Part I: Overview of Data Communications and Networks

1.1 Data Communications

 Definition: Data communication is the exchange of data between two devices via a
transmission medium like a wire cable.
 Communication System: For data communication to occur, devices must be part of a
system combining hardware and software.
 Key Characteristics of an Effective System:
 Delivery: Data must reach the correct, intended destination.
 Accuracy: Data must be delivered without alteration; corrupted data is unusable.
 Timeliness: Data must arrive promptly; late data is useless. Real-time transmission,
for audio and video, means data is delivered as produced, in order, and without
significant delay.
 Jitter: This refers to the variation in packet arrival time, particularly uneven delays in
audio or video packet delivery, which can result in uneven quality.
 Components of Data Communication
 A data communication system consists of five main components:
 Message: The information to be communicated, such as text, numbers, pictures,
audio, or video.
 Sender: The device originating the data message (e.g., computer, workstation,
telephone handset, video camera).
 Receiver: The device receiving the message (e.g., computer, workstation, telephone
handset, television).
 Transmission Medium: The physical path connecting the sender and receiver (e.g.,
twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, radio waves).
 Protocol: A set of rules governing data communications, ensuring agreement between
communicating devices.
 Data Representation

Information is represented in various forms:

 Text: Represented as bit patterns (sequences of 0s or 1s).

 Coding: The process of representing symbols using different sets of bit patterns.
 Unicode: A prevalent 32-bit coding system representing symbols and characters from
any language. ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) forms the
first 127 characters of Unicode.
 Numbers: Directly converted to binary numbers for simplified mathematical operations,
not using codes like ASCII.
 Images: Composed of a matrix of pixels, where each pixel is assigned a bit pattern.
 Resolution determines pixel size and image quality; higher resolution means more
pixels and more memory.
 Bit pattern size depends on the image; a 1-bit pattern for black and white, or larger for
grayscale (e.g., 2-bit for four levels of gray scale).
 Color images can be represented by methods like RGB (Red, Green, Blue) or YCM
(Yellow, Cyan, Magenta).
  Audio: Continuous in nature, referring to the recording or broadcasting of sound or
music.
 Video: Refers to the recording or broadcasting of pictures or movies, which can be
continuous or a combination of discrete images to convey motion.

1.1.3 Data Flow

 Communication between devices can occur in three modes:

 Simplex: Unidirectional communication, where one device transmits and the other
only receives (e.g., keyboard input to computer, traditional monitor output).

Diagram:

 Half-Duplex: Each station can transmit and receive, but not simultaneously. It's like a
one-lane road where traffic flows in one direction at a time. The entire channel capacity
is used by whichever device is transmitting. Examples include walkie-talkies and CB
radios. This mode is used when simultaneous communication isn't needed.

 Full-Duplex: Both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. This is similar to
a two-way street with traffic flowing in both directions at once. Signals share the link's
capacity, either through two separate physical paths or by dividing the channel
capacity. A common example is a telephone network where both parties can talk and
listen at the same time. It's used when continuous bidirectional communication is
required, with the channel capacity divided.

1.2 Networks

 Definition: A network is an interconnection of devices capable of communication.

  Devices: Can be hosts (end systems) like computers, cellular phones, or security
systems, or connecting devices like routers, switches, and modems.

 Connection: Devices are connected via wired or wireless transmission media (e.g.,
cable, air). Even connecting two home computers with a router creates a small
network.

1.2.1 Network Criteria

Networks must meet certain criteria, primarily:

 Performance: Measured by transit time (time for a message to travel) and response
time (time between inquiry and response). Performance is influenced by the number
of users, transmission medium type, hardware capabilities, and software efficiency.
Throughput (more data) and delay (less delay) are often contradictory metrics.

 Reliability: Assessed by failure frequency, recovery time from failures, and robustness
during catastrophes.

 Security: Involves protecting data from unauthorized access, damage, development,

and implementing recovery policies and procedures for breaches and data loss.

1.2.2 Physical Structures

 Type of Connection:

 Link: A communication pathway transferring data between devices.

 Point-to-Point: A dedicated link between two devices, with the entire capacity
reserved for their transmission. This can involve physical wires, microwave, or satellite
links. An infrared remote control to a TV is an example.

