1.

Basic Networking Concepts

 What is an IP address (IPv4, IPv6)?

 Subne ng and CIDR nota on (e.g. /24, /16)

 Private vs Public IP addresses

 MAC address vs IP address

 DNS – what it is and how it works

 DHCP – automa c IP assignment

 NAT (Network Address Transla on)

2. Common Protocols (just basic understanding)

 HTTP/HTTPS

 TCP/IP vs UDP

 ICMP (ping)

 SSH

3. Firewalls and Security Groups

 What is a firewall?

 What are inbound/outbound rules?

 How AWS/GCP/Azure security groups work

4. Cloud Networking Basics

 VPC (Virtual Private Cloud): what it is and why it's used

 Subnets (public and private)

 Internet Gateway vs NAT Gateway

 Route Tables: how cloud traffic is routed

 Load Balancers (ELB/ALB in AWS)

 VPN and Direct Connect (basic overview only)

5. Tools and Troubleshoo ng

 How to use ping, traceroute, nslookup, curl, telnet or nc

 Basics of checking open ports and connec vity issues

Computer Networking:

 Difference between router, switch.

 What is a Broadcast Domain?

 DNS – detailed explana on.

 TCP/UDP and why?

 MSS/MTU

 OSI model with complete details and protocols on each layer.

 TCP and SSL handshake

 Flow/error control

 What is a firewall, why do you need it?

======================================================================

3. What is APIPA?

7. Role of the Router in the separa on of Broadcast Domains.

9. What happens if we type www.amazon.com. This me, the interview went into depth about the
process of ques oning various aspects.

10. What are ports and port numbers?

11. Do different tabs making queries in the browser use different port numbers?

12. TCP handshake in detail.

13. Problem on Sequence numbers and Acknowledgement numbers.

14. What is SSL. Explain about Digital Cer ficates and TLS Handshake.

15. Problem on IP Addressing at the sender, gateway and des na on.

17. How do we check IP address and Gateway and DNS Server addresses of our device.

Interview-II(Networking):

 What are VPNs we can connect to any private server using a VPN?

 Explain in OSI model in detail. What is recursive call in OSI?

 How you will fix the SSH server not responding from the user's side with a Linux command.

 Use of Traceroute & Nslookup command.

 3-way handshake in detail.

  What happens in background when I write www.amazon.com on my web browser and hit enter? (Ans.
Complete process star ng from how IP address request is sent from browser to OS to the DNS resolver
and further, and how IP address is sent back to browser; a er which the three-way-handshake
procedure to establish TCP connec on, and then how a request and response is generated followed by
interpreta on of HTML and Javascript along with
images/sounds. h ps://medium.com/@maneesha.wijesinghe1/what-happens-when-you-type-an-url-
in-the-browser-and-press-enter-bb0aa2449c1a)

 What are few methods of HTTP

 what is HTTPs, is the port number different for HTTPs,

 how is SSL related to HTTPs,

 explain SSL handshake?

 How is a hub, a router, and a switch different from each other? Explain in terms of broadcast domain.

 explain what is MTU and compare and contrast MSS and MTU together.

 Explain in depth what is TCP and UDP. Compare and contrast both of them.

 What methods are available to us in flow control and error detec on/correc on?

3rd round: Interview round 2

This is a computer networking round and ques ons on networks were put.

 What is APIPA?

 Which messages are Broadcast and Unicast in DORA? Why?

 Different types of IP Address alloca ons in DHCP.

 Will my computer get the same IP address allocated every me?

 Role of the Router in the Separa on of Broadcast Domains.

 DNS Query Process.

 What are ports and port numbers?

 Do different tabs making queries in the browser use different port numbers?

 TCP handshake in detail.

 Problem with Sequence numbers and Acknowledgement numbers.

 What is SSL? Explain Digital Cer ficates and TLS Handshake.

 Problem on IP Addressing at the sender, gateway, and des na on.

 Packet Tracing.

 How do we check the IP address Gateway and DNS Server addresses of our device?

 how do your check if your internet is working right,

 he asking me TCP/IP layer protocols (in depth),

 OS (boot process) and trouble shoo ng process i would follow if the boot doesnt happen properly .

 He then asked me about DHCP and other protocol .Know everything about troubleshoo ng process

 Detailed 3 way Handshaking,

 Detailed working of DNS,

 Detailed working of other applica on layer protocols, FTP, SMTP etc .

 Different types of firewall,

 how it can used to block various ac vi es

 How do you connect to Wifi ?

 DNS — recursive and itera ve method

 Internet not working, troubleshoot this.

 VPN and Proxy

 What video streaming uses UDP or TCP, why?

 CName and AName in DNS.

 What is APIPA (Automa c Private IP Addressing)?

 Describe the DHCP process and explain DORA (Discover, Offer, Request, Acknowledge) in detail.
 1. Explain DHCP in detail with the DORA process.

 DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) is a network protocol used to automatically assign
IP addresses and other network configuration parameters ((like subnet mask, DNS server, and default
gateway) to devices on a network.
 Without DHCP, every device (laptop, phone, printer) would need to be configured manually with these
settings — which is tedious and error-prone, especially in large networks.

What is the DORA Process?

The DORA process is how DHCP works behind the scenes or how the DHCP protocol assigns IP addresses. It
has 4 steps. It stands for:

Discover → Offer → Request → Acknowledge

Let’s walk through each step in detail:

1. D = Discover (DHCP Discover)

 The client (like a laptop or phone) sends out a broadcast message:

o "I need an IP address!"
 Since it doesn't have an IP yet, it uses:
o Source IP: 0.0.0.0
o Destination IP: 255.255.255.255 (broadcast to all devices)
 This message is sent on UDP port 67 (server listens here)

Think of it like shouting in a room:

"Is there a DHCP server out there who can help me?"

2. O = Offer (DHCP Offer)

 One or more DHCP servers on the network respond with a DHCP Offer:
o “Hey client, I can offer you IP 192.168.1.50”
o It also includes: subnet mask, gateway, DNS, lease time, etc.
 Sent from DHCP server’s IP to the client (still via broadcast initially)

Like a server saying:

"Yes! I can give you this IP address and other settings."

3. R = Request (DHCP Request)

 The client chooses one offer (if multiple), and responds:

 o “I’d like to accept the IP 192.168.1.50 from you.”
 This is again a broadcast, to let all other DHCP servers know:
o "I’ve accepted this offer. You can all back off."

Think of it as the client saying:

"Thanks! I want this IP. Please reserve it for me."

4. A = Acknowledge (DHCP ACK)

 The DHCP server responds with an ACK:

o Confirms the IP lease and finalizes the configuration
 The client now configures itself with the IP, gateway, DNS, etc.

Like the server saying:

"Confirmed. The IP is now yours for the lease duration."

Diagram (Text-Based)

Client DHCP Server

| --------- DHCP Discover ---------> |

| <---------- DHCP Offer ------------ |

| --------- DHCP Request -----------> |

| <---------- DHCP ACK -------------- |

Lease Time

 The IP is not forever—DHCP leases it for a limited time (e.g., 24 hours)

 The client must renew it periodically (usually halfway through the lease)

DHCP Ports: Client and Server

In the DHCP protocol, communication happens over UDP (User Datagram Protocol) — not TCP.
Here are the ports:

Port
Role Direction Description
Number
Client From Client → Used by the DHCP client (your device) to receive
UDP 68
Port Server messages
Server From Server → Used by the DHCP server to listen for requests and send
UDP 67
Port Client replies

Bonus: DHCP Options

 DHCP can also provide:

o DNS server IPs
o Domain names
o Boot server info (for PXE booting)

Why DHCP and DORA Matter

 Without DHCP, you'd have to manually type IPs every time you changed Wi-Fi networks.
 It ensures no IP conflicts (two devices using the same IP).
 Makes managing large networks (like universities, airports, cloud data centers) fast and automatic.

Cloud/IT Job Use Case

You're a cloud engineer deploying 10 virtual machines (VMs) in AWS or Azure.

 Each VM needs an IP to talk to the internet and each other.

 AWS has built-in DHCP that uses DORA behind the scenes to assign private IPs in a VPC.
 You don’t configure this manually — but you must understand it to troubleshoot networking issues or
configure static IPs.

Summary (Easy to Remember)

Step Role Mnemonic
Discover Client → Server "I need IP"
Offer Server → Client "Here's IP"
Request Client → Server "Can I use it?"
Acknowledge Server → Client "It's yours"
Communica on Flow in DORA with Ports

Step Who Sends From (Port) To (Port) Direc on

Discover Client UDP 68 UDP 67 Client → Server

Offer Server UDP 67 UDP 68 Server → Client

Request Client UDP 68 UDP 67 Client → Server

Acknowledge Server UDP 67 UDP 68 Server → Client

Why These Ports?

 Port 67 (Server) is well-known and fixed — DHCP servers listen on this port for incoming requests.

 Port 68 (Client) is also standardized — clients listen on it to receive server replies.

Real Example

When your laptop connects to a network:

1. It sends a DHCP Discover packet from:

o Source Port: UDP 68

o Des na on Port: UDP 67

2. The DHCP server replies with an Offer from:

o Source Port: UDP 67

o Des na on Port: UDP 68

Easy Way to Remember

Client listens on Port 68

Server listens on Port 67

Client → Server = 68 → 67
Server → Client = 67 → 68
 1. Different types of IP Address alloca ons in DHCP.

When a DHCP server assigns IP addresses to clients, it can do it in different ways, depending on how the
network administrator configures it.

5 Types of IP Address Alloca on in DHCP

1. Dynamic Alloca on (Most Common)

 The DHCP server automa cally assigns an available IP address from a pool (called a scope).

 The IP is leased for a limited me (e.g., 24 hours).

 The next me the device connects, it might get a different IP.

Example:
Your phone connects to your home Wi-Fi and gets 192.168.0.101. Next week, it might get .102.

Use Case: Offices, home networks, or cafés with many temporary users.

2. Sta c Alloca on (Manual or MAC Binding)

 The DHCP server assigns an IP based on the MAC address of the device.

 You configure it to always give the same IP to that specific MAC.

Example:
The DHCP server is told:

“If device with MAC AA:BB:CC:DD:EE:FF connects, always give 192.168.0.10.”

Use Case: Printers, routers, servers — devices that need a fixed IP but s ll want DHCP convenience.

3. Automa c Alloca on

 The DHCP server assigns an IP address permanently from the pool.

 It remembers which IP it gave to which device and always gives the same one again, even a er reboot.

 No need to configure MAC bindings manually.

Use Case: Small networks where devices stay consistent (e.g., small offices).

Think of it like a so sta c IP: automa c, but stable.

4. Manual IP (Outside DHCP, Not True DHCP Alloca on)

 The device is configured with a sta c IP manually, not through DHCP at all.

 This is not DHCP, but you o en do this alongside DHCP to avoid conflicts.

Use Case: Network equipment, DNS servers, or firewalls.

You manually set 192.168.1.10 on a server and exclude it from the DHCP pool.

5. DHCP Relay (Not Alloca on, But Related)

 A relay agent forwards DHCP requests from clients on one network/subnet to a DHCP server on
another network.

 It’s not a type of alloca on, but affects how alloca on happens across subnets.

Use Case: Large enterprise or cloud networks where there's only one centralized DHCP server.

Summary Table

Type Behavior Use Case

Dynamic Alloca on Temporary IP from pool Most common (e.g. phones, laptops)

Sta c Alloca on Fixed IP via MAC address Printers, servers

Automa c Alloca on First IP remembered permanently Small, consistent networks

Manual IP Manually assigned on device Firewalls, routers

DHCP Relay Forwards requests to DHCP server Cross-subnet networks

2. Which messages are Broadcast and Unicast in DORA? Why?

Broadcast:

 Sent to all devices on the network (255.255.255.255)

 Used when the client does not know the server's IP or doesn’t have its own IP yet

Unicast:

 Sent directly to a specific device (e.g., to a specific MAC or IP)

 Used a er the client gets an IP and communica on is direct

Step Message Name Direc on Type Why?

The client has no IP address, so it sends a

Client →
DHCP Discover Broadcast broadcast (255.255.255.255) to find any
Server
available DHCP server.

Since the client may s ll not have an IP,

Server → Broadcast server o en broadcasts. If the client
DHCP Offer
Client (or Unicast*) supports it, server may unicast to MAC
address.

Client broadcasts to let all DHCP servers

Client →
DHCP Request Broadcast know it accepted an offer (so others can
Server
stop offering).

DHCP Server now knows the client's IP/MAC, so

Server → Unicast
Acknowledgment it can safely unicast the ACK directly to the
Client (usually)
(ACK) client.

Message Think Like This Type

Discover “Who can help me?” (shou ng) Broadcast

Offer “I can help you!” (shou ng back) Broadcast or Unicast

Request “I choose this one!” (shou ng again) Broadcast

Acknowledge “Confirmed, it’s yours” (quietly) Unicast

What does "shou ng" mean in networking?

 Broadcast messages are sent to every device on the local network (like shou ng in a room where
everyone can hear you).

 This is because the sender doesn't know exactly who should get the message — so it sends it to
everyone.

 Devices that aren't interested ignore it, and the intended recipient (like the DHCP server or client)
responds.

So:

 Broadcast = Shou ng → Sending a message to all devices in the network.

  Unicast = Talking quietly to one person → Sending a message directly to a specific device.

In the DHCP DORA context:

 When your computer doesn’t have an IP yet, it “shouts” (broadcasts) asking “Is there a DHCP server?”

 Once it knows the server’s address or its own IP, it can “talk quietly” (unicast) to send or receive
messages directly.====================================

3. Will my computer get the same IP address allocated every me?

1. Usually — Not Guaranteed (Dynamic Alloca on)

 By default, DHCP uses dynamic alloca on.
 Your computer requests an IP, and the DHCP server assigns one from its available pool.
 The IP lease is temporary (e.g., 24 hours).
 When your computer reconnects before the lease expires, the DHCP server usually tries to give you
the same IP.
 But if you reconnect a er the lease expires or the DHCP pool changes, you might get a different IP.

2. Yes — If Sta c or Reserva on Is Used

 If the network admin sets up a DHCP reserva on (sta c alloca on by MAC address), your computer
always gets the same IP.
 This is common for printers, servers, or devices that need a fixed IP but want DHCP management.

3. No — If You Use Manual Sta c IP

 If you configure your IP manually on your computer (outside DHCP), it will always have the same IP, but
this is not DHCP-managed.

Summary Table
Same IP Every Why?
Scenario
Time?

Dynamic DHCP (default) Usually No IPs assigned temporarily & may change

DHCP Reserva on Server always assigns same IP based on

Yes MAC
(Sta c)

Manual Sta c IP Yes Set directly on device, no DHCP

Quick Tip:
 If you want a stable IP on networks you frequently use, ask your network admin to set a DHCP
reserva on for your device's MAC address.
 Or configure a sta c IP manually (but avoid conflicts with DHCP pool).
4. What is APIPA?

APIPA stands for:

Automa c Private IP Addressing

It is a feature in Windows and some other opera ng systems that allows a device to assign itself an IP
address automa cally when it can’t reach a DHCP server.

In Simple Terms:

When your device:

 Tries to get an IP from a DHCP server

 But doesn’t get a reply

 It gives itself an IP address in the range:

169.254.0.1 to 169.254.255.254

This range is reserved for APIPA.

Why Does APIPA Exist?

