magazine, December 1983.
Investigates the requirements for the testing of current circuit-breakers, particularly when applied in a
series-connected arrangement.

JOHNSTON, F. Applying short-circuit ratings to service equipment. ECM Magazine, August 1983.
Reviews the nature of short-circuits to aid in an understanding of standard US requirements.

VDE 0636-21:1984, Low-voltage fuses – Part 21: NH system. Protection of cables and wiring up to
1 250 A and 500 V a.c. 440 V d.c. Also 660 V a.c.

VDE 0636-22:1984, Low-voltage fuses – Part 22: HRC fuses for electrical installations; Fuse ratings up
to 1 250 A 1 000 V a.c. Fuse applications types aM, gTR, gB.

VDE 0636-23:1984, Low voltage fuses – Part 23: LV HRC fuses for protection of semiconductors up
to 1 600 A and up to 3 000 V.

COHEN, V. Moulded-case breakers – selective co-ordination and system integrity. Elektron Magazine,
December 1984, January 1985, vol. 1, no. 12 and vol. 2, no.1.
Examines selective co-ordination in electric distribution systems in relation to current limiting and
cascading systems.

COHEN, V. Moulded-case circuit-breakers – specifications and testing. Vector Magazine,

December 1985.
Examines the requirements for moulded-case circuit-breakers and relates them to the differences in
test methods between South African, USA and IEC standards.

DYMER, EE. A review of interrupting current ratings for circuit-breakers. Electrical Engineer,
May 1985, p. 84.
Discusses the differences in standards governing the proper use of a circuit-breaker relative to short-
circuit and momentary ratings. Reviews the ratings of indoor oil-less circuit-breakers.

SABS IEC 60269-1:1986, Low-voltage fuses – Part 1: General requirements.

 This standard may only be used and printed by approved subscription and freemailing clients of the SABS.

NRS 034-1:2001 80

Bibliography
(continued)

NRS 039:1995, Guide for the application of gapless metal-oxide surge arresters in distribution
systems.

SABS 171:1986, Surge arresters for low voltage distribution systems.

COHEN, V. Current limiting and cascading – putting the record straight. Vector Magazine, The
Communications Group Technical Press Division, July 1990, p. 7-21.
Analyses the misconceptions of current limiting in low-voltage circuit protection and gives
recommendations for effective “cascaded” protection.

COHEN, V. Moulded-case circuit-breakers – motor starting application guide. Circuit-breaker

Industries, Johannesburg, August 1991.
Analyses the requirements for specifying moulded-case circuit-breakers with particular reference to
the protection of induction motors under direct-on-line starting conditions and gives recommendations.

COHEN, V. Circuit-breaker standards – a holistic approach. Vector Magazine, August 1992.

Compares SABS 156 and IEC 60947-2 and gives recommendations for harmonization.

COHEN, V. Computer-aided engineering as applied to the design and protection of low-voltage

cabling. Electron Magazine, February 1992.
Covers the development of a computer program that performs cable design and selection functions
and then selects the correct moulded-case circuit-breaker to protect that cable.

NRS 003-1:1994, Metal-clad switchgear – For rated a.c. voltages above 1 kV and up to and including
24 kV – Part 1: General requirements and methods of test.

IEC 60947-1:1996, Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear – Part 1: General rules.

IEC 60947-2:1995, Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear – Part 2: Circuit-breakers.

Gives general rules and requirements for low-voltage circuit protection and switching devices. Covers
low-voltage, circuit protection, switching devices, switchgear and controlgear.

SABS 152:1997, Low-voltage air-break switches, air-break disconnectors, air-break switch-disconnect-

ors, and fuse-combination units.

ANSI/UL standard 849, Moulded-case circuit-breakers and circuit-breaker enclosures.

Gives US standard requirements for moulded-case circuit-breakers.

Manually operated air-break switches. Published by Government Notice R1615 (GG 1264)
dd 1965-10-22. Amended by Government Notices R618 (GG 1430) dd 1966-04-22, R20 (GG 1630)
dd 1967-01-06 and R531 (GG 2034) dd 1968-04-05.

Moulded-case circuit-breakers. Published by Government Notice 2287 (GG 10987) dd 1987-10-16.

 This standard may only be used and printed by approved subscription and freemailing clients of the SABS.