 Multipoint (Multidrop): More than two devices share a single link. The channel
capacity is shared either spatially (multiple devices simultaneously) or temporally
(users take turns).
 Diagram:

 Physical Topology: Refers to the physical layout of a network. Two or more links
form a topology. It's the geometric representation of the relationship between links and
nodes (linking devices).

 Mesh Topology: Every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other
device.

 Number of Links: For n nodes, a fully connected mesh network requires n(n-1)/2
duplex-mode links. Each device needs n-1 I/O ports.

 Advantages: Dedicated links eliminate traffic problems, robust (one link failure doesn't
incapacitate the system), offers privacy/security (messages travel dedicated lines),
and simplifies fault identification and isolation.

 Disadvantages: Requires extensive cabling and I/O ports, making installation and
reconfiguration difficult. The sheer volume of wiring can be prohibitive.

Usage: Typically implemented in a limited fashion, such as a backbone connecting

main computers in a hybrid network. An example is connecting telephone regional
offices.
 Diagram:

 Star Topology: Each device connects via a dedicated point-to-point link to a central
controller (hub). Devices don't link directly to each other; the hub relays data.

 Advantages: Less expensive than mesh, each device needs only one link/port easy
to install and reconfigure], robust (single link failure only affects that link), and facilitates
fault identification/isolation.

 Disadvantages: Entire system depends on the hub; if the hub fails, the whole system
is down. [cite_start]Can require more cabling than ring or bus topologies due to direct
links to the central hub.

 Usage: Common in Local Area Networks (LANs).

Diagram:

 Bus Topology: A multipoint connection where a single long cable acts as a backbone
linking all devices.

 Components: Nodes connect via drop lines (connection from device to main cable)
and taps (connectors that splice into or puncture the cable).

 Signal Degradation: Signals weaken as they travel due to energy transformation into
heat. This limits the number and distance of taps.
 Advantages: Easy installation, uses less cabling than mesh or star topologies as only
the backbone cable spans the entire facility.

 Disadvantages: Difficult to add new devices after optimal installation. Signal reflection
at taps can degrade quality. A fault or break in the bus cable stops all
transmission,creating noise in both directions.

 Usage: One of the first topologies for early LANs, but less popular now.

Diagram:

 Ring Topology: Each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only its
two immediate neighbors. Signals pass in one direction around the ring until they reach
their destination. Each device includes a repeater to regenerate and pass along
signals.
 Advantages: Relatively easy to install and reconfigure (only two connections change
for additions/deletions). Simplifies fault isolation; a device not receiving a signal can
issue an alarm indicating the problem location.

 Disadvantages: Unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage.A single break or

disabled station can disable the entire network. This can be mitigated with a dual ring
or a switch to close off the break.

 Usage: Prevalent with IBM's Token Ring LAN, but less popular today due to the need
for higher-speed LANs.

Diagram:
 1.3 Network Types

 Networks are distinguished by criteria such as size, geographical coverage, and

ownership.

 1.3.1 Local Area Network (LAN)

 Characteristics: Usually privately owned and connects hosts within a single office,
building, or campus. Can range from two PCs and a printer to a company-wide network
including audio/video devices. Each host has a unique identifier/address within the
LAN.

Evolution:

 Past: Hosts connected via a common cable; all hosts received packets, with only the
intended recipient keeping it.

 Today: Most LANs use a smart connecting switch that recognizes the destination
address and directs the packet only to its intended recipient, reducing traffic and
allowing multiple simultaneous communications.

 Purpose: Originally designed for resource sharing between hosts.

 Current Usage: LANs are rarely isolated now; they connect to each other and to
WANs for wider communication.

Diagram:
 1.3.2 Wide Area Network (WAN)

 Characteristics: Has a wider geographical span than a LAN, covering a town, state,
country, or the world. WANs interconnect connecting devices (switches, routers,
modems), while LANs interconnect hosts.WANs are typically created and run by
communication companies and leased by organizations.
Types of WANs:

 Point-to-Point WAN: Connects two communicating devices via a transmission

medium.

Diagram:

 Switched WAN: A network with more than two ends, used in the backbone of global
communication.It's a combination of several point-to-point WANs connected by
switches.

Diagram:
 Internetwork

 Definition: When two or more networks are connected, they form an internetwork, or
internet (lowercase 'i').