 To allow basic local communica on between devices when there is no DHCP server available.

 Devices on the same local network (with APIPA addresses) can s ll talk to each other, even without a
router.

Example:

 Suppose your office network’s DHCP server is down.

 Your laptop fails to get an IP, so it assigns itself:

169.254.20.10

 Another PC also assigns itself:

169.254.20.11

 These two PCs can communicate with each other

 But they cannot access the internet, because APIPA IPs are not routable.
 Key Points About APIPA:

Feature Descrip on

IP Range 169.254.0.1 to 169.254.255.254

Subnet Mask 255.255.0.0

Default Gateway None (no internet access)

Use Case When DHCP server is unreachable

Communica on Support Only local network communica on

Internet Access Not possible with APIPA

Protocol Behind It Zero-configura on networking

When You See an APIPA IP

It usually means:

 There's a network issue

 DHCP server is not responding

 Your device can’t reach the network properly

How to Check (Windows)

Open Command Prompt and type:

ipconfig

If you see:

IPv4 Address: 169.254.x.x

Your device has an APIPA address due to DHCP failure.

Good News: You are NOT using APIPA

Look at this part:

Wireless LAN adapter Wi-Fi:

IPv4 Address. . . . . . . . . . . : 192.168.1.193

Subnet Mask . . . . . . . . . . . : 255.255.255.0

Default Gateway . . . . . . . . . : 192.168.1.1

 Your computer has a valid DHCP-assigned IP in the private range (192.168.x.x).

 You also have a default gateway, which means you're connected to the internet.

 So everything is working normally, and you are not using APIPA (169.254.x.x range).

Quick Reference for You

IP Range Meaning

192.168.x.x Valid private IP (DHCP or sta c)

169.254.x.x APIPA address (no DHCP response)

172.20.x.x Virtual Adapter (like Docker or Hyper-V)

How to Know You're Using APIPA (Theory + Signs)

1. Check IP Address Range

The easiest and most reliable way:

If your IP address starts with 169.254., you are using APIPA.

This range is reserved by IANA specifically for APIPA — no DHCP server gave it to you.

2. No Default Gateway

 APIPA addresses do not come with a default gateway

 So your device cannot access the internet

3. ipconfig in Windows (Prac cal Check)

Run this command in Command Prompt:

ipconfig

If you see something like:

IPv4 Address. . . . . . . . . . . : 169.254.23.101

Subnet Mask . . . . . . . . . . . : 255.255.0.0

Default Gateway . . . . . . . . . : (blank)

Then your device is using APIPA

It means your DHCP server is unreachable

4. Symptoms of APIPA

 You’re connected to a network (e.g., Wi-Fi says "Connected"), but:

o You cannot access the internet

o IP address starts with 169.254.x.x

o No default gateway

o Maybe you see a yellow triangle warning in system tray

How to Fix APIPA (DHCP Troubleshoo ng)

If your device is stuck with an APIPA address, try this:

Step-by-Step Fix:

1. Disconnect and reconnect Wi-Fi or Ethernet

2. Open CMD as Administrator and run:

ipconfig /release

ipconfig /renew

3. Check again:

ipconfig

Look for a new IP like 192.168.x.x or 10.x.x.x

4. If s ll stuck:

o Restart your router or DHCP server

o Check DHCP se ngs on the router

o Ensure no sta c IP conflicts

 5. What is a firewall, why do you need it?

 A firewall is a security system (hardware or software) that monitors, filters, and controls
incoming and outgoing network traffic based on predefined rules. and controls network traffic to
protect systems from unauthorized access, malware, and cyberattacks.
 It is essential for maintaining data privacy, system security, and safe internet access in both home
and enterprise environments.
 Think of it like a security guard for your computer or network — it decides what traffic to allow in
or out, and what to block.

Why Do You Need a Firewall?

Because not all traffic is safe — the internet is full of:

 Hackers
 Malware
 Unauthorized access attempts
 Bots scanning for open ports

A firewall helps protect:

 Your system from external attacks

 Sensitive data from being leaked or stolen
 The internal network from malicious insiders or infected devices

Functions of a Firewall

Function Description
Traffic filtering Allows or blocks traffic based on IP, port, protocol, etc.
Port control Blocks unwanted or dangerous ports (e.g., port 445 for SMB)
Application control Some firewalls can block specific apps (e.g., Torrent clients)
Logging and alerts Tracks suspicious activity for security monitoring
Preventing malware spread Stops infected devices from attacking others in your network

Example (Enterprise or Cloud)

In cloud platforms like AWS, Azure, or GCP, you use firewall rules or security groups to:

 Allow only port 22 (SSH) to Linux servers

 Block all traffic except port 443 (HTTPS) to a web server
 Prevent access from unknown IPs or countries
 6. What are ports and port numbers?

In networking, a port is like a door on a device (computer, server, router) that lets specific types of
network traffic in or out.

Each port is identified by a port number (from 0 to 65535).

Think of:

 IP address = the address of a building

 Port number = the door number inside that building

So:

An IP address gets you to the right device.

A port number gets you to the right application or service on that device.

Why Are Ports Important?

 Devices run many services at the same time (like a web browser, email client, or file transfer app)
 Each service listens on a specific port
 This way, the device knows which service should handle incoming data.

Common Port Numbers (You Should Know These!)

Protocol/Service Port Number Description

HTTP 80 Unsecured web traffic
HTTPS 443 Secured web traffic (SSL/TLS)
FTP 21 File Transfer Protocol
SSH 22 Secure remote login (Linux)
Telnet 23 Unsecured remote login
DNS 53 Domain Name System
DHCP (Server) 67 DHCP server port (UDP)
DHCP (Client) 68 DHCP client port (UDP)
SMTP 25 Email sending (Simple Mail Transfer)
RDP 3389 Remote Desktop Protocol
MySQL 3306 Database server
 7. Do different tabs making queries in the browser use different port numbers?

Yes, different browser tabs use different client-side (ephemeral) port numbers when making queries. This
allows mul ple connec ons to the same or different websites to be managed independently, even if the server
port (e.g., 443 for HTTPS) is the same.

Why Does This Happen?

Because your computer (the client) needs a unique connec on for each request it makes, even if:

 The des na on is the same IP and port (like google.com:443)

 The protocol is the same (e.g., HTTPS)

Each browser tab (or background request) uses a unique client-side port from the ephemeral (temporary)
port range, typically:

49152 – 65535 (Windows/macOS/Linux)

Example

Imagine you open three tabs, all going to h ps://example.com:

Tab Source IP Source Port Des na on IP Des na on Port

1 192.168.1.10 51500 93.184.216.34 443 (HTTPS)

2 192.168.1.10 51501 93.184.216.34 443

3 192.168.1.10 51502 93.184.216.34 443

 The des na on (server) port is the same: 443

 The source (client) ports are different for each tab/request

This lets the browser and OS manage each connec on independently.

Key Concepts

 The server (e.g., Google) listens on a fixed port, like 443 for HTTPS.

 Your browser opens mul ple TCP connec ons with different client ports.

 This allows parallel communica on even to the same site.

 You Can See This Yourself

Open your browser, visit a few websites, then in Command Prompt or Terminal run:

netstat -an | find “ESTABLISHED”

netstat -an | find “443"

You’ll see something like: Source IP:Port ↔ Des na on IP:Port

TCP 192.168.1.10:51500 → 93.184.216.34:443 ESTABLISHED

TCP 192.168.1.10:51501 → 93.184.216.34:443 ESTABLISHED

TCP 192.168.1.10:51502 → 93.184.216.34:443 ESTABLISHED

Each line = one tab/session using its own client port.

You’ll see mul ple lines with different local ports (source ports), even if the remote port is always 443.

Summary:

 Yes, browser tabs use different client port numbers

 This enables parallel connec ons to the same or different servers

 It's part of how TCP/IP handles mul ple sessions over one network connec on

this is a very common point of confusion! Let me explain why you see so many established connec ons even if
you only opened 2 tabs.

Why Are There Many Connec ons Even With Just 2 Browser Tabs?

1. Modern Websites Load Lots of Resources

When you open a tab, it doesn’t just load one single webpage — it loads many things like:

 Images

 CSS stylesheets

 JavaScript files

 Fonts

 Ads and trackers

 API requests in the background

Each of these o en creates its own separate TCP connec on to different servers or content delivery networks
(CDNs).
2. Connec ons to Mul ple Domains

Websites pull content from mul ple servers, for example:

 example.com (the main site)

 cdn.example.com (content delivery)

 Analy cs services (google-analy cs.com)

 Ads (doubleclick.net or others)

 Social media plugins

Each connec on has its own source port and des na on IP:port.

3. Browser Pre-fetching and Background Tabs

Browsers are smart — they open mul ple connec ons proac vely to speed up browsing:

 Pre-fetch DNS or content

 Keep some connec ons alive for reuse (HTTP/2 and HTTP/3 protocols)

 Background services and extensions might open network connec ons too

4. Localhost Connec ons

No ce you have several connec ons with 127.0.0.1 — these are local connec ons on your computer, possibly
between browser processes or extensions.

5. OS and Other Apps Using Network

Some connec ons might come from:

 Other apps running on your computer (e.g., update services)

 Background syncs

 Cloud backup tools

So in Summary

Reason What it means

Mul ple resource requests One tab = many connec ons

Different servers & CDNs Connec ons to many IPs & ports

Browser op miza ons Mul ple open or reused connec ons

Localhost connec ons Internal app communica on

Other apps/processes Not always browser related

Quick Tip: How to Iden fy Which Connec on Belongs to Which Tab?

You can use developer tools in your browser:

 Open Chrome DevTools (F12 or right-click → Inspect)

 Go to the Network tab

 See all resources loaded per tab with URLs and sizes

This helps link network ac vity to tabs.

======================================================

Scenario:

You open 3 tabs in your browser, all going to:

h ps://example.com

The server's IP is 93.184.216.34 and listens on port 443 (standard for HTTPS).

Your computer's IP is 192.168.1.10.

Browser Connec ons (Diagram)

Browser Tab 1:

┌────────────┐ ┌────────────────────┐

│ 192.168.1.10:51500 ─────► │ 93.184.216.34:443 │

└────────────┘ └────────────────────┘
Browser Tab 2:

┌────────────┐ ┌────────────────────┐

│ 192.168.1.10:51501 ─────► │ 93.184.216.34:443 │

└────────────┘ └────────────────────┘

Browser Tab 3:

┌────────────┐ ┌────────────────────┐

│ 192.168.1.10:51502 ─────► │ 93.184.216.34:443 │

└────────────┘ └────────────────────┘

What's Happening:

 Each tab uses a different source port (51500, 51501, 51502)

 The des na on IP and port are the same (the web server on port 443)

 This way, your OS/browser can track each connec on individually

Why Does It Ma er?

 It allows mul ple independent connec ons to the same server.

 Each connec on is handled via a unique 4-part combo (called a socket pair):

Source IP:Port ↔ Des na on IP:Port

8. What is an IP address (IPv4, IPv6)?

 An IP address (Internet Protocol address) is a unique numerical label assigned to every device
connected to a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication.
 It acts like a postal address for your device on the internet or local network — allowing devices to
find and communicate with each other.

Key Functions of an IP Address:

 Identification: Identifies the host or network interface.

 Location Addressing: Helps route packets between source and destination.

IPv4 vs IPv6: The Two Versions of IP Addresses

1. IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4)

Format:

 32-bit address
 Written as 4 decimal numbers separated by dots (called dotted decimal notation)
 Each number ranges from 0 to 255

Example:

192.168.1.1

Address Space:

 Total addresses = 2^32 = ~4.29 billion addresses

 Initially seemed huge but now nearly exhausted due to massive internet growth

Structure:

IPv4 address is divided into two parts:

 Network portion — identifies the network

 Host portion — identifies the specific device on that network

Subnet masks (like 255.255.255.0) are used to determine how much of the IP is network vs host.

Classes (Traditional):

 Class A: 1.0.0.0 to 126.255.255.255 (large networks)

 Class B: 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255 (medium networks)
 Class C: 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255 (small networks)
 Class D: 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255 (multicast)
 Class E: 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255 (experimental)

2. IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6)

Why IPv6?

Because IPv4 addresses started running out, IPv6 was developed to provide:

 A much larger address space

 Improved features like simplified header, auto-configuration, better security

Format:

 128-bit address
 Written as 8 groups of 4 hexadecimal digits, separated by colons
  Example:

2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334

 Can be shortened by removing leading zeros and using :: once:

2001:db8:85a3::8a2e:370:7334

Address Space:

 Total addresses = 2^128 ≈ 3.4×10^38 addresses (huge!)

Types of IPv6 Addresses:

 Unicast: One-to-one communication (single interface)

 Multicast: One-to-many communication
 Anycast: One-to-nearest communication (among a group)

How IP Addresses Work in Practice

When your device wants to send data to another device:

1. It uses the IP address to identify the destination device.

2. Routers on the network forward the packet based on the IP address.
3. The packet reaches the target device with that IP.

Private vs Public IP Addresses

Type Use Case IP Range Example

Private Used inside private networks (home, office) 192.168.x.x, 10.x.x.x, 172.16.x.x–172.31.x.x
Public Globally routable on the internet Assigned by ISPs

Devices with private IPs access the internet via NAT (Network Address Translation), which maps private
IPs to a public IP.

9. Private vs Public IP addresses

1. Public IP Address

 Defini on:
An IP address assigned to your device or network that is directly accessible on the internet.

 Use:
Used for devices or servers that need to be reachable from anywhere on the internet.
  Assigned by:
Your Internet Service Provider (ISP) or cloud provider.

 Uniqueness:
Must be globally unique — no two devices on the internet can share the same public IP at the same
me.

Example of Public IP:

 172.217.3.110 (One of Google’s public IPs)

 Your home router might have a public IP like 203.0.113.5 assigned by your ISP.

Real-life Use Case:

 When you open your browser and visit google.com, your request goes out from your public IP address.

 Web servers use your public IP to send back responses.

 If you run a public website or host a game server, you need a public IP so others can reach you.

2. Private IP Address

 Defini on:
IP addresses used inside private networks (like home, office, or enterprise LANs).

 Use:
Used to iden fy devices within the same local network, not routable on the public internet.

 Assigned by:
Your router or DHCP server inside the local network.

 Uniqueness:
Must be unique inside the private network, but can be reused across different private networks
globally.

Reserved Private IP Ranges (RFC 1918):

Range CIDR Nota on Typical Use

10.0.0.0 – 10.255.255.255 10.0.0.0/8 Large private networks

172.16.0.0 – 172.31.255.255 172.16.0.0/12 Medium private networks

Range CIDR Nota on Typical Use

192.168.0.0 – 192.168.255.255 192.168.0.0/16 Small private/home networks

Example of Private IPs:

 Home Wi-Fi devices o en get IPs like 192.168.1.10, 192.168.1.15, etc.

 Corporate LAN devices might use 10.0.5.22 or 172.16.8.50.

Real-life Use Case:

 Your laptop, phone, and printer at home all get private IPs like 192.168.1.x.

 They communicate with each other locally without going out to the internet.

 These IPs are not accessible directly from outside your home network.

How Private IPs Access the Internet (NAT)

Since private IPs are not routable on the internet, your router uses Network Address Transla on (NAT):

 It translates your private IP and port to the public IP and an ephemeral port.

 This way, many devices with private IPs share a single public IP to access the internet.