81 NRS 034-1:2001

Bibliography
(continued)

E.10 Earthing and earth leakage protection

The question regarding the possibility of the dangers of electric current to human beings was raised by
experimenters who, in the eighteenth century, had already carried out tests with electrostatic
machines. Serious research on the physiological effects of electric current on living systems followed
after the first fatal electrical accidents had become known during the second half of the nineteenth
century. It was, however, not until the 1930s that clear goals were set in Germany for the
development of a successful technique for taking protective measures against electrical accidents.

The first extensive measurement of fibrillation thresholds in animals were carried out by an American
team in 1936. Growing interest in the subject resulted in much work being done in both the USA and
Austria during the 1950s, which was continued through the 1970s. This work contributed to our
understanding today of the effects of electric current on the human body.

The earliest forms of voltage-operated earth leakage relays, which were developed in the UK in the
1930s, have long since been discarded and replaced by current-sensing devices. The foundations for
earth leakage protection were to a large extent created in the South African underground mining
industry, where the need for protection against fatal shock hazards on the 525 V a.c. distribution
system was soon recognized. This resulted, in 1957, in South Africa’s developing the world’s first
people-protection device, soon followed by the publication of SABS 767, which was the world’s first
product standard covering earth leakage protection units.

In the next three decades, the importance of earth leakage protection circuit-breakers as the ideal
mechanism for protection against electrical shock and fire hazards was recognized internationally.

The following bibliography presents only a brief listing of references that are applicable to earth
leakage protection and to the effects of electric current on the human body.

Earth leakage protection units. Published by Government Notice 2286 (GG 10987) dd 1987-10-16.
Amended by Government Notice R1369 (GG 12542) dd 1990-06-22.

MIDDLECOTE, AA. Earth leakage. AMEU (Thirty-first Convention), Margate, May 1957.
Comprises an examination into earthing conditions in South Africa related to accidents and the
conclusion that current-operated earth leakage protection is needed.

ROBBINS, JA. International trends in earth leakage protection. Electrical Times, September/
October 1967.
Comprises an examination into standard requirements for current-operated earth leakage circuit-
breakers and the tendencies towards greater sensitivity.

DALZIEL, CF. Re-evaluation of lethal electric currents. IEEE Transactions, September/October 1968.
Gives a detailed analysis of the effects of low frequency electric currents on the human body.

FRIESLEBEN, KJ. and FITZGERALD, B.D. Electric shock – assessing the danger. Electrical Times,
December 1968.
Analyses the effects of electric currents on the human body, relating it to the establishment of a
maximum tripping current for earth leakage circuit-breakers in British standards.

JOOSTE, RK. Earth leakage protection in relation to human safety. The South African Engineer,
July 1971, vol. 62, no. 638, p. 44.
Examines the effects of electric currents on the human body in relation to practical aspects of sensitive
earth leakage protection in South Africa.
 This standard may only be used and printed by approved subscription and freemailing clients of the SABS.

NRS 034-1:2001 82

Bibliography
(continued)

DALZIEL, CF. Electrical shock hazard. IEE Spectrum, February 1972.

Summarizes the studies that determined the effective human body impedance under varying
conditions and the protective devices available.

ADAMS, KAH. Protection systems – hazards of shock in mines. SAIEE Transactions, April 1975.
Examines earthing conditions and requirements in South African underground mines and the related
hazards of earth faults.

CASTENSCHIOLD, P. Combining GFP and emergency power systems. ECM Magazine,

December 1976.
Examines ground fault protection applied to emergency power systems, while maintaining overall
electrical system reliability.

SABS 767-1:1982, Earth leakage protection units – Part 1: Fixed earth leakage protection circuit-
breakers.

COHEN, V. Effect of multiple neutral earthing on consumers’ installations. Vector Magazine, The
Communications Group Technical Press Division, August 1983, p. 24.
Examines the effects of double grounding faults on sensitive earth leakage protection devices, with
special reference to grounded systems.

COHEN, V. and SUTTON, G. Guide to the application of moulded-case circuit-breakers, Vector

Magazine, The Communications Group Technical Press Division, 1983/1984.
A protection guide that gives the fundamentals of low-voltage protection using moulded-case circuit-
breakers and earth leakage circuit-breakers.

IEC 60755:1983, General requirements for residual current-operated protective devices.

SABS 0199:1985, The design and installation of an earth electrode.

SABS 0200:1985, Neutral earthing in medium voltage industrial power systems.

SABS 1063:1985, Earth rods, couplers and clamps.