 Example: An organization with two LANs (east and west coast offices) connected by
a leased point-to-point WAN forms a private internet, enabling inter-office
communication.

 Packet Routing: Within the same office, a router blocks messages for hosts outside
the LAN, and a switch directs them locally.For cross-office communication, routers
route packets between LANs via the WAN.

 Heterogeneous Network Example: An internet can consist of various LANs and

WANs, including switched WANs.

Diagram:

1.3.3 Switching

 An internet is a switched network where a switch connects at least two links. Switches
forward data between networks. The two main types of switched networks are circuit-
switched and packet-switched.

Circuit-Switched Network:
 Mechanism: A dedicated connection (circuit) is always available between two end
systems; the switch activates or deactivates it.
 Example (Telephones): In a network connecting telephones, a high-capacity line can
handle multiple simultaneous voice communications.
 Efficiency: Efficient only when working at full capacity, often inefficient due to partial
capacity usage. Capacity is made high to prevent communication failure when all lines
are busy.

Diagram:

Packet-Switched Network:

 Mechanism: Communication occurs in blocks of data called packets. [cite_start]Unlike

continuous communication, data packets are exchanged individually.
 Routers: Routers have queues to store and forward packets.
 Efficiency: More efficient than circuit-switched networks.
 Delays: Packets may experience delays if the thick line is at full capacity, as they are
stored and forwarded in arrival order.
 Usage: Mostly discussed in this book, with more details in Chapter 18.

Diagram:

1.3.4 The Internet

 Definition: The Internet (uppercase 'I') is the most notable internet (lowercase 'i'),
composed of thousands of interconnected networks.
 Structure: Conceptually consists of backbones, provider networks, and customer
networks.
 Backbones: Large networks owned by communication companies (e.g., Sprint,
Verizon, AT&T, NTT), connected via complex switching systems called peering points.
Also known as international ISPs.
 Provider Networks: Smaller networks that use backbone services for a fee.
Connected to backbones and sometimes other provider networks. Also known as
national or regional ISPs.
 Customer Networks: Networks at the edge of the Internet that consume services
provided by the Internet, paying fees to provider networks.

Diagram:
 1.3.5 Accessing the Internet

 Users connect to the Internet by physically connecting to an Internet Service Provider

(ISP), typically via a point-to-point WAN.
 Using Telephone Networks: Residences and small businesses can convert their
voice lines to point-to-point WANs to connect to the Internet, as telephone networks
are often connected to the Internet.
 Dial-up service: Uses a modem to convert data to voice, mimicking a telephone
connection. It is very slow and the line cannot be used for voice while connected to the
Internet, suitable only for small residences.
 DSL Service: Telephone companies have upgraded lines for higher-speed Internet
serviceDSL allows simultaneous voice and data communication over the same line.
 Using Cable Networks: Cable TV service providers have upgraded their networks
and connected to the Internet, offering higher-speed connections, though speed can
vary based on the number of neighbors using the same cable.
 Using Wireless Networks: Increasingly popular, offering a combination of wireless
and wired connections to access the Internet, including wireless WAN access for
households and small businesses.
 Direct Connection to the Internet: Large organizations or corporations can become
local ISPs by leasing a high-speed WAN from a carrier provider and connecting to a
regional ISP.For instance, a large university can create an internetwork and then
connect it to the Internet.
 Part II: Introduction to Data Communications

 Protocol Layering (scenarios, principles, logical connections)

 TCP/IP Protocol Suite (layered architecture, logical connections, data units,
description of each layer)
 Addressing (physical, logical, port, specific)
 Standards (importance, types, organizations, forums, regulatory agencies)

2.1 Protocol Layering

 A protocol defines rules for effective communication between sender, receiver, and
intermediate devices.
 For complex communication, tasks are divided into layers, with a protocol at each
layer, known as protocol layering.

2.1.1 Scenarios

First Scenario: Single-Layer Protocol

 Simple communication can occur in one layer, e.g., Maria and Ann talking face-to-
face.
 Even in this simple scenario, rules are followed: greeting, appropriate vocabulary, not
interrupting, having a dialogue, and exchanging farewells.
 This differs from a formal lecture where communication is mostly a monologue, with
specific rules for student questions (e.g., raising hand).