[Home Network]

Device A (Laptop) --> 192.168.1.10 (Private IP)

Device B (Phone) --> 192.168.1.15 (Private IP)

Router (NAT & Public IP: 203.0.113.5)

Internet (Public IPs)

Feature Private IP Address Public IP Address

Scope Local/private network only Global/internet-wide

Routable on Internet? No Yes

Assigned by Local network admin / DHCP ISP / Cloud provider

Uniqueness Unique only inside local network Globally unique

Address examples 192.168.1.10, 10.0.0.5 8.8.8.8, 203.0.113.5

Use Case Home/office LAN devices Websites, servers, routers

10. NAT (Network Address Transla on)

NAT is a technique used by routers to allow mul ple devices on a private network (with private IPs) to access
the internet using a single public IP address.

Why do we need NAT?

 Private IP addresses are not routable on the internet.

 The world has limited IPv4 addresses, so many devices share one public IP.

 NAT translates private IPs/ports to the public IP/port so that traffic can flow back and forth correctly.

How NAT Works: Step-by-Step

Suppose you have:

 2 devices on your home network:

o Laptop: 192.168.1.10

o Phone: 192.168.1.11

 Your router’s public IP: 203.0.113.5

Step 1: Device sends a request to the internet

 Laptop wants to access example.com

 It sends a request from 192.168.1.10:50000 (source IP and source port)

Step 2: Router translates IP and port

 Router replaces source IP 192.168.1.10 with its public IP 203.0.113.5

 Router assigns a new source port, e.g., 60001

 The router keeps a NAT table that maps:

Private IP:Port Public IP:Port

192.168.1.10:50000 203.0.113.5:60001

Step 3: Packet goes to the internet

 Now packet is from 203.0.113.5:60001 → des na on example.com

Step 4: Response comes back to router

 Server replies to 203.0.113.5:60001

 Router looks up 60001 in its NAT table → maps back to 192.168.1.10:50000

Step 5: Router forwards packet to Laptop

 Router sends response to the laptop’s private IP 192.168.1.10 on port 50000

[ Laptop ] 192.168.1.10:50000 →

[Router with NAT]

Translates to 203.0.113.5:60001

[Internet]

example.com

Response to 203.0.113.5:60001

Router translates back

 │

[ Laptop ] 192.168.1.10:50000 ←

What about mul ple devices?

 Each device has a unique private IP and source port.

 Router assigns unique public source ports for each outgoing connec on.

 NAT table keeps track of all mappings to correctly forward replies.

Advantages of NAT:

 Conserves public IPv4 addresses

 Adds a basic layer of security (devices inside private network aren’t directly reachable from outside)

 Enables mul ple devices to share one public IP

Summary:

Step Ac on

Device sends request From private IP:port

Router translates Changes source to public IP:port

Router stores mapping In NAT table

Packet goes to internet With public IP

Server replies To public IP:port

Router forwards reply To corresponding private IP:port

There are 3 main types of NAT:

Type of NAT Also Known As Use Case

Sta c NAT One-to-One NAT Internal servers that need public access

Dynamic NAT Many-to-Many NAT Pools of public IPs for internal devices

PAT Port Address Transla on One-to-Many NAT (most common today)

1. Sta c NAT (One-to-One)

What It Is:

 Maps one private IP to one public IP.

 IP mapping is fixed and does not change.

Use Case:

 When you have a server inside your private network (e.g., a web server) that must be permanently
reachable from the internet.

 A fixed phone number assigned to one person. Every me someone calls that number, it reaches the
same person.

 If someone accesses 203.0.113.100 from the internet, it always goes to your PC at 192.168.1.100.

Use Case:

 Hos ng a web server or CCTV camera from your home that people can access from outside.

Example:

Private IP Public IP

192.168.1.100 203.0.113.100

So requests to 203.0.113.100 always go to 192.168.1.100.

2. Dynamic NAT (Many-to-Many)

What It Is:

 Maps private IPs to a pool of public IPs dynamically.

 Not fixed — IP is picked from the pool when needed.

Use Case:

 Enterprises where many devices need internet, and a few public IPs are available (but not one per
device).

 Not very common anymore because it requires as many public IPs as simultaneous users.

 You are given a random phone number every me you make a call, from a shared pool of numbers.
 Example:

Private IP Public IP Pool

192.168.1.10 203.0.113.101 (used now)

192.168.1.11 203.0.113.102 (used now)

192.168.1.12 No IP available = wait

 Your router has 3 public IPs, but if more than 3 devices try to go online at once, someone will have to
wait — because there aren’t enough public IPs.

Use Case:

 Large company with limited public IPs.

3. PAT (Port Address Transla on) – "Many-to-One" — Most Common

Also Called:

 NAT Overload

 NAPT (Network Address Port Transla on)

What It Is:

 All devices share a single public IP

 NAT uses port numbers to keep track of mul ple sessions

 Everyone in a family shares the same phone number, but when someone answers, they ask, "Who do
you want to talk to?" based on extension numbers (port numbers).

Use Case:

 Most home networks and offices

 When many users/devices connect to the internet using just one public IP

Example NAT Table:

Private IP:Port Public IP:Port

192.168.1.10:40000 203.0.113.10:50001
Private IP:Port Public IP:Port

192.168.1.11:40001 203.0.113.10:50002

192.168.1.12:40002 203.0.113.10:50003

So:

 From the outside, everything looks like it's coming from 203.0.113.10

 The router uses the port numbers to send traffic back to the correct internal device

11. MAC address vs IP address : Media Access Control Address

 A unique hardware ID assigned to every network interface card (NIC).

 Like a serial number for your device’s network adapter.
 Helps identify devices within the same local network (LAN).

00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E

 Each pair of characters is called an octet, wri en in hexadecimal.

 MAC address is like the permanent fingerprint of a network device (laptop, phone, printer).
 Even if your IP changes, the MAC stays the same (unless manually spoofed).

What is an IP Address?

 A logical address that iden fies a device on a network.

 Can be changed (dynamically by DHCP or set manually).

 Used for rou ng data across networks and the internet.

 IP address is like the current home address of a person.

 You can move (change networks) and get a new IP address, but your MAC stays the same.

MAC + IP: How They Work Together

When you send data over a network:

1. You enter a website (e.g., google.com)

2. Your device finds the IP address for that domain (via DNS)

3. Your device sends the packet to the router, using:

o IP address to iden fy des na on

o MAC address to deliver locally (e.g., to router)

The router uses MAC addresses for delivery inside your home network (LAN), and IP addresses for rou ng
the packet over the internet (WAN).
Example:

Your PC:

 IP: 192.168.1.10

 MAC: 00:11:22:33:44:55

Your Router:

 IP: 192.168.1.1

 MAC: AA:BB:CC:DD:EE:FF

When you ping the router:

 Data is sent to IP 192.168.1.1

 But inside your LAN, it uses the router’s MAC to actually deliver it

Feature MAC Address IP Address

Full Name Media Access Control Address Internet Protocol Address

Iden fies the physical device Iden fies the device's loca on on a
Purpose
(hardware) network

Layer (OSI
Layer 2 – Data Link Layer 3 – Network
Model)

Scope Local Network Only Local and Internet-wide

Permanence Fixed (burned into hardware) Changeable (can be reassigned)

Format (IPv4) 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E (Hexadecimal) 192.168.1.10 (Decimal - IPv4)

Assigned By Manufacturer Network (DHCP or manually)

Visibility Not visible over internet Visible and routable on internet

12. DNS – what it is and how it works

 DNS (Domain Name System) is like the phonebook of the internet.

 It translates domain names (like www.google.com) into IP addresses (like 142.250.68.14), so that
computers can communicate with each other.
Why do we need DNS?

 Because humans remember names, but computers use numbers (IP addresses) to find and talk to
each other.

Real-Life Example

 When you open your browser and type:

www.google.com

 Your device doesn’t understand "google.com". It needs an IP address like:

142.250.68.14

 DNS does the translation.

User → Browser → DNS Resolver → Root Server → .com Server → Google DNS → Returns IP

Why DNS is Important

Feature Why it matters

Human-friendly Easier to remember names than numbers
Flexible You can change IP without changing domain name
Scalable Supports billions of devices
Automatic All this happens in milliseconds behind the scenes

How DNS Works (Step-by-Step)

You know your friend’s name (e.g., “Rahul Sharma”),

but you don’t know his house address.

So what do you do?

You ask someone who knows his address — like a phonebook, or a directory.

The same thing happens in the internet using DNS.

DNS = Phonebook of the Internet

When you type a website name like:

www.google.com

Your computer says:

“I don’t know the IP address of google.com. Let me find out!”

Here’s how it finds it — in 5 easy steps:

Step-by-Step: How DNS Works (EASY)

Step 1: You type www.google.com in your browser

Your browser wants to open the website, but it needs the IP address (like 142.250.195.46)

Step 2: Your device checks local DNS cache

Your computer says:

“Have I seen google.com before?”

 If yes → use saved IP (done!)

 If no → go ask the DNS servers

Step 3: Ask your ISP’s DNS Server

It’s like asking your local phonebook:

“Hey DNS, what is the IP address of google.com?”

If your ISP’s DNS knows it, it replies with the IP.

If not, it says:

“I don’t know, but I know someone who might — let me ask the root server.”

Step 4: Ask Root → TLD → Authoritative Server

Now the search continues:

1. Root Server:
Says: “Try the .com servers.”
 2. .com Server (TLD Server):
Says: “Ask google.com’s own DNS server.”
3. Authoritative DNS Server:
This one owns google.com and says:

“Here’s the IP: 142.250.195.46”

The search is complete!

Step 5: Your computer gets the IP and opens the site

Now your computer connects to:

142.250.195.46

And your browser uses IP to loads www.google.com

Done — all in milliseconds!

Tools to Check and Test DNS

These tools help you verify DNS resolution (whether a domain name is being correctly translated to an IP
address):

1. nslookup (Name Server Lookup)

Used in Windows, Linux, and macOS

Example:

nslookup google.com

Output:

Server: dns.google

Address: 8.8.8.8
Non-authoritative answer:

Name: google.com

Address: 142.250.195.46

What it tells you:

 Which DNS server responded

 The IP address of the domain
 Whether it's authoritative or not

2. dig (Domain Information Groper)

Used mainly in Linux/macOS (can install on Windows)

Example:

dig google.com

Output:

;; ANSWER SECTION:

google.com. 300 IN A 142.250.195.46

What it tells you:

 Query time
 TTL (Time To Live) – how long the DNS is cached
 IP address, DNS hierarchy info

Common DNS Errors and What They Mean

Here are some real-world DNS errors and what they indicate:

DNS_PROBE_FINISHED_NXDOMAIN

Meaning:

 DNS lookup failed — the domain name does not exist.

Fix:
  Check if the domain name is typed correctly
 Try a different DNS server (like Google DNS: 8.8.8.8)

Server DNS address could not be found

Meaning:

 The DNS server couldn’t find the IP for the domain.

Fix:

 Restart your router

 Flush your DNS cache using:

ipconfig /flushdns # on Windows

ERR_NAME_NOT_RESOLVED

Meaning:

 The browser couldn't find the IP from the DNS server.

Fix:

 Try using a public DNS like:

o Google: 8.8.8.8 and 8.8.4.4
o Cloudflare: 1.1.1.1

How to Flush DNS Cache (Windows)

Sometimes your system stores bad DNS info. You can flush the DNS cache:

ipconfig /flushdns

This clears old or incorrect IPs from memory.

Public DNS Servers You Can Use

Provider Primary DNS Secondary DNS

Google DNS 8.8.8.8 8.8.4.4
Cloudflare 1.1.1.1 1.0.0.1
Provider Primary DNS Secondary DNS
OpenDNS 208.67.222.222 208.67.220.220

You can set these in your network adapter settings to improve DNS performance or bypass ISP issues.

13. Subne ng and CIDR nota on (e.g. /24, /16)

 Subnetting is the practice of dividing a large network into smaller, more manageable sub-
networks (subnets). This helps improve network performance, security, and efficient use of IP
addresses.

Imagine This Situation:

You work in a company with 4 departments:

 HR
 Sales
 IT
 Management

You need to give each department its own set of computers/IPs so that:

 Each team’s network is separate (for security)

 Each team uses only what they need (for efficiency)

You Are Given an IP Block

You are given the network:

192.168.1.0/24

What does this mean?

 It's a range of IP addresses

 /24 means it has 256 total IPs (from 192.168.1.0 to 192.168.1.255)
 But only 254 IPs can be used for devices (because 2 are reserved)

Now, you want to divide these IPs between your 4 departments.

Step-by-Step: Subnetting the IPs

Step 1: Divide into 4 parts (subnets)

We divide 256 IPs into 4 equal subnets:

 256 ÷ 4 = 64 IPs per subnet

  New network mask: /26 (instead of /24)
 Each subnet gives 62 usable IPs (2 reserved in each subnet)

Step 2: Assign to Departments

Department Subnet Address IP Range Usable IPs

HR 192.168.1.0/26 192.168.1.1 – 192.168.1.62 62 usable addresses
Sales 192.168.1.64/26 192.168.1.65 – 192.168.1.126 62 usable addresses
IT 192.168.1.128/26 192.168.1.129 – 192.168.1.190 62 usable addresses
Management 192.168.1.192/26 192.168.1.193 – 192.168.1.254 62 usable addresses

What is CIDR Nota on?

CIDR = Classless Inter-Domain Rou ng

CIDR nota on helps show how many IPs are in a block.

Example:

192.168.1.0/26

Means:

 192.168.1.0 is the star ng IP

 /26 means 64 IPs are in this subnet

 First 26 bits are for the network, rest are for hosts (computers, printers, etc.)

Real-Life Analogy

Imagine your company has one building with 256 rooms.

You want to give each department its own floor, with 64 rooms each.
Each floor = 1 subnet
All floors are s ll in the same building (network), but separate and more manageable!

Why Subne ng is Useful

Feature Why It Ma ers

HR can’t access IT’s computers unless allowed / You can isolate departments and limit
Security
traffic between them

You can easily find and fix issues /

Management
Easier to troubleshoot and manage specific segments of the network
Feature Why It Ma ers

Efficiency No wasted IP addresses / Avoid was ng addresses by crea ng smaller subnets

You can add more subnets later if needed / Add more subnets or departments as needed
Scalability
without redesigning the whole network

Concept Descrip on

Subne ng Divides a large network into smaller networks

CIDR Nota on like /26 that indicates subnet size

Use Case Divide office departments into logical networks

14 . What is HTTP?

HTTP stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol.

It is the basic rule used by your browser to request and receive informa on (like web pages) from a web
server.

Think of it like this:

HTTP is like sending a postcard to a website asking for something — like a webpage, an image, or a video.

 Everyone (including hackers) can read your postcard (data).

 It works, but not secure.

What is HTTPS?

HTTPS = HTTP + Secure (SSL/TLS encryp on)

It encrypts the data between your browser and the server, so that no one can read or change it during
transfer.

Think of HTTPS like:

Sending the same request, but inside a locked, tamper-proof envelope.

 Hackers can’t see or change what’s inside.

 Safe for passwords, credit cards, personal info.

Real-Life Use Case Example:

 1. HTTP Example (Not secure)

You visit:

h p://example.com

 You open a normal website — maybe just for reading public news.

 No login, no personal data involved.

 Data is sent in plain text.