BIEGELMEIER, G. New knowledge on the impedance of the human body, 1985.

Reviews the history of body impedance studies and correlates it to earlier work.

NOVACK, T., MORLEY, LA. and TRUTT, FC. Sensitive ground fault relaying. IEEE Transactions of
Industry Applications, September/October 1988, vol. 24, no. 5.
Analyses current transformers and relaying systems that cover the concepts behind sensitive ground
fault relaying for use on low-voltage utilization systems.

IEC 61008-1:1996, Residual current operated circuit-breakers without integral overcurrent protection
for household and similar uses – Part 1: General rules.
Gives standard IEC requirements for residual current-operated circuit-breakers without overload
protection.

National Occupational Safety Association (NOSA), NOSADATA 2.23.01, Electricity – Protection for
safety. August 1990.
Indicates important protection principles and their applications.
 This standard may only be used and printed by approved subscription and freemailing clients of the SABS.

83 NRS 034-1:2001

Bibliography
(continued)

COHEN, V. Earth leakage circuit-breakers – use and check. National Occupational Safety Association
(NOSA), NOSADATA 2.22.01, July 1990.
Analyses the principles of earth leakage protection devices and the effects of earth fault currents on
humans.

IEC 60364-4-481:1993, Electrical installations of buildings, Chapter 48: Choice of protective measures
as a function of external influences – Section 481: Selection of measures for protection against electric
shock in relation to external influences.

HEYNS, H. CBI – a breeding ground for safety. Safety Management, February 1990.
Covers an interview regarding the use of earth leakage protection in homes.

IEC 61009-1:1996, Residual current operated circuit-breakers with integral overcurrent protection for
household and similar uses – Part 1: General rules.

South Africa – a pathfinder in earth leakage protection, Electron, January 1992.

Covers the historical development of earth leakage protection, with particular reference to the South
African contribution. Indicates the potential cost savings from relaxation of regulatory requirements in
an environment that requires good shock and fire hazard protection.

IEC 60479-1:1994, Effect of current on human beings and livestock – Part 1: General aspects.
Summarizes the effects of electric currents passing through the human body in relation to the electrical
impedance of the human body.

SABS 0292:1999, Earthing of low voltage (LV) distribution systems.

E.11 Street lighting

SABS 098-2:1973, Public lighting – Part 2: The lighting of certain specific areas of streets and
highways.

SABS 1277:1980, Streetlighting luminaires.

SABS 1279:1980, Floodlighting luminaires.

SABS 1421:1987, High-pressure mercury vapour lamps.

SABS 1459:1988, Traffic lights.

SABS 098-1:1990, Public lighting – Part 1: The lighting of public thoroughfares.

SABS 1777:1998, Photoelectric control units for lighting (PECUs).

E.12 Tariffs and metering

The most common method of collecting revenue for electricity sales is the “credit” method. This
system is well established and operates successfully, from the point of view of both the supply
authority and the consumer. The metering equipment required is inexpensive, long lasting, reliable
and accurate and the accounting system can be similarly uncomplicated and economical.

There are circumstances, however, where the credit system is unlikely to succeed because of
environmental, social and institutional factors, particularly in developing communities.
 This standard may only be used and printed by approved subscription and freemailing clients of the SABS.

NRS 034-1:2001 84

Bibliography
(concluded)

In circumstances where the credit system is likely to fail, or where the consumption is small or
inconsistent, some form of pre-payment system might provide an appropriate alternative.

HORLENT, A. New metering and reading techniques based on a modular design concept. CIRED
(Tenth International Conference on Electricity Distribution), Brighton, 1989, p. 455.

WOOLNER, L., HOWARD, RS. and DICK, AJ. Technical developments in metering in the United
Kingdom. CIRED (Tenth International Conference on Electricity Distribution), Brighton, 1989, p. 425.

WELCH, D. and SHWEHDI, MH. An energy reading and bill generation database for use in non-
intrusive load management. IEEE (Proceedings of 1991 IEEE Power Engineering Society),
Transmission and Distribution Conference, September 1991, p. 342.
Describes the Digital Telewattmeter System (DTS) software package that provides both consumer-
side load management and remote transmission of energy usage data for the utility.

IEC 61059:1991, Economic optimisation of power cable size.

SABS 1524-0:1997, Electricity dispensing systems – Part 0: Glossary of terms and system overview.

sabs pta