Diagram:

Second Scenario: Three-Layer Protocol

 When communication is complex, such as Maria and Ann communicating via mail over
a distance and needing privacy, layering is introduced.
 They agree on an encryption/decryption technique to protect their ideas.
 Communication happens in three layers, with each friend having "machines" (or
robots) for each layer.
Diagram:

Maria's Side (Sender):

 Layer 3 (Listen/Talk): Maria talks to the Layer 3 machine, which creates the plaintext
(the original letter in English).
 Layer 2 (Encrypt/Decrypt): The Layer 2 machine encrypts the plaintext to create
ciphertext.
 Layer 1 (Send mail/receive mail): The Layer 1 machine puts the ciphertext in an
envelope, adds addresses, and mails it.
Ann's Side (Receiver):

 Layer 1: Picks up the mail, recognizes Maria's address, and takes out the ciphertext.
 Layer 2: Decrypts the ciphertext to create the plaintext.
 Layer 3: Reads the plaintext as if Maria is speaking.

Advantages of Protocol Layering:

 Modularity: Divides complex tasks into smaller, simpler ones.]If a change is needed
(e.g., better encryption), only that specific layer's "machine" needs to be changed, not
the entire system. A layer acts as a "black box" with defined inputs/outputs, allowing
for independent implementation or replacement.

 Separation of Services from Implementation: A layer provides services to the upper

layer and receives services from the lower layer, without concern for how it's
implemented. For instance, Maria could manually perform Layer 1 tasks instead of
using a machine.
 Efficiency for Intermediate Systems: In networks like the Internet, intermediate
systems (e.g., routers) only need certain layers, not all. Layering prevents making
every intermediate system as complex and expensive as end systems.

 Disadvantage of Protocol Layering (Potential):

 One could argue that a single layer might be simpler. However, if an issue arises (e.g.,
code broken), the entire single "machine" would need replacement instead of just one
layer.

2.1.2 Principles of Protocol Layering

 First Principle (Bidirectional Communication): Each layer must perform two opposite
tasks, one for each direction of communication.
 Layer 3: Listen and Talk.
 Layer 2: Encrypt and Decrypt.
 Layer 1: Send and Receive mail.
 Second Principle (Identical Objects): The objects "under" each corresponding layer at
both communicating sites must be identical.
 Under Layer 3: Plaintext letter.
 Under Layer 2: Ciphertext letter.
 Under Layer 1: Piece of mail.

2.1.3 Logical Connections

 Following these principles, a logical (imaginary) connection exists between identical

layers at different sites.
 This concept helps in understanding the tasks of layering in data communication and
networking.

 Diagram:
 2.2 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

 TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is a protocol suite (set of

layered protocols) used in the Internet today.
 It is hierarchical, meaning upper-level protocols rely on services from lower-level
protocols.
 ]Originally, TCP/IP had four software layers built on hardware; today, it is typically
considered a five-layer model.

2.2.1 Layered Architecture

 To illustrate, consider communication between two hosts (A and B) in a small internet

with three LANs (links) and one router.
 Communicating Devices: Source host (A), link-layer switch in link 1, router, link-layer
switch in link 2, and destination host (B).
 Host Involvement: Both source and destination hosts are involved in all five layers:
source creates message in application layer down to physical, destination receives at
physical layer up to application.
 Router Involvement: Routers are involved in only three layers: Network, Data Link,
and Physical. They handle different link-layer and physical-layer protocols for each
connected link.
 Link-Layer Switch Involvement: Switches are involved in only two layers: Data Link
and Physical.They operate within a single link, using one set of protocols.

Diagram:
2.2.2 Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite (Logical Connections and Data Units)

Logical Connections:

 End-to-End Duty: Application, Transport, and Network layers have end-to-end

communication (between hosts).
 Hop-to-Hop Duty: Data-link and Physical layers have hop-to-hop communication,
where a "hop" is a host or router.
 The domain of the top three layers is the internet, while the lower two layers operate
within a link.

Data Units (Packets):

  Top Three Layers (Application, Transport, Network): Data units (packets) generally
should not be changed by routers or link-layer switches.
 Bottom Two Layers (Data Link, Physical): The packet created by the host is changed
only by routers, not by link-layer switches.
 Identical Objects: The principle of identical objects applies at each layer.
 Application Layer: Identical messages.
 Transport Layer: Identical segments or user datagrams.
 Network Layer: Identical datagrams (though fragmentation by routers can occur).
 Data Link Layer: Identical frames.
 Physical Layer: Identical bits (though carried as signals).