Risk:

 A hacker on the same Wi-Fi can see what you’re viewing.

2. HTTPS Example (Secure)

You visit:

h ps://www.amazon.com

 You enter your username, password, and credit card.

 The connec on is encrypted, using HTTPS.

 No one can steal your info while it travels between your browser and Amazon’s servers.

Benefit:

 Safe to use for banking, shopping, login, etc.

Key Differences

Feature HTTP HTTPS

Full Form HyperText Transfer Protocol HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure

Security Not encrypted Encrypted (via SSL/TLS)

Use Case Public websites (blogs, info) Login pages, payments, emails

URL Starts With h p:// h ps://

Browser Lock No padlock icon Padlock icon shown

 14. SSH

 SSH stands for Secure Shell.

 It is a network protocol that allows one computer to securely connect to another computer over a
network, especially for remote control or file transfer.
 SSH lets you connect from one computer to another over the internet safely, so you can control the
second computer as if you were sitting in front of it.

Real-Life Example

Let’s say:

 You are at home on your laptop

 Your company’s website is running on a server (a computer far away)

 You need to log in to that server to fix something

You use SSH like this:

ssh [email protected]

 ssh → means use SSH

 user → your username on that server

 123.45.67.89 → the IP address of the server

A er running that command:

You see the terminal of the server on your laptop — now you can type commands like:

 Restart the website

 Update so ware

 Copy files

All of this is protected and encrypted, so no one can spy on what you’re doing.

Why Use SSH?

Without SSH (like Telnet) With SSH

Not secure Very secure

Hackers can see data Data is encrypted

Bad for passwords Safe for login & control

 SSH encrypts everything (username, password, data)

 Prevents:

o Hackers from reading what you're doing

 o Someone from changing your commands

o Passwords from being stolen

SSH Also Supports:

 SCP (Secure Copy) – to copy files

 SFTP (Secure FTP) – to transfer files securely

 Tunneling – to protect other types of traffic

Real-World Use Case:

Let’s say you're a web developer.

You have a website hosted on a server (e.g. Amazon AWS).

1. You open your laptop

2. You open the Terminal (or CMD)

3. You type:

ssh [email protected]

4. Now you're inside the server, even though it's hundreds of kilometers away

5. You can fix the website, upload files, restart it — all safely using SSH

Concept What It Means

SSH A way to safely connect to another computer from far away

Use To control a server from your own computer

Secure? Yes! SSH hides your data from hackers

Looks Like ssh user@ip-address

15. ICMP (ping)

ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.

It is a protocol (a set of rules) used by computers to send error messages and network status updates to each
other.

It’s like the nervous system of the internet — it helps computers say:
  “Hey, are you there?”

 “Something went wrong!”

 “I can’t reach that computer.”

What is Ping?

 Ping is a tool that uses ICMP to check if another computer or server is reachable.
 It’s like saying “ Hello, are you there?”
If the computer replies, you know it’s online.

Real-Life Example:

Imagine this situa on:

 You’re at home and trying to visit a website (e.g. www.google.com)

 But the site isn’t loading

 You want to know: "Is the server alive or down?"

So you use this command in your terminal or CMD:

ping www.google.com

What happens:

 Your computer sends an ICMP Echo Request

 Google’s server replies with an ICMP Echo Reply

 If the reply comes back, you know:

The server is reachable and alive

Ping Output Example

When you ping, you might see something like:

Pinging google.com [142.250.190.78] with 32 bytes of data:

Reply from 142.250.190.78: bytes=32 me=18ms TTL=117

Reply from 142.250.190.78: bytes=32 me=19ms TTL=117

This means:

 Google replied

 Time = how long it took (in milliseconds)

 TTL = Time to Live (network hop limit)

 Why is ICMP/Ping Useful?

Task How Ping/ICMP Helps

Check if server is online ping tells you if it replies

Diagnose network problems No reply = server is down or blocked

Measure delay (latency) Shows how fast data travels

Check local network devices Ping your printer, router, etc.

Note:

Some networks block ping (ICMP) for security reasons — so no reply doesn’t always mean the server is down.

Term Meaning

ICMP Network messaging protocol

Ping A tool that uses ICMP to say "Are you there?"

Use Check if a computer/server is reachable

Situa on:

 You tried to visit www.google.com in your browser — but the page doesn’t load

 You used the command:

ping www.google.com

 And you got replies

So... what's happening? 

What Does It Mean?

If ping responds:

It means:

 Your computer can reach Google’s server (network is working)

 Internet connec on exists

 DNS (Domain Name System) is probably working

BUT...
 If Google s ll doesn’t load in the browser:

It means the problem is not with connec vity, but something else.

Possible Reasons Why Google Isn’t Loading:

Cause Explana on

Firewall or an virus Blocking the browser or Google website

Browser issue Try using another browser (Chrome, Firefox, etc.)

Browser extensions Ad blockers or VPNs might block some sites

Slow or unstable internet Ping is light (small data), websites are heavy

Blocked by ISP or network Some networks block sites like Google

DNS issue DNS is resolving in ping, but browser may use different se ngs

HTTPS/SSL error Browser can't load secure websites due to me/date or cer ficate issues

What You Can Try to Fix It

1. Restart your browser

2. Try another browser (e.g. Chrome instead of Firefox)

3. Restart your internet (router/modem)

4. Clear your browser cache

5. Check system date and me

6. Turn off an virus/firewall temporarily

7. Flush DNS with this command:

ipconfig /flushdns (on Windows)

8. Use Google DNS:

o Set your DNS to 8.8.8.8 and 8.8.4.4 in your internet se ngs

Quick Summary:
Ping Replies Browser Fails

Internet is working Something in your browser, system, or network is blocking Google

explain why Google’s DNS (8.8.8.8 and 8.8.4.4) is commonly used?

What is DNS?

 DNS (Domain Name System) translates domain names (like google.com) into IP addresses (like
142.250.190.78) that computers can understand.
 Think of it like a phone book for the internet.

Why use Google DNS (8.8.8.8, 8.8.4.4)?

Reason Explana on

Global Google’s DNS servers are spread worldwide for fast response

Fast O en faster than your local ISP's DNS

Reliable Very stable and rarely goes down

Clean Usually doesn't block websites or add ads

Unfiltered Doesn’t censor content (some ISPs block websites)

Can You Use Other DNS Servers?

Yes, there are many good DNS providers besides Google:

DNS Provider IP Addresses Notes

Google DNS 8.8.8.8, 8.8.4.4 Fast, global, unfiltered

Cloudflare DNS 1.1.1.1, 1.0.0.1 Privacy-focused, very fast

OpenDNS 208.67.222.222, 208.67.220.220 Offers parental controls

Quad9 9.9.9.9 Blocks malware & threats

Comodo Secure 8.26.56.26, 8.20.247.20 Security features

You can choose any of these depending on your needs:

 For privacy → Cloudflare

  For security → Quad9

 For speed and reliability → Google DNS or Cloudflare

16. What are inbound/outbound rules?

 These rules are part of a firewall or security group in your computer, router, or cloud system.
They control what traffic is allowed to come in (inbound) and what traffic is allowed to go out
(outbound).

Simple Analogy: Think of your computer as a house

Rule Type Real-Life Analogy

Inbound Rule Who is allowed to enter your house
Outbound Rule Who is allowed to leave your house

 So if someone wants to visit you (like a website request or a remote user), that’s inbound.
If you want to send a message or visit a website, that’s outbound.

Direction of Traffic

Rule Type Direction of Data Example

Inbound Coming into your computer A user connecting via SSH
Outbound Going out from your computer You visiting google.com

Real-Life Examples:

Inbound Rule Example

You're running a web server on your computer or cloud:

 You want people to access your website using HTTP (port 80)

 You create an inbound rule to allow traffic on port 80

Allow inbound traffic on port 80 (HTTP)

Outbound Rule Example

Your computer wants to visit a website or download something:

 You create an outbound rule to allow outgoing connec ons to port 443 (HTTPS)

Allow outbound traffic to port 443 (HTTPS)

Where Are These Rules Used?

  Firewalls (Windows Firewall, Linux firewall)

 Cloud services like AWS Security Groups

 Routers at home or office

Why Are These Rules Important?

Benefit Why It Ma ers

Security Blocks hackers or unwanted access

Control Only allows specific apps or services

Customiza on Different rules for servers, users, and ports

17. How AWS/GCP/Azure security groups work

A security group is like a virtual firewall. It controls:

 What traffic is allowed in (inbound)

 What traffic is allowed out (outbound)

It protects your virtual machines (VMs) or cloud services.

Where Are Security Groups Used?

They’re used in all major cloud providers:

Cloud Pla orm Security Group Name

AWS Security Groups

GCP Firewall Rules (similar use)

Azure Network Security Groups (NSG)

How They Work (Simple View)

Type Direc on Example

Inbound Traffic coming into the VM Allow SSH (port 22) or HTTP (port 80)
Type Direc on Example

Outbound Traffic going out from the VM Allow traffic to the internet (port 443)

Real-Life Example: AWS Security Group

Imagine you have a Linux server (EC2 instance) in AWS.

You want:

 Access it with SSH (port 22)

 Host a website on it (port 80)

 Let it connect to the internet

Your security group might look like this:

Inbound Rules:

Type Protocol Port Source

SSH TCP 22 Your IP only

HTTP TCP 80 0.0.0.0/0

Outbound Rules (default is usually "allow all"):

Type Protocol Port Des na on

All All All 0.0.0.0/0

Key Features Across All Cloud Providers:

Feature AWS / GCP / Azure

Stateless or Stateful? Stateful (returns allowed automa cally)

Applied to VMs, Load Balancers, Containers

Customizable You choose ports, IPs, direc ons

Easy to update Yes, changes apply immediately

Tip: Security Groups are default deny

That means:

 Everything is blocked by default

 You must explicitly allow what you want to let in or out

Summary

Concept Meaning

Security Group A set of rules to control traffic to/from your cloud servers

Inbound Rules Who can access your cloud machine (like SSH or HTTP)

Outbound Rules Where your machine can connect to (like the internet)

Works on AWS, GCP, Azure (slightly different names)

Default Deny everything unless allowed

18. VPC (Virtual Private Cloud): what it is and why it's used

 VPC stands for Virtual Private Cloud.

 It’s like having your own private network inside a cloud provider (like AWS, GCP, or Azure).
Think of it as your own secure, isolated space inside the huge cloud.
 It isolates your cloud resources (servers, databases, apps) from other users.
 You define your own private IP address range (using CIDR blocks, e.g., 10.0.0.0/16).
 Inside the VPC, you create subnets — smaller segments of the network (e.g., 10.0.1.0/24).
 You control how traffic flows using:

 Route tables — determine where traffic goes.

 Internet Gateway — connects your VPC to the public internet.
 NAT Gateway — allows private subnet resources to access the internet without exposing them.
 Security Groups & Network ACLs — firewall rules to allow or block traffic.

 VPCs are isolated from each other, so resources in your VPC can’t be accessed by others unless
you explicitly allow it.

Real-World Use Case

Scenario:

You want to host a web application that has:

 A frontend web server accessible to users on the internet.

  A backend database server that stores user data and should NOT be accessible publicly.

How you use a VPC:

1. Create a VPC with an IP range, e.g., 10.0.0.0/16.

2. Create subnets inside the VPC:
o Public subnet: For web servers (e.g., 10.0.1.0/24).
o Private subnet: For databases (e.g., 10.0.2.0/24).
3. Attach an Internet Gateway to your VPC:
o Allows the public subnet to send/receive traffic from the internet.
4. Set up route tables:
o Public subnet routes internet traffic through the Internet Gateway.
o Private subnet has no direct internet access.
5. Deploy your web server in the public subnet:
o This server has a public IP and can be accessed by users.
6. Deploy your database server in the private subnet:
o This server has no public IP.
o Only accessible from the web server (through security group rules).
7. Configure security groups:
o Web server: Allow inbound HTTP/HTTPS (ports 80/443) from anywhere.
o Database: Allow inbound database traffic only from the web server’s security group.

Why Use a VPC?

 Security & Isola on: Your resources (servers, databases) are protected from others

 Network Control: You define your IP address ranges, subnets, and rou ng rules

 Traffic Management: You control inbound/outbound traffic with security groups and network ACLs

 Connec vity: Connect your VPC to your on-premises network or the internet securely

What’s Inside a VPC?

Component Description
Subnets Smaller network segments inside your VPC (e.g. public/private)
Route Tables Rules that control traffic flow
Internet Gateway Connects your VPC to the internet
Security Groups & NACLs Control traffic permissions

Real-Life Use Case:

You want to host a website and a database:

 Website server lives in a public subnet (accessible from the internet)

 Database lives in a private subnet (only accessible by the website server, not public)
  You control who can reach your website and database securely within your VPC

Summary:

Term Meaning

VPC Your own private network in the cloud

Purpose Security, isola on, and control

Contains Subnets, route tables, gateways

Used For Hos ng secure, isolated cloud apps and resources

Imagine this:

The Cloud = A huge apartment building

 Lots of people (companies) live in this building (the cloud)

 Everyone has their own apartment (their cloud resources)

Now, what is a VPC?

 A VPC is like having your own private apartment inside this big building

 Only your family and invited guests can enter your apartment

 You decide who can come in and what parts of your apartment they can access

Why do you want your own apartment (VPC)?

 Because you want privacy and security — you don’t want strangers wandering around

 You want to control who talks to your stuff and how

 You want your computers and apps in the cloud to be isolated from others

Example:

You have:

 A website you want people to visit (so that part needs to be open to the internet)

 A database where you keep important info (this should be private — only your website can talk to it)

So in your VPC, you create:

  A public area (subnet) where the website lives (people can visit this)

 A private area where the database lives (only your website can access it)

How does this help?

 Your website is accessible to users safely

 Your database is protected and not exposed to the internet

 You have full control over network traffic inside your apartment (VPC)

Super simple summary:

What Meaning

Cloud Big apartment building

VPC Your private apartment

Subnet Rooms inside your apartment

Public Subnet Room open to visitors

Private Subnet Room only family can enter

19. Internet Gateway vs NAT Gateway

Feature Internet Gateway (IGW) NAT Gateway

Connects your VPC directly to the public Allows private subnet resources to access the
Purpose
internet internet without exposing them publicly

Allows inbound and outbound traffic Only allows outbound internet access from
Traffic
between internet and VPC (for public private subnet; no inbound ini ated from
Direc on
subnets) internet

Instances in private subnet without public IPs

Used By Instances with public IPs in public subnet
needing internet access (e.g., for updates)

IGW itself doesn’t have an IP but a ached Has an Elas c IP (public IP) assigned for NAT
IP Address
to VPC func onality
Feature Internet Gateway (IGW) NAT Gateway

Public-facing; should be secured with Keeps instances hidden from direct internet
Security
firewall rules access

Backend servers downloading patches or

Examples Web servers accessible from the internet
accessing APIs

Real-World Use Case

Internet Gateway (IGW):

 You have a web server that must be reachable by users on the internet.

 You a ach an Internet Gateway to your VPC.

 The web server is placed in a public subnet and assigned a public IP.

 Internet Gateway lets internet users connect to your web server.

NAT Gateway:

 You have a database server or an applica on server in a private subnet.

 It does not have a public IP (for security reasons).

 But it s ll needs to download so ware updates or access external APIs on the internet.

 You create a NAT Gateway in the public subnet with a public IP.

 Private subnet instances send outbound traffic through the NAT Gateway to the internet.

 Incoming internet traffic cannot directly reach these private instances.

Summary Table

Aspect Internet Gateway NAT Gateway

VPC <--> Internet (bi- Private subnet instances --> Internet (outbound
Connects
direc onal) only)

Public IP Required on instance Assigned to NAT Gateway

Incoming
Allowed Blocked (only outbound allowed)
Traffic

Used For Public-facing servers (websites) Private servers needing internet access
Aspect Internet Gateway NAT Gateway

Security Must secure public IPs Hides private instances

20. Route Tables: how cloud traffic is routed

 A Route Table is like a map or direc ons guide for your cloud network.
 It tells your cloud resources where to send traffic based on the des na on IP address.
 Every subnet in your VPC is associated with one route table.
 The route table contains routes (rules) that specify:

 Des na on IP ranges (like 0.0.0.0/0 for all internet addresses)

 Target (where to send the traffic, e.g., Internet Gateway, NAT Gateway, Virtual Private Gateway, or
another subnet)

 How Does It Work?

 When a resource (like a VM) sends data, the route table checks where the des na on IP is.

 It finds the matching route and sends the traffic to the target specified.

 If no route matches, traffic is dropped or handled by default rules.

 Common Route Table Targets

Target What It Means

Local Traffic within the VPC stays inside
Internet Gateway (IGW) Sends traffic to the public internet
NAT Gateway Private subnet traffic to internet via NAT
Virtual Private Gateway (VPN Gateway) Sends traffic to your on-premises network
Peering Connection Sends traffic to another VPC

 Real-World Example:

Imagine a VPC with two subnets:

 Public Subnet (with web servers)

 Private Subnet (with database servers)

Route Tables:

Subnet Route Table Rules

Public Subnet - 10.0.0.0/16 → Local (inside VPC)

Subnet Route Table Rules

- 0.0.0.0/0 → Internet Gateway (IGW)

Private Subnet - 10.0.0.0/16 → Local (inside VPC)

- 0.0.0.0/0 → NAT Gateway

 Web servers in the public subnet can send and receive traffic from the internet.

 Database servers in the private subnet send outbound traffic to the internet through the NAT Gateway
but cannot be accessed from the internet directly.

Summary Table

Concept Descrip on

Route Table Rules that guide network traffic

Des na on IP range the rule applies to

Target Where to send the traffic (IGW, NAT, etc.)

Associated with Subnets in your VPC

Imagine This:

Your VPC is like a city.

 Inside this city, there are different neighborhoods (called subnets).

 You want to send a le er (data) from your house (server) to somewhere else — like another house, or
outside the city (internet).

What is a Route Table?

 A Route Table is like the city’s postal map.

 It tells the mail carrier where to deliver your le er depending on the address.

How It Works

 You write the address on your le er (des na on IP).

  The mail carrier looks at the postal map (route table).

 The map says:

o If the address is inside the city (inside VPC), deliver it directly.

o If the address is outside the city (internet), send it to the city’s main post office (Internet
Gateway).

o Or if it’s a special case, send it to another post office (like NAT Gateway or VPN).

Real-Life Example:

 You live in the public neighborhood (public subnet).

o You can send le ers directly outside the city (internet) using the main post office (Internet
Gateway).

o People from outside can also send you le ers.

 Your friend lives in a private neighborhood (private subnet).

o Your friend can send le ers outside the city but can’t receive le ers directly from outside.

o So your friend’s le ers first go through a special post office (NAT Gateway) which sends them
out.

Super Simple Summary:

Term Real-World Meaning

Route Table Postal map for your city (VPC)

Des na on Address on your le er (IP range)

Target Where to send the le er (gateway)

Subnet Neighborhood in the city (part of VPC)

21. VPN and Direct Connect (basic overview only)

1. VPN (Virtual Private Network)

What is it?

 A VPN connects your on-premises network (like your office) to your cloud network (VPC) over the
public internet, but in a secure and encrypted way.
 Think of it like a secure tunnel through the internet.
 Why use it?

 To access your cloud servers securely from your local network.

 Useful for small to medium businesses that want to connect to AWS/GCP/Azure quickly and cheaply.

Example Use Case:

Your company office network needs to access databases in AWS. You set up a VPN so your office systems can
securely talk to your cloud resources.

2. Direct Connect (AWS) / ExpressRoute (Azure) / Dedicated Interconnect (GCP)

What is it?

 Direct Connect is a private, physical connec on between your company’s data center and the cloud
provider.
 Think of it like having your own private fiber cable to AWS instead of using the internet.

Why use it?

 Much faster and more reliable than a VPN.

 More secure because it doesn’t go over the public internet.

 Used by large companies that need high-speed, stable connec ons for big data, real- me apps, etc.

Example Use Case:

A bank needs constant, fast, and secure access between its data center and AWS to process customer
transac ons — so it uses Direct Connect.

Summary Table

Feature VPN Direct Connect

Type Virtual (so ware-based) Physical (hardware-based)

Connec on Over Public Internet Private Dedicated Line

Speed & Reliability Medium High

Cost Lower Higher

Setup Time Fast (minutes/hours) Slower (days/weeks)

Use Case Small/medium companies Large enterprises or cri cal apps

 22. MSS/MTU

What is MTU (Maximum Transmission Unit)?

Defini on:

MTU is the maximum size of a data packet (in bytes) that can be sent over a network link without being split
(fragmented).

 Standard MTU for Ethernet = 1500 bytes

 This includes the IP header + TCP header + data

Simple Example:

If you're sending a message in an envelope, MTU is the maximum envelope size allowed by the postal system.
If your message is too big, it has to be broken into smaller envelopes (fragmented), which slows things down.

What is MSS (Maximum Segment Size)?

Defini on:

MSS is the maximum amount of data (payload) that can be sent in a single TCP segment, excluding headers.

 MSS = MTU - IP Header - TCP Header

 Usually: MSS = 1500 - 20 (IP) - 20 (TCP) = 1460 bytes

Simple Example:

If the MTU is the envelope size, then MSS is the size of the le er inside (just the actual message, not the
envelope or stamps).

Rela onship Between MTU and MSS

Term Size Contains

MTU 1500 bytes (typical) IP header (20) + TCP header (20) + Data (MSS)

MSS 1460 bytes Just the actual data (payload)

Why It Ma ers?

 If your data is larger than the MTU, it gets fragmented, causing:

o Slower performance

o Packet loss (if routers drop fragments)

 Choosing the right MSS helps prevent fragmenta on

What is MTU (Maximum Transmission Unit)?

MTU = the biggest packet (data envelope) your network can carry at one me.

Real-life Example:

Imagine you're sending a parcel through a courier.

 The courier company says: “We only accept boxes up to 1500 grams.”

 If your box is heavier than that, you must split it into two boxes (which takes more me and effort).

That limit of 1500 grams = MTU in networking.

So in networks, MTU usually = 1500 bytes (on Ethernet).

What is MSS (Maximum Segment Size)?

MSS = the actual data inside the packet — not including the headers or labels.

Real-life Example:

Your box (MTU) must include:

 The parcel (data) inside

 The shipping label (header)

If your box can be 1500 grams total, and the label weighs 40 grams, then:

 The space le for your parcel (real data) = 1460 grams

 This is your MSS

So usually: MSS = MTU (1500) - Headers (40) = 1460 bytes

🛠 Real-World Networking Example

You're using a VPN to connect to your office:

1. Normally, your network has an MTU of 1500 bytes.

2. But the VPN adds extra headers (like 50 bytes).

3. Now your MTU is only 1450 bytes.

If your system s ll tries to send 1460 bytes of data (old MSS), it will be too big and get chopped up
(fragmented).

Fragmenta on = slower network, possible errors.

 So, the solu on is: reduce MSS to 1400 to fit the new MTU of 1450.

Summary (Ultra-Simple Table)

Concept Like in Real Life Meaning Normal Value

MTU Max box size allowed Max packet size (including labels) 1500 bytes

MSS Contents inside the box Actual data inside the packet 1460 bytes

Why Should You Care?

 If you use VPNs or tunnels (like in remote work), your MTU is smaller

 If you don’t adjust your MSS, your data gets split, slowing things down

 Many systems let you tune MSS to avoid problems (like TCP errors)

Why Ethernet Is Men oned for MTU

Ethernet is a wired network standard used in:

 Offices and data centers

 Home routers with LAN ports

 Cloud servers communica ng over a physical or virtual network

It’s the most common standard for network connec ons, so:

When people say “MTU = 1500 bytes”, they usually mean:

"The maximum transmission size on a standard Ethernet network is 1500 bytes."

What About Wireless (Wi-Fi)?

 Wi-Fi also has an MTU, and it’s usually also 1500 bytes.

 Even though Wi-Fi is wireless, it o en tries to match Ethernet behavior to make networking consistent.

 Behind the scenes, Wi-Fi adds extra headers, but the IP packet size stays within the 1500 bytes limit —
to avoid issues.

Key Point:
Network Type Typical MTU Why?

Ethernet 1500 bytes Most common wired network type

Wi-Fi 1500 bytes Tries to match Ethernet standard

VPN / Tunnels 1400–1450 bytes Lower MTU due to extra encryp on headers

23. TCP handshake in detail -> TCP — 3 way handshake

The TCP 3-Way Handshake is a fundamental process that establishes a reliable connec on between two
devices over a TCP/IP network. It involves three steps: SYN (Synchronize), SYN-ACK (Synchronize-Acknowledge),
and ACK (Acknowledge). During the handshake, the client and server exchange ini al sequence numbers and
confirm the connec on establishment.

The TCP 3-Way Handshake is a fundamental process used in the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) to
establish a reliable connec on between a client and a server before actual data transmission begins. This
handshake ensures that both par es are synchronized and ready for communica on.

TCP uses the full-duplex connec on to synchronize (SYN) and acknowledge (ACK) each other on both sides

It ensures:

 Both sides are ready to communicate

 The connec on is reliable

 Packets will be delivered in order and without loss

Step 1: SYN (Client → Server)

When a client wants to start talking to a server, it ini ates the connec on by sending a special TCP packet
with:

Field Example Value Purpose

SYN = 1 Signals "start connec on"

Sequence Number e.g., 12345678 Star ng number for data tracking

ACK = 0 No acknowledgment yet (this is the first message)

e.g., 1000
Window Size How much data client is ready to receive at once
bytes

MSS (Max Segment Max size of data in one TCP segment (excluding
e.g., 100 bytes
Size) headers)
What Does This Mean?

The client is saying:

"Hello Server, I want to talk.

I’m star ng with sequence number 12345678.
I can accept up to 1000 bytes of data at once.
And I want you to send me chunks no larger than 100 bytes each."

Explaining Your Example: 1000 / 100 = 10

 Window Size = 1000 bytes:

The receiver (client) can handle 1000 bytes of data at one me without sending another ACK.

 MSS = 100 bytes:

Each segment sent by the sender (server) should be 100 bytes max.

So, the sender can send up to 10 segments before needing an acknowledgment from the client:
1000 bytes window ÷ 100 bytes MSS = 10 segments

This is flow control — the client is saying:

“Don’t overload me. You can send up to 1000 bytes total, in pieces of 100 bytes or less.”

Why Is This Important?

 The sequence number helps track and reorder data properly.

 The window size helps manage how much data can be sent without overloading the receiver.

 The MSS helps op mize packet size and avoid fragmenta on.

Summary (In Simple Terms):

When the client sends the first SYN:

It says:

“I'm ready to talk.

Here’s my ID (sequence number),
please send me data in chunks of 100 bytes,
and I can take up to 1000 bytes at a me before I send an ACK.”
STEP 2: SYN-ACK (Server → Client)

A er the client sends the SYN (Step 1), the server replies with:

SYN-ACK: Dual-purpose message

It means:

1. ACK = 1 → “I got your SYN and your sequence number.”

2. SYN = 1 → “Now here’s my own sequence number to start the connec on from my side.”

SYN = 1, ACK = 1 (response to SYN)

Server chooses its own Sequence Number = Y (e.g., 3000)

Acknowledgment Number = X + 1 (client’s seq + 1 → expecting next byte)

SYN = 1, ACK = 1

SEQ = Y (e.g., 3000)

ACK = X + 1 (1001)

Window Size = e.g., 32768

Server says:

"I got your request. My SEQ = 3000, and I’m ready. I acknowledge your SEQ = 1000, so I expect 1001 next."

Step 3: ACK (Client → Server)

SYN = 0, ACK = 1

Sequence Number = X + 1 (client’s next sequence number)

Acknowledgment Number = Y + 1 (server’s sequence number + 1)

Packet Sent:

SYN = 0, ACK = 1

SEQ = 1001

ACK = 3001

Window Size = 65535

Client says:

"Thanks! I got your SEQ = 3000. I’m ready to receive the next byte (3001). Let’s begin sending data."
 Now the connec on is established.

 The client sends the acknowledgment (ACK) to the server a er receiving the synchroniza on (SYN)
from the server.

 A er ge ng the (ACK) from the client, the connec on is established between the client and the server.

 Now the data can be transmi ed between the client and server sides.

3 -Way Handshake Closing Connec on Process

To close a 3-way handshake connec on,

 First, the client requests the server to terminate the established connec on by sending FIN.

 A er receiving the client request, the server sends back the FIN and ACK request to the client.

 A er receiving the FIN + ACK from the server, the client confirms by sending an ACK to the server.

24. Digital Cer ficates

A digital cer ficate is like an ID card for a website. It proves the site is trustworthy and tells you who owns it.

What does it contain?

A digital cer ficate includes:

 The website’s domain name

 The website owner’s public key

 The Cer ficate Authority (CA) who issued it (e.g., DigiCert, Let's Encrypt)

 A digital signature from the CA

Why do we need it?

 It proves the server is legit, not a fake

 It allows secure communica on using encryp on

Real-World Analogy:

Imagine you're visi ng a bank. Before giving your info, you ask:

“Are you the real bank?”

The bank shows you a government-issued license (cer ficate) with:

 Bank’s name (domain)

 Bank’s signature (public key)

  Government stamp (CA’s signature)

If the stamp checks out, you trust the bank.

That’s exactly how your browser checks a website’s digital cer ficate before connec ng securely.

25. TLS/SSL Handshake (they’re nearly the same now)

 The network is important for office, home, and business networks. The problem is at the utmost places
wireless communica on is used or we can say the wireless network is used which is effortlessly hackable
and the router can be freely exploited if not secured rightly. So there's a need for security in the network.
To fulfill this need we can use security protocols or cryptographic protocols to deliver authen ca on and
data security.


TLS (Transport Layer Security) is the modern, secure version of SSL (Secure Sockets Layer).

TLS is what HTTPS uses today

Goal:

The TLS handshake securely:

1. Verifies iden ty with digital cer ficates

2. Chooses encryp on methods

3. Exchanges secret keys

4. Starts encrypted communica on

What Happens During a TLS Handshake?

Let’s say you open h ps://example.com in your browser.

Step 1: Client Hello

Your browser says:

“Hello, I want to connect securely.

The client starts the handshake by sending a ClientHello message that includes:

 A random number (called Client Random)

 A list of supported cipher suites (encryp on algorithms like AES, ChaCha20, RSA, ECDHE)

 The TLS version it supports (e.g., TLS 1.3)

 Supported compression methods

 Op onally: supported extensions like SNI (Server Name Indica on) or ALPN (used for HTTP/2)
 Purpose:

"Hey server, I want to start a secure session. Here's how I can talk securely. Let me know what you support
too."