Diagram:

2.2.3 Description of Each Layer

Physical Layer:

 Responsible for carrying individual bits across a link.

 Connects two devices via a transmission medium (cable or air).
 Logically, it handles bits, but the medium physically carries electrical or optical signals.

Data-Link Layer:

 Responsible for moving a datagram across a single link (e.g., wired LAN, wireless
LAN, wired WAN, wireless WAN).
 Encapsulates a datagram into a frame.
 TCP/IP supports all standard and proprietary link-layer protocols.
 Some protocols offer complete error detection and correction, while others offer only
error correction.

Network Layer:

 Responsible for creating a connection between the source and destination computers
(host-to-host communication).
 Routers in the path are responsible for choosing the best route for each packet.
 This layer is separate from the transport layer due to the principle of separating tasks
and because intermediate systems (routers) only need this layer, not higher ones.

Transport Layer:

 Responsible for process-to-process communication. A "process" is an application

program running on a host.

TCP/IP Suite Protocols:

 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): A reliable, connection-oriented protocol that

handles flow control, error control, and congestion control. It ensures data is delivered
reliably, in order, and without duplication.
 User Datagram Protocol (UDP): A simpler, connectionless protocol that does not offer
flow, error, or congestion control. It is used when reliability is handled by the application
layer or is not critical.
 Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP): A newer protocol (introduced later
than TCP/UDP) that combines features of both TCP and UDP, providing reliable,
message-oriented transmission with multihoming and multi-streaming capabilities.
 Application Layer:

 Responsible for providing services to the user.

 This is where user applications interact with the network.

Common Protocols:

 HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP): Used for web Browse.

 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP): Used for email.
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP): Used for file transfer.
 Domain Name System (DNS): Used to translate domain names into IP addresses.
 Telnet: Used for remote terminal access.

2.3 Addressing

 Every device on the Internet has at least one address. There are four levels of
addresses in the TCP/IP protocol suite: physical (link) address, logical (IP) address,
port address, and specific address.

Diagram:

2.3.1 Physical Addresses

 Also known as link addresses.

 Used by the data-link layer to identify a device on a link.
 Scope: Changes from hop to hop (link to link).
 Example (LAN with a router):
 Host A needs to send data to Host B.
  Host A's physical address (PA1) and Router's physical address (PA3) are used on the
first link.
 When the frame reaches the router, the physical addresses are stripped, and new
physical addresses (Router's PA4 and Host B's PA5) are used for the next link.

Note: The physical address identifies the connection of a host or router to a link.

2.3.2 Logical Addresses

 Also known as IP addresses.

 Used by the network layer to identify the global address of a host.
 Scope: Stays the same from source host to destination host.
 Example:
 Host A (IP: LA1) wants to send data to Host B (IP: LA2).
 The IP addresses LA1 and LA2 remain in the datagram header as it travels through
the network, regardless of the physical links it traverses.

Note: A logical address (IP address) defines the connection of a host to the internet.

2.3.3 Port Addresses

 Used by the transport layer to identify a specific process (application program) on a

host.
 Necessity: A host can run multiple processes simultaneously. When a message arrives
at a host, the transport layer needs to know which process should receive it.
 Example:
 Host A (IP: LA1) has a process (P1) sending data to Host B (IP: LA2) running process
(P2).
 Port addresses (PA1 for P1, PA2 for P2) are added to the packet header by the
transport layer.

Note: A port address identifies a specific process on a host.

2.3.4 Specific Addresses

 Used by the application layer to identify specific data items or services.

 Examples:
 Email Address: Identifies an email mailbox (e.g., [email protected]).
 Uniform Resource Locator (URL): Identifies a web page (e.g.,
www.mhhe.com/forouzan).
  Mapping: Specific addresses are mapped to port addresses, which are then mapped
to logical addresses, which are finally mapped to physical addresses. This hierarchical
mapping is crucial for data delivery.

Note: A specific address identifies a specific application program or service.