Step 2: Server Hello

Server replies:

“Okay, I accept your request.

Here’s my digital cer ficate (signed by a CA),
and here’s my own random number.”

Purpose:

"Okay, I accept your request. Let’s use this encryp on method.

Here's my cer ficate (iden ty proof), and some info to generate our shared secret."

Step 3: Cer ficate Valida on (done by browser)

 Browser checks: The client now checks the server’s cer ficate:

o Is the cer ficate valid? (not expired)?

o Is it signed by a trusted CA? Cer ficate Authority

o Is the domain name on the cer ficate the same as the site you’re visi ng?

If all checks pass → browser trusts the server -> handshake con nues.

If not: browser shows a security warning (e.g., “Your connec on is not private”).

Purpose: "Let me make sure this server is really who it says it is."

Step 4: Key Exchange (Shared Secret Agreement)

Now Both sides now agree on a shared secret, called the "Pre-Master Secret", which will be used to generate
the session key for encryp on.

There are two common ways:

1. RSA: Browser encrypts a “pre-master secret” using server's public key (older method – TLS 1.2)

 Client generates a random pre-master secret

 Encrypts it using server’s public key (from the certificate)
 Sends it to server
 Server decrypts using its private key

2. ECDHE (Modern): They use a method called Diffie-Hellman to generate the key without sending it

This key is used to encrypt all future communica on.

 Both client and server exchange temporary public keys

  They perform a mathema cal opera on (Diffie-Hellman) to compute the same shared secret
 This is more secure and supports Perfect Forward Secrecy

Purpose:

 "Let’s create a shared secret that nobody else can see, even if they intercepted this handshake."

Step 5: Finish

 Both sides send a final message:

 “I’m ready to start encrypted communication.”
 From now on, all data is encrypted using the shared key .
 "Now that we share a secret, let's use it to lock and unlock all future messages."

Step What Happens Purpose

1. Client Hello Client proposes encryp on methods Start connec on

2. Server Hello Server sends cer ficate & picks method Iden ty + confirm

3. Cer ficate Check Client verifies cer ficate Trust server

4. Key Exchange Both sides generate shared secret Set up encryp on

5. Finished Secure session begins Encrypted communica on

Real-World Analogy: Secret Chat

 You (browser) meet someone online (server)

 You ask for ID (digital cer ficate)

 You check if it's real (CA signature)

 You both agree on a secret way to talk (encryp on method)

 You create a secret code (shared key)

 Now you chat securely, and no one can spy on you

 26. Problem on Sequence numbers and Acknowledgement numbers.

Concept Meaning

The number of the first byte in the current

Sequence Number (SEQ)
segment being sent

The number of the next expected byte from

Acknowledgment Number (ACK)
the other side

Each byte of data has its own number — even if it’s

not a new packet

27. What are a few methods of HTTP?

 HTTP stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol, and it’s used by web browsers to talk to web servers.
 Each request from the browser uses an HTTP method to tell the server what kind of ac on to perform.
 Common HTTP Methods (Explained with Real-Life Examples):

HTTP
What It Does Real-Life Analogy
Method
GET Requests data from a server Like reading a web page or viewing an image
POST Submits data to the server Like filling a form or sending a message
PUT Updates or replaces data Like updating your profile picture
Deletes something from the
DELETE Like deleting your comment on a blog
server
PATCH Partially updates data Like changing only your phone number
Like asking "Is the file there?" without
HEAD Gets headers only (no content)
downloading it
 For example, when you visit h ps://example.com/about, your browser sends a GET request to the
server.

28. What is HTTPS?

HTTPS = HTTP + Encryp on (TLS)

 HTTPS stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure

 It is the secure version of HTTP used on the web

 Everything sent between your browser and the server is encrypted (locked)

Why Use HTTPS?

 Reason Benefit
Encryption Prevents hackers from spying on your data
Authentication Proves you’re talking to the real server (not a fake)
Data Integrity No one can modify data in transit

How Does It Work?

When you go to a site like h ps://bank.com:

1. Your browser first checks the server's SSL/TLS cer ficate

2. A TLS handshake happens (to securely exchange keys)

3. A er the handshake, all traffic is encrypted using symmetric encryp on like AES

29. Is the Port Number Different for HTTPS?

Yes!

Protocol Default Port Description

HTTP 80 Unencrypted web traffic
HTTPS 443 Encrypted web traffic using TLS

 So when your browser sees https://, it automatically connects to port 443 unless told
otherwise.
 You don’t need to type the port — the browser knows which one to use.

30. How is SSL Related to HTTPS?

SSL vs TLS

Term Meaning Status

SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) The original encryption protocol Deprecated (not used anymore)
TLS (Transport Layer Security) The newer, secure protocol Current standard (TLS 1.2, 1.3)

HTTPS uses TLS (not SSL anymore), but people still say “SSL” out of habit.

How TLS Works in HTTPS

Here’s a simplified version of what happens when you open an HTTPS website:

Step-by-Step: TLS Handshake in HTTPS

1. Browser sends a “Hello” (ClientHello)

→ Lists supported encryp on algorithms
 2. Server responds with “Hello” (ServerHello)
→ Sends its digital cer ficate

3. Browser validates cer ficate

→ Checks if it’s signed by a trusted authority (e.g., DigiCert, Let’s Encrypt)

4. Key Exchange
→ Client and server generate a shared secret key (via Diffie-Hellman or RSA)

5. Both sides confirm (Finished)

→ Secure tunnel is created

6. Now actual HTTP data is encrypted and transferred securely!

31. Difference between router, switch.

Feature Router Switch

Connects different networks together (e.g., Connects devices within the same local
Purpose
your home network to the internet). network (LAN).

Layer in OSI Operates at Layer 3 (Network layer) — uses Operates at Layer 2 (Data Link layer) —
Model IP addresses. uses MAC addresses.

Routes packets between different networks Forwards data packets between devices
Func on
and manages traffic between them. within the same network efficiently.

Uses IP addresses to decide where to send Uses MAC addresses to forward frames to
Addressing
packets. the correct device.

Connects your home/business network to Connects computers, printers, and servers

Typical Use
the internet or other networks. inside your office or home network.

Traffic Can filter traffic, assign IP addresses (DHCP), Mainly forwards frames and can create
Handling provide NAT, firewall, VPN. VLANs for network segmenta on.

Example Home Wi-Fi routers, ISP routers, enterprise

Network switches in offices, data centers.
Devices routers.

Real-World Analogies

Router = Postal Service

 Imagine your home network is a neighborhood, and the internet is the outside world.

 A router acts like the post office that decides how to send your le ers (data packets) to different ci es
(networks).
  It knows the best routes and directs mail accordingly.

Switch = Local Mailroom

 Inside your neighborhood (local network), the switch acts like the local mailroom, delivering le ers
only to the correct house (device) inside that neighborhood.

 It looks at the house address (MAC address) to deliver the message.

Summary

Device Connects Uses Main Job

Router Different networks IP addresses Routes data between networks

Switch Devices in one network MAC addresses Forwards data within network

32. What is a Broadcast Domain?

A Broadcast Domain is a logical network segment where a broadcast packet sent by any device is received by
all other devices in the same segment.

What is a Broadcast?

 A broadcast is a message sent from one device to all devices on the same network segment.

 It uses a special broadcast address.

 For example, in IPv4, the address 255.255.255.255 or the subnet broadcast address (like 192.168.1.255
for subnet 192.168.1.0/24) is used to send broadcast messages.

Why does Broadcast Domain ma er?

 Broadcasts are used for network services, like address resolu on (ARP), DHCP requests, and others.

 But too many broadcasts can cause network conges on — called a broadcast storm.

 So, managing broadcast domains is important for network performance and security.

How Broadcast Domains Work with Devices

Device Broadcast Forwarding? Effect on Broadcast Domain

Forwards broadcast to all

Hub All devices connected share one broadcast domain
ports

Forwards broadcast within the

Switch Devices in the same VLAN share one broadcast domain
VLAN

Routers separate broadcast domains (each interface is its own

Router Does NOT forward broadcasts
broadcast domain)

Real-Life Example

Imagine an office floor where all computers are connected to the same switch.

 If Computer A sends a broadcast (e.g., ARP request), all computers connected to that switch (in that
VLAN) will receive it.

 If you connect two floors with routers, broadcast messages from one floor won’t reach the other floor
because routers do not forward broadcasts.

Summary

Concept Explana on

Broadcast Domain A network segment where broadcast packets are shared by all devices

Broadcast Packet A message sent to all devices in the broadcast domain

Routers Separate broadcast domains (don’t forward broadcasts)

Switches/Hubs Switches forward broadcasts within VLAN; hubs forward to all ports

Why is this important?

 Helps design scalable networks

 Prevents unnecessary traffic from flooding the en re network

 Helps isolate network problems

 33. Flow/error control

Flow control is a mechanism to manage the rate of data transmission between two devices so that the sender
does not overwhelm the receiver.

Why is Flow Control needed?

 Imagine you send data too fast, but the receiver’s buffer or processing speed is slow.

 If the sender keeps sending without pause, the receiver’s buffer may overflow, causing data loss.

How does Flow Control work?

 It ensures the sender sends data only as fast as the receiver can handle.

 The receiver can signal the sender to pause or slow down.

Example of Flow Control methods:

Method How it Works Example Protocol

Stop-and- Sender sends one packet and waits for acknowledgment Used in simple data link
Wait before sending the next protocols

Sliding Sender can send mul ple packets before needing ACK but TCP uses sliding window
Window limited by window size flow control

Real-Life Analogy:

 Think of a water pipe where the faucet is the sender and the bucket is the receiver.

 Flow control is like adjus ng the faucet so water doesn’t overflow the bucket.

2. What is Error Control?

Defini on:

Error control ensures that data sent over the network is received correctly, without corrup on or loss.

Why is Error Control needed?

  Data can get corrupted or lost due to noise, interference, or faulty hardware.

 Error control detects and corrects these errors to maintain data integrity.

How does Error Control work?

 The sender adds extra informa on (like checksums or parity bits) to help detect errors.

 The receiver checks this informa on to see if the data is corrupted.

 If errors are detected, the receiver can request retransmission of corrupted data.

Common Error Control Techniques:

Technique Descrip on Used In

Parity Check Adds a parity bit for basic error detec on Simple links

Checksums Calculates a value represen ng data integrity IP, TCP

Ethernet, data link

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) Detects errors in frames using polynomial division
layer

Acknowledgment and Receiver requests sender to resend corrupted or lost

TCP, ARQ protocols
Retransmission packets

Real-Life Analogy:

 Think of mailing a le er with a checklist inside.

 The receiver checks if the checklist matches the items.

 If something’s missing or wrong, they ask the sender to resend it.

Summary Table

Control
Purpose Mechanism Example
Type

Prevent sender from overwhelming Pause/slowing sender data TCP sliding

Flow Control
receiver rate window
Control
Purpose Mechanism Example
Type

Error
Detect and correct errors in data Checksums, retransmissions TCP, Ethernet CRC
Control

34. Role of the Router in the separa on of Broadcast Domains.

What is a Broadcast Domain Recap?

 A broadcast domain is a network segment where a broadcast frame sent by one device is received by
all other devices in that segment.

 Broadcasts are useful but too many cause conges on.

How Routers Separate Broadcast Domains

 Routers do NOT forward broadcast packets.

 Each interface (or port) on a router represents a different broadcast domain.

 This means a router divides a network into mul ple broadcast domains.

Why is this important?

 It limits broadcast traffic to only the devices within a single broadcast domain.

 Prevents broadcast storms from affec ng the en re network.

 Improves network performance and security by isola ng traffic.

Example:

Imagine you have two LANs:

 LAN 1: 192.168.1.0/24

 LAN 2: 192.168.2.0/24

Each LAN is a broadcast domain.

 Devices in LAN 1 can broadcast to each other but broadcasts don’t go beyond LAN 1.

 Devices in LAN 2 can broadcast to each other but broadcasts don’t cross into LAN 1.

A router connects these two LANs but does not forward broadcast packets between them.
LAN 1 (Broadcast Domain 1) <---> Router <---> LAN 2 (Broadcast Domain 2)

Devices all receive Router separates Devices all receive

broadcast packets within broadcast traffic broadcast packets within

LAN 1 only between LANs LAN 2 only

Summary

Device Broadcast Forwarding? Broadcast Domain Impact

Switch Forwards broadcast inside VLAN Single broadcast domain

Router Does NOT forward broadcasts Separates broadcast domains per interface

In short:

 Routers separate broadcast domains by blocking broadcast traffic between their interfaces.

 This keeps broadcast traffic contained and manageable, improving network efficiency.

35. Problem on IP Addressing at the sender, gateway and des na on.

Understanding IP Addressing at Sender, Gateway, and Des na on

Basic Concept

 Sender: The device ini a ng communica on, with its own IP and subnet mask.

 Gateway (Router): Device that routes packets between different networks.

 Des na on: The device receiving the data, usually in the same or different network.

Problem Example

Network Setup:

 Sender IP: 192.168.1.10 /24

 Gateway (Router) IP on sender's network: 192.168.1.1

 Des na on IP: 10.0.0.5 /8

 Gateway (Router) IP on des na on network: 10.0.0.1

Ques on:

 When sender 192.168.1.10 sends a packet to 10.0.0.5, what are the IP addresses in the packet at
different points (sender, gateway, des na on)?

 How does the sender decide to send the packet to the gateway instead of directly to the des na on?

Step-by-Step Explana on

1. Sender checks if des na on is in the same subnet:

 Sender subnet: 192.168.1.0/24 means IPs from 192.168.1.1 to 192.168.1.254 are local.

 Des na on 10.0.0.5 is NOT in the 192.168.1.0/24 subnet.

So, sender sends the packet to its default gateway (router) IP 192.168.1.1.

2. Packet at sender side:

 Source IP: 192.168.1.10 (sender IP)

 Des na on IP: 10.0.0.5 (final des na on IP)

 Next hop MAC address: MAC of gateway (192.168.1.1)

Note: IP addresses in the packet don’t change here.

3. Packet arrives at Gateway (Router):

 The router looks at the des na on IP: 10.0.0.5.

 It checks its rou ng table and finds the outgoing interface to reach 10.0.0.0/8 network.

 Router forwards the packet toward des na on, changing the Layer 2 (MAC) addresses accordingly, but
IP addresses stay the same.

4. Packet arrives at des na on network:

 Des na on device with IP 10.0.0.5 receives the packet.

 The device processes the packet and responds.

Summary Table:

Loca on Source IP Des na on IP MAC Address Used for Next Hop

Sender 192.168.1.10 10.0.0.5 MAC of Gateway (192.168.1.1)

Gateway (Router) 192.168.1.10 10.0.0.5 MAC of Next Router or Des na on

Des na on 192.168.1.10 10.0.0.5 MAC of des na on device

Important Points:

 IP addresses (Layer 3) don’t change from sender to des na on.

 MAC addresses (Layer 2) change hop-by-hop between devices.

 Sender sends packets to gateway if des na on is outside local subnet.

 Gateway routes packets between networks.

36. Packet Tracing.

Packet Tracing is the process of following the path of a data packet as it travels from a source device (like your
computer) to a des na on device (like a website server) across a network.

It helps:

 Understand how data moves through networks.

 Diagnose network problems (e.g., where packets are ge ng lost or delayed).

 Verify if firewalls, routers, and switches are configured correctly.

How Packet Tracing Works

When a packet leaves a device, it passes through several network devices (routers, switches, firewalls). Packet
tracing tracks each "hop" or device the packet passes through.

Tools for Packet Tracing

1. Traceroute (Linux/macOS) / tracert (Windows):

 Sends special packets with increasing TTL (Time To Live) values.

 Each router along the path decreases TTL by 1.

 When TTL reaches zero, the router sends back an error message.
  This allows you to see the route the packet takes and the me to reach each hop.

Example command:

tracert google.com (Windows)

traceroute google.com (Linux/macOS)

2. Ping:

 Sends ICMP echo requests to test if a device is reachable.

 Measures round-trip me.

 Helps check if a device is online.

What Packet Tracing Shows

 The IP addresses of each router the packet goes through.

 The response me (latency) at each hop.

 Where delays or failures happen.

Real-Life Analogy

Think of sending a package via courier:

 Packet tracing is like tracking your package.

 You see each post office (router) it passes through.

 If the package is delayed or lost, you know where the problem is.

Example Packet Tracing Output (tracert google.com)

Tracing route to google.com [142.250.190.78]

over a maximum of 30 hops:

1 <1 ms <1 ms <1 ms 192.168.1.1 (Your router)

2 10 ms 9 ms 11 ms 203.0.113.1 (ISP gateway)

3 15 ms 14 ms 16 ms 198.51.100.1 (ISP router)

4 30 ms 29 ms 32 ms 142.250.190.78 (Google server)

Trace complete.
Why is Packet Tracing Important?

 Troubleshoo ng: Find network bo lenecks or failures.

 Network design: Understand data paths and op mize rou ng.

 Security: Detect unexpected paths or unauthorized devices.

37. What are VPNs we can connect to any private server using a VPN?

What is a VPN?

VPN stands for Virtual Private Network.

 It creates a secure, encrypted connec on (a “tunnel”) between your device and another network over
the internet.

 This tunnel protects your data from eavesdropping and lets you access resources as if you were directly
connected to that private network.

How Does a VPN Work?

1. You start a VPN client on your device.

2. The client connects to a VPN server (which could be in your company or a third-party VPN provider).

3. Your device and VPN server establish an encrypted tunnel.

4. All your internet traffic routes through this tunnel.

5. Your IP address appears as the VPN server’s IP to outside sites.

6. You get secure access to private resources behind that VPN server.

Types of VPNs

Type Descrip on Use Case

Remote Access Employees accessing office network

Connect individual devices to private network
VPN remotely

Site-to-Site VPN Connects en re networks securely over internet Connect two branch offices

Used by individuals to secure internet traffic or Privacy and anonymity for internet
Personal VPN
bypass geo-blocks users
Can We Connect to Any Private Server Using a VPN?

 Only if you have proper creden als and permission.

 The VPN server controls who can connect.

 Without creden als (like username/password, cer ficates, or keys), you cannot connect.

 The VPN server acts as a gateway to the private network, so unauthorized access is blocked.

Real-Life Example

 You work from home and want to access your company’s internal files.

 You use a VPN client to connect to your company’s VPN server.

 Once connected, you can access internal websites, file servers, printers, etc., as if you were in the
office.

 Without VPN access, you cannot reach those private resources directly.

Summary

Ques on Answer

What is a VPN? Secure tunnel to private network

Does VPN encrypt your data? Yes, encrypts all traffic

Can you connect to any private server? Only with permission and creden als

Why use VPN? Security, privacy, remote access

38. How is a hub, a router, and a switch different from each other? Explain in terms of broadcast domain.

1. Hub

 Func on: A hub is a basic networking device that connects mul ple devices in a network.

 How it works: When a hub receives a packet, it broadcasts it to all ports, regardless of the des na on.

 Broadcast Domain:

o The en re network connected to the hub is one single broadcast domain.

o All devices connected to the hub receive broadcast and collision domains.

 Key point: It does not separate broadcast domains or reduce broadcast traffic.
2. Switch

 Func on: A switch connects devices and forwards data only to the specific device/port it’s addressed
to.

 How it works: Uses MAC addresses to forward frames only to the intended recipient port.

 Broadcast Domain:

o By default, all ports on a switch are in the same broadcast domain.

o Broadcast packets are sent to all ports within that domain.

o Switches reduce collisions but do not separate broadcast domains.

 VLANs:

o Switches can create mul ple broadcast domains using VLANs (Virtual LANs).

o Each VLAN is its own broadcast domain.

3. Router

 Func on: A router connects mul ple networks and routes packets between them.

 How it works: Routers operate at Layer 3 (Network Layer) and forward packets based on IP addresses.

 Broadcast Domain:

o Routers do not forward broadcast packets.

o Each interface on a router represents a different broadcast domain.

o Routers separate broadcast domains, preven ng broadcast traffic from crossing between
networks.

Summary Table

Device Broadcast Domain Key Behavior

Single broadcast domain

Hub Broadcasts incoming packets to all ports; no separa on
for all ports

Single broadcast domain Forwards frames based on MAC; broadcasts only within domain;
Switch
(per VLAN) VLANs can separate domains

Separates broadcast Does NOT forward broadcasts; each interface is a separate

Router
domains broadcast domain
Real-World Analogy:

 Hub: Like a loudspeaker that repeats everything to everyone in the room.

 Switch: Like a recep onist who directs each message only to the intended person (but s ll in the same
room).

 Router: Like a security gate between two rooms, only le ng authorized messages through and blocking
others (broadcasts don’t cross).

39. VPN and Proxy

What is a VPN?

 VPN (Virtual Private Network) creates a secure, encrypted tunnel between your device and the internet
or a private network.

 All your internet traffic (all apps, browsers, etc.) routes through this encrypted tunnel.

 VPN hides your real IP address and encrypts your en re connec on.

 You get privacy, security, and can access restricted resources as if you were on a different
network/loca on.

Use cases:

 Securely access a company's internal network remotely.

 Protect your data on public Wi-Fi.

 Bypass geographic restric ons and censorship.

What is a Proxy?

 A Proxy acts as an intermediary server between your device and the internet.

 It forwards your requests to websites and then sends back the response.

 Typically works on an applica on level (e.g., only your browser traffic).

 May or may not encrypt traffic depending on the proxy type.

 Proxies can mask your IP address but don’t usually encrypt your en re internet connec on.

Use cases:

 Access geo-restricted content on a browser.

 Filter content in schools or workplaces.

  Cache web pages to improve load mes.

Key Differences

Feature VPN Proxy

Encryp on Encrypts all traffic Usually no encryp on or limited to specific apps

Coverage En re device/network traffic Usually only for specific apps (e.g., browser)

Privacy Hides IP and encrypts data Masks IP but may not encrypt data

Speed Slightly slower due to encryp on Generally faster, less overhead

Setup Complexity Requires VPN client/so ware Can be setup via browser or system proxy se ngs

Security High (good for sensi ve data) Lower, not suitable for sensi ve info

Real-Life Analogy

 VPN: Like a secure, private tunnel from your home to a des na on, hiding everything you do inside it.

 Proxy: Like a recep onist who forwards your mail, but anyone can s ll read the le er if they intercept
it.

40. Explain in depth what is TCP and UDP. Compare and contrast both of them.

TCP is a connec on-oriented, reliable protocol that ensures accurate and ordered delivery of data between
systems.

Key Features:

 Connec on-oriented: Establishes a connec on (via 3-way handshake) before data is transferred.

 Reliable: Ensures all data packets are delivered; lost or corrupted packets are retransmi ed.

 Ordered: Data arrives in the exact order it was sent.

 Flow Control: Uses window size and acknowledgments to prevent overwhelming the receiver.

 Error Checking: Uses checksums and acknowledgment numbers.

 Conges on Control: Detects and reacts to network conges on.

When to use TCP:

 When data accuracy is more important than speed.

 Examples:

o Web browsing (HTTP/HTTPS)

o File transfer (FTP)

o Email (SMTP, IMAP)

UDP is a connec onless, unreliable, but fast transport protocol.

Key Features:

 Connec onless: No handshake or connec on setup; data is just sent.

 Unreliable: No guarantee that data is received; no acknowledgments or retransmissions.

 Faster: Lower overhead = higher speed.

 No Flow Control or Conges on Control: Sends data without checking the receiver's readiness.

 Lightweight: Very minimal header (8 bytes vs. 20+ for TCP).

When to use UDP:

 When speed and low latency ma er more than reliability.

 Examples:

o Live video/audio streaming

o Online gaming

o DNS lookups , VoIP (Voice over IP)

In-Depth Comparison Table

Feature TCP UDP

Type Connec on-oriented Connec onless

Reliable (ACKs, retransmission, Unreliable (no ACKs or

Reliability
sequencing) retransmission)

Speed Slower due to overhead Faster due to minimal overhead

Header Size 20–60 bytes (more control fields) 8 bytes (very lightweight)

Ordering Guarantees packet order No ordering of packets

Feature TCP UDP

Flow/Conges on
Yes (window size, conges on algorithms) No
Ctrl

Use Cases Web, email, file transfer Streaming, gaming, voice

Error Recovery Yes (checksums, ACK, retransmission) No error recovery

Real-World Analogy

 TCP is like sending a registered le er via post. You need a signature at each step, get a receipt, and it
won’t be lost.

 UDP is like sending a postcard. It’s fast and simple, but no guarantees it’ll reach, or that it won’t get lost
or arrive late.

Summary

TCP (Reliable & Slower) UDP (Unreliable & Faster)

Ensures delivery & order Best-effort delivery only

Good for files, web, email Good for streaming, DNS, VoIP

TCP – Real World Use Cases

TCP is used when reliability, order, and error checking are essen al. Here are some real-life scenarios:

1. Web Browsing (HTTP/HTTPS)

 Protocols like HTTP and HTTPS use TCP.

 When you load a web page, all the content (HTML, images, CSS, JavaScript) must arrive completely and
correctly.
 Why TCP?
➡ You don’t want half a webpage or a broken image — TCP guarantees everything arrives in the right order.

2. File Transfers (FTP, SFTP, SCP)

 Used in services like Google Drive uploads, FTP servers, file syncing, etc.

Why TCP?
➡ Files must be transferred accurately and completely without corrup on.

3. Emails (SMTP, IMAP, POP3)

 Email clients (like Gmail, Outlook) use TCP.

Why TCP?
➡ You don’t want parts of your email missing or messages in the wrong order.

4. Remote Login (SSH, Telnet)

 When connec ng to a server using SSH (Secure Shell), real- me commands must be reliably received.

Why TCP?
➡ Ensures that command sequences and outputs are delivered correctly and securely.

UDP – Real World Use Cases

UDP is used when speed, low latency, and efficiency are more important than perfect reliability.

1. Live Streaming (YouTube Live, Twitch, Zoom, Skype)

 Real- me audio/video uses UDP.

Why UDP?
➡ A dropped packet or two won’t ruin a video stream, but delays would. UDP avoids delay from
retransmissions.

2. Online Gaming (PUBG, Fortnite, CS:GO)

 Fast-paced games require rapid movement updates between client and server.
 Why UDP?
➡ It’s be er to miss a single update than wait and cause lag. Speed is more cri cal than guaranteed delivery.

3. Voice Over IP (VoIP – WhatsApp Calls, Zoom, Skype)

 Real- me conversa ons can’t afford delays.

Why UDP?
➡ A small drop in audio packets is less no ceable than lag or buffering.

4. DNS (Domain Name System)

 Converts domain names (like google.com) into IP addresses.

Why UDP?
➡ DNS queries are small and fast — reliability isn’t a concern because the client can retry if needed.

Use Case Protocol Reason for Use

Web browsing TCP Reliable and complete data

File transfer (FTP) TCP Accuracy and error checking

Email (SMTP, IMAP) TCP Complete and ordered delivery

Remote login (SSH) TCP Secure, interac ve, reliable

Live video streaming UDP Real- me performance > perfec on

Online gaming UDP Fast updates, tolerate packet loss

Voice/Video calls UDP Low latency, acceptable loss

DNS lookup UDP Small, fast, retry if fails

What is Subne ng? (Simple Defini on)

Subne ng is the process of dividing a large network (like one big neighborhood) into smaller, manageable
pieces (like blocks or streets), called subnets.

Real World Analogy

Imagine your company has a big office building (the network). Inside, you have mul ple departments:

 HR

 Sales

 IT

 Finance

Each department needs their own area (or space) to work efficiently without too much interference. So you
divide the floor into separate zones for each team.

That’s what subne ng does to a network.

It splits one big network into smaller networks (subnets), each for a specific purpose or department.

Here’s how subne ng helps:

1. Security

If one department gets a virus, subne ng ensures it doesn't spread across the whole company.

Example:
The HR subnet is isolated from the IT subnet. So if someone in HR clicks a phishing email, it won’t affect IT
systems.

2. Performance

Smaller subnets reduce conges on. It's like each team having their own Wi-Fi instead of everyone using the
same one.

Example:
Finance apps won’t slow down because of high data from Marke ng team.

3. Troubleshoo ng

If there's a problem, you can pinpoint it to one subnet instead of checking the whole network.

4. Cloud or Office Networks

When se ng up a cloud service (like in AWS), you have to create subnets for public and private access.
Example:

 Public subnet: Your web server (open to the world)

 Private subnet: Your database (only accessible internally)

Visual Example

 IP Address Range: 192.168.0.0/24 → this gives 256 IP addresses

 You split it:

o 192.168.0.0/26 → IT Department (64 IPs)

o 192.168.0.64/26 → HR

o 192.168.0.128/26 → Sales

o 192.168.0.192/26 → Finance

Each gets its own pool of IPs.

Summary

 Subne ng = dividing a network into smaller parts

 Helps with security, performance, and organiza on

 Used in offices, data centers, cloud pla orms

 If your job touches anything with network setup, IT support, cloud, or security, subne ng is a must-
have concept

What Does the /24 or /26 Mean?

This is called CIDR nota on (Classless Inter-Domain Rou ng), and the number a er the slash (/) tells us:

How many bits are used for the network

And how many bits are le for the hosts (devices)

IP Address in Bits

Every IP address has 32 bits (because it's IPv4). For example:

192.168.0.0 =
11000000.10101000.00000000.00000000 → 32 bits total

 The /24 means:

o First 24 bits are for the network part

o Last 8 bits (32 - 24 = 8) are for host addresses

  The /26 means:

o First 26 bits are for the network

o Last 6 bits are for host addresses

 What Does That Mean in Practice?

 Let’s use real examples:

Subnet Host Bits Max IPs Usable IPs (after removing 2) Example Usage
/24 8 bits 2⁸ = 256 254 usable IPs Whole office network
/26 6 bits 2⁶ = 64 62 usable IPs One department

Real-World Example (Office Network)

 Your office has 4 departments.