Part II: Introduction to Data Communications (Continued)

This section provides a foundational understanding of data communications, network

characteristics, components, data representation, and data flow. It then delves into network
types, physical structures, and a brief history of the Internet.

1.5 Standards

Importance: Standards are crucial in data communications to ensure interoperability between

different equipment manufacturers and service providers. They allow different systems to
communicate seamlessly.

Definition: Standards are guidelines that specify the procedures and rules for communication.

Types of Standards:

De facto: "By fact" or "by convention." These standards have not been officially approved by
an organized body but have been widely adopted due to their widespread use or historical
precedence. An example is the TCP/IP protocol suite, which was initially a de facto standard
before becoming formalized.

De jure: "By law" or "by regulation." These standards are legally enforced or have been
officially approved by an authorized standards organization.

1.5.1 Standards Organizations

Several organizations are involved in developing and promoting standards for data
communications:

 International Organization for Standardization (ISO):

 Focus: A multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on international
standards. It produces standards covering a wide range of fields, including those
relevant to networking.
 Not a governmental organization: It is a voluntary, non-governmental organization.
 Relationship to OSI Model: One of its most well-known contributions in networking is
the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model, a conceptual framework
for network communication.
 International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication Standardization Sector
(ITU-T):
 Focus: An agency of the United Nations (UN) that develops international standards in
telecommunications.
  Historical Context: Formerly known as the CCITT (Consultative Committee for
International Telegraph and Telephone).

Areas of Work: Creates standards for telephone and data communication, covering areas
like modulation, multiplexing, and network interfaces.

American National Standards Institute (ANSI):

 Focus: A non-profit organization that coordinates the development of voluntary

consensus standards in the United States.
 Role: Acts as a liaison between U.S. national standards and international standards,
ensuring U.S. participation in global standardization efforts.
 Does not create standards: It facilitates the creation of standards by other
organizations, rather than developing them itself.
 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE):
 Focus: The largest professional association for advancing technology.
 Contributions: Best known for its LAN standards, particularly the 802 series of
standards, which include widely used technologies like Ethernet (802.3) and Wi-Fi
(802.11). These standards define specifications for physical and data link layers.
 Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA):
 Focus: An association of electronics manufacturers in the U.S.
 Contributions: Known for its standards related to physical connectivity, such as the
RS-232 standard for serial communication. These standards define the electrical and
mechanical characteristics of interfaces.

1.5.2 Forums

 Role: Forums are independent organizations separate from standards organizations.

They are created to test, evaluate, and accelerate the acceptance and use of new
technologies and standards.
 Collaboration: Forums collaborate with standards organizations to help implement
standards.
 Example: The Gigabit Ethernet Alliance worked to promote the adoption of Gigabit
Ethernet technology, which was standardized by IEEE.

1.5.3 Regulatory Agencies

 Role: Governmental agencies that regulate communication to protect public interest,

often in conjunction with standards organizations.
 Examples:
 Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in the U.S.: Regulates interstate and
international communications by radio, television, wire, satellite, and cable. It sets
rules for spectrum allocation, licensing, and equipment approval.
 Other countries have their own regulatory bodies (e.g., TRAI in India, Ofcom in the
UK).
2.3 THE OSI MODEL

 Although, when speaking of the Internet, everyone talks about the TCP/IP protocol
 suite, this suite is not the only suite of protocols defined.

 International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is a multinational body

dedicated to worldwide agreement on international standards. Almost three-fourths of
the countries in the world are represented in the ISO. An ISO standard that covers all
aspects of network communications is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.

 An open system is a set of protocols that allows any two different systems to com-
municate regardless of their underlying architecture.

 The purpose of the OSI model is to show how to facilitate communication between
different systems without requiring changes to the logic of the underlying hardware
and software.

 The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network systems that allows
communication between all types of computer systems.

 It consists of seven separate but related layers, each of which defines a part of the
process of moving informationacross a network (see Figure 2.11).

Conclusion
 This overview of data communications and networks provides the foundational
knowledge for understanding more complex topics in networking. It has covered the
basic concepts of data communication, network components, data flow types, network
criteria, physical topologies, different types of networks (LAN, WAN, internet), and the
importance of standards and the organizations that create them. The TCP/IP protocol
suite, with its layered architecture and addressing scheme, serves as the fundamental
model for Internet communication.