 You got the block: 192.168.0.0/24 (256 IPs)

 You want to give each department 64 IPs max

So you split it into 4 /26 subnets:

Subnet Range Subnet Mask Dept Name

192.168.0.0/26 255.255.255.192 IT

192.168.0.64/26 255.255.255.192 HR

192.168.0.128/26 255.255.255.192 Sales

192.168.0.192/26 255.255.255.192 Finance

Each gets:

 64 IPs total

 62 usable

TL;DR

 /24 = 256 IPs (big subnet)

 /26 = 64 IPs (smaller subnet)

 The number a er / means how much of the IP is reserved for the network

 The bigger the number, the smaller the subnet (fewer IPs for devices)
SUBNETTING BREAKDOWN (from /24 to /30)

CIDR Subnet Mask Total IPs Usable IPs Host Bits Example Range

/24 255.255.255.0 256 254 8 192.168.0.0 – 192.168.0.255

/25 255.255.255.128 128 126 7 192.168.0.0 – 192.168.0.127

/26 255.255.255.192 64 62 6 192.168.0.0 – 192.168.0.63

/27 255.255.255.224 32 30 5 192.168.0.0 – 192.168.0.31

/28 255.255.255.240 16 14 4 192.168.0.0 – 192.168.0.15

/29 255.255.255.248 8 6 3 192.168.0.0 – 192.168.0.7

/30 255.255.255.252 4 2 2 192.168.0.0 – 192.168.0.3

Total IPs = 2^host bits

Usable IPs = total - 2 (network + broadcast)

Real-Life Use Examples (Cloud / Networking / SysAdmin)

Use Case Subnet Size Why

Office with 200 devices /24 Enough IPs (254 usable)

Department of 50 PCs /26 62 usable IPs is perfect

Point-to-point link (2 routers) /30 Only 2 usable IPs needed

Small cloud web server /28 or /29 Web + DB + Load balancer IPs

Why Can’t We Use Those 2 IPs?

Let’s take your example:

 CIDR: /24

 Total IPs: 2^8 = 256

 Usable IPs: 256 - 2 = 254

The 2 “missing” IPs are:

1. Network Address (first IP)

2. Broadcast Address (last IP)

 1. What is the Network Address?

This is the first IP in the subnet.

In 192.168.0.0/24, the network address is:

192.168.0.0

Why can’t we use it?

Because it tells routers and switches:

“This IP block belongs to this subnet.”

It's used for rou ng decisions, not for devices.

2. What is the Broadcast Address?

This is the last IP in the subnet.

In 192.168.0.0/24, the broadcast address is:

192.168.0.255

Why can’t we use it?

Because it’s used to send messages to every device in the subnet.

For example:

When a device says, “Hey everyone in 192.168.0.x, who has IP Y?”

It sends the message to 192.168.0.255 (broadcast).

Visual Breakdown of /24 Subnet

192.168.0.0/24

|---------------------------------------------------------------|

.0 .1 ... .254 .255

↓ ↓ ↓ ↓

Network Usable IPs Usable Broadcast

Address IPs Address

Think of It Like This

Imagine a group chat room:

 The room name is: 192.168.0.0 → You don’t name a person as the chatroom itself

 The "message to everyone" is: 192.168.0.255 → Used for group announcements

 You give names (IPs) to individual people (devices) in between: 192.168.0.1 to 192.168.0.254

What Happens If You Try to Use Them?

 If you assign .0 to a device, it might confuse routers and break rou ng.

 If you assign .255, it might make broadcast storms or drop communica on.

That's why these two are reserved — it's a network rule to prevent confusion and ensure smooth
communica on.

Summary

Address Type IP Example Usable? Why Not?

Network Address 192.168.0.0 Iden fies the subnet itself

Usable IPs 192.168.0.1–254 For devices (PCs, printers, etc)

Broadcast Address 192.168.0.255 Used to talk to all devices

What is a Subnet Mask?

The subnet mask helps devices know:

 Which part of the IP address is the network

 Which part is for hosts (devices)

IP Address & Subnet Mask: Binary Format

Every IPv4 address is 32 bits, divided into 4 groups (octets) of 8 bits each.
Example IP: 192.168.1.10

Binary:
11000000.10101000.00000001.00001010
Subnet Mask Explained

The subnet mask looks similar, but its bits are like flags:

 1 = network bit

 0 = host bit

Example: /24 (255.255.255.0)

 /24 means first 24 bits are for network

 Last 8 bits are for hosts

Subnet mask binary:

11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000

Decimal form:
255.255.255.0

Interpreta on:

 The first 3 octets (24 bits) are fixed for the network

 The last octet (8 bits) is for hosts

Example: /26 (255.255.255.192)

 /26 means first 26 bits network

 Last 6 bits hosts

Binary subnet mask:

11111111.11111111.11111111.11000000

Breakdown:

 First 3 octets = all ones (24 bits)

 Next 2 bits = 1’s (total 26 bits)

 Last 6 bits = 0’s for hosts

Decimal subnet mask:

255.255.255.192

 192 in binary is 11000000 (that’s the last octet)

How to get 6 host bits from /26?

  Total bits = 32

 Network bits = 26

 Host bits = 32 - 26 = 6

Number of usable hosts:

2^6 = 64 total IPs - 2 reserved = 62 usable hosts

Visual Summary Table

CIDR Binary Mask Decimal Mask Network Bits Host Bits Total IPs Usable IPs

/24 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000 255.255.255.0 24 8 256 254

/26 11111111.11111111.11111111.11000000 255.255.255.192 26 6 64 62

/30 11111111.11111111.11111111.11111100 255.255.255.252 30 2 4 2

Why Subnet Mask?

It helps devices and routers know which part of the IP is the network so they can:

 Communicate with devices inside their subnet directly

 Forward traffic outside to a router if des na on is in another subnet

Quick Analogy:

 IP Address = your home address

 Subnet mask = the city boundary line that tells if your neighbor is in the same city or not

If neighbor is in the same city (network), you talk directly. If not, you call a courier (router).
The OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnec on Model) is a conceptual framework used to understand and
implement standard communica on func ons of a telecommunica on or compu ng system, regardless of its
underlying structure or technology.

It divides the communica on system into seven abstrac on layers, each serving the layer above and being
served by the layer below.

Why We Need the OSI Model (Real-Life Use Case)

 To standardize communica on between different types of hardware and so ware systems.

 Helps developers, network engineers, and designers to troubleshoot and design more efficient
networks.

 Enables interoperability between systems made by different vendors (e.g., HP printer with an Apple
computer).

 Used in network design, diagnos cs, and teaching networking concepts.

 Troubleshoo ng: Helps pinpoint which layer causes an issue (e.g., DNS error = Layer 7, cable fault =
Layer 1).

 Modularity: Developers can improve one layer without affec ng others.

What It Does:

 Converts digital bits into electrical, op cal, or radio signals.

 Handles physical aspects like cable types, pin layout, voltage levels, signal ming.

 Defines hardware connec ons.

How It Works:

 Uses hardware like hubs, cables, repeaters.

 A bit 1 might be represented by a high voltage, and a bit 0 by low voltage.

 Uses standards like RS-232, DSL, Ethernet for signal transmission.

Examples:

 Ethernet cables (Cat5/Cat6)

 Fiber op cs

 Bluetooth, Wi-Fi signals

 USB cables

 Hubs, modems
What It Does:

 Packages bits into frames.

 Uses MAC (Media Access Control) addresses to iden fy devices.

 Handles error detec on and correc on within a local network (LAN).

How It Works:

 Sends a frame that contains:

o MAC addresses (source & des na on)

o Payload (data)

o CRC for error checking

 Handles access control for shared media (e.g., who speaks when on Wi-Fi)

Examples:

 Ethernet (IEEE 802.3)

 Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11)

 Switches operate here

 ARP (Address Resolu on Protocol)

 VLANs

Layer 1: Physical Layer (In-Depth Explana on)

1. What Is the Physical Layer? (Defini on)

The Physical Layer is responsible for the transmission and recep on of raw bit streams over a physical
medium such as copper wires, fiber op cs, or wireless radio waves.

In simple terms:
It converts the bits (0s and 1s) into electrical, op cal, or radio signals for sending across the medium and
converts incoming signals back into bits.

2. What Does the Physical Layer Do? (Func ons)

Func on Descrip on

Bit Transmission Transmits raw bits over the physical medium.

Encoding Converts bits into signals suitable for the medium.

Bit Rate Control Controls how fast bits are sent.

Physical Topology Defines how devices are physically connected (star, bus).

Medium Type Specifies the type of physical media (copper, fiber, air).

3. How It Works (Step-by-Step Process)

Let’s say your laptop wants to send data over an Ethernet cable.

Step 1: Layer 2 sends the frame to Layer 1 as a stream of bits (0s and 1s).

Step 2: Physical Layer converts bits into electrical signals (e.g., voltage levels on cable).

Step 3: Signals travel over the physical cable to the receiving device.

Step 4: Receiver’s Physical Layer detects signals and converts back into bits.

4. Real-Life Example: Ethernet Transmission

 When you connect a computer with an Ethernet cable, the NIC’s Physical Layer turns frames into
electrical signals.

 These signals travel over copper wires to the switch or another computer.

 At the receiving end, the Physical Layer converts electrical signals back into bits for the Data Link Layer.

5. Devices Opera ng at Physical Layer

Device Role

Network Interface Card (NIC) Converts data into signals and vice versa.

Repeaters Regenerate signals to extend distance.

Hubs Broadcast signals to mul ple ports (no filtering).

Cables Copper, fiber op c, wireless medium.

 6. Common Issues at Physical Layer

Problem Cause

No Signal Cable unplugged or broken.

Signal Degrada on Too long cable or interference.

Noise/Interference Electrical noise corrup ng bits.

Duplex Mismatch Devices configured with different duplex modes.

7. Final Analogy

Think of the Physical Layer as the postal delivery system:

The raw bits are like le ers that get converted into cars/trucks on the road (signals on cables). The quality of
the road (cable type) and the vehicles (signal type) determine how well the le ers arrive.

Layer 2: Data Link Layer (In-Depth Explana on)

1. What Is the Data Link Layer? (Defini on)

The Data Link Layer is responsible for node-to-node communica on over a single physical link. It ensures that
the data sent from one device is received correctly and without errors by another directly connected device.

In simple terms:

It takes raw bits from Layer 1 and turns them into frames that can be transmi ed reliably between devices on
the same local network.

2. What Does the Data Link Layer Do? (Func ons)

The Data Link Layer performs the following main tasks:

Func on Descrip on

Framing Divides the bitstream into manageable units called frames.

MAC Addressing Uses physical (hardware) addresses to iden fy devices on a local network.

Error Detec on &

Detects errors in frames using CRC or parity bits.
Correc on
Func on Descrip on

Flow Control Prevents a fast sender from overwhelming a slow receiver.

Manages which device gets to use the network media (important in shared media
Access Control
like Wi-Fi).

3. Sub-layers of Data Link Layer

The Data Link Layer is further divided into two sublayers:

Sublayer Descrip on

MAC (Media Access Control) Controls how devices access the network and when they can transmit data.

LLC (Logical Link Control) Manages error detec on and flow control, and iden fies Layer 3 protocols.

4. How It Works (Step-by-Step Process)

Let’s say you are sending a file from your laptop to a printer on the same Wi-Fi network.

Step 1: Data Arrives from Layer 3

 Layer 3 (Network Layer) provides a packet with IP addressing.

 Layer 2 wraps this packet into a frame.

Step 2: Framing

 A frame = header + payload (data) + trailer.

 Header contains:

o Source MAC address (your laptop)

o Des na on MAC address (the printer)

 Trailer contains:

o CRC checksum for error detec on.

Step 3: MAC Addressing

 Every device has a MAC address (hardcoded in NIC).

 MAC addresses look like: 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E.

  Used to iden fy local devices on the same network.

Step 4: Media Access Control

 Controls how the medium (like Wi-Fi or Ethernet) is accessed.

 Uses protocols like:

o CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Mul ple Access with Collision Detec on) in Ethernet

o CSMA/CA (Collision Avoidance) in Wi-Fi

 Prevents two devices from speaking at the same me (like walkie-talkies).

Step 5: Error Detec on

 Uses CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) to detect if data got corrupted.

 If the checksum doesn't match, the frame is discarded.

Step 6: Frame Delivery

 If des na on MAC address matches the receiver’s MAC, the frame is accepted.

 Frame is stripped of its header/trailer, and the payload (original packet) is sent to Layer 3.

5. Real-Life Example: Wi-Fi Prin ng

Here’s what happens in a real Wi-Fi prin ng scenario:

Step Ac on

1. You hit "Print" on your laptop.

2. The printer's MAC address is found via ARP.

3. The data is wrapped in a frame with that MAC address.

4. The Wi-Fi medium is checked (CSMA/CA).

5. Frame is transmi ed wirelessly.

6. Printer checks if MAC address matches its own.

7. If it matches and CRC is correct, it processes the print job.

 6. Devices Opera ng at Layer 2

Device Role

Switch Forwards frames based on MAC addresses.

Bridge Connects two LAN segments.

NIC (Network Interface Card) Where the MAC address lives.

Routers do not operate at Layer 2 — they are Layer 3 (Network Layer).

7. Common Issues at Data Link Layer

Problem Cause

“ARP Failed” Device can't resolve MAC address for IP.

“Duplicate MAC” Two devices have same MAC (rare, but possible).

“Frame Check Sequence Error” CRC mismatch – indicates transmission error.

“Switch Flooding” Switch doesn’t know des na on MAC – floods to all ports.

8. Summary Table

Feature Descrip on

Unit of data Frame

Addressing MAC address

Device examples Switches, NICs

Error detec on CRC

Access control CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA

Protocols Ethernet, Wi-Fi, PPP, ARP

Final Analogy:

Think of a frame like a sealed envelope:

  The MAC address is the name and room number on the envelope.

 The payload is your le er.

 The CRC is a special code wri en on the back that lets the receiver check if the le er was damaged.

The Data Link Layer makes sure the envelope is delivered to the right person in the right room on the same
floor (local network) — a er that, the Network Layer (Layer 3) takes it to a different building (another
network), if needed.

Layer 3: Network Layer (In-Depth Explana on)

1. What Is the Network Layer? (Defini on)

The Network Layer is responsible for logical addressing and rou ng of data packets between devices across
different networks.

In simple terms:
It decides how to send data from your device to another device even if they are on different networks, using IP
addresses.

2. What Does the Network Layer Do? (Func ons)

Func on Descrip on

Logical Addressing Assigns IP addresses to iden fy devices globally.

Rou ng Determines the best path to send packets across networks.

Packet Forwarding Moves packets from source to des na on through routers.

Fragmenta on Breaks large packets into smaller ones if needed.

3. How It Works (Step-by-Step Process)

Imagine you want to access a website:

Step 1: Data Link Layer passes the frame’s payload (packet) to Layer 3.

Step 2: Network Layer adds source and des na on IP addresses to the packet.

Step 3: It checks rou ng tables to decide the best path.

Step 4: If the packet is too big for the next network, it breaks it into smaller packets (fragmenta on).

Step 5: Packet is sent down to Layer 2 to be framed and transmi ed.

 4. Real-Life Example: Sending Email Across the Internet

 You send an email from your computer.

 Network Layer adds your IP address and the des na on mail server’s IP.

 Routers forward the packet across mul ple networks un l it reaches the des na on.

 The mail server receives and processes your message.

5. Devices Opera ng at Network Layer

Device Role

Router Routes packets between different networks.

Layer 3 Switch Performs rou ng func ons at faster speeds.

6. Common Issues at Network Layer

Problem Cause

IP Address Conflict Two devices have same IP address.

Rou ng Loop Misconfigured routers causing endless forwarding.

Packet Loss Conges on or faulty links causing dropped packets.

7. Final Analogy

Think of Network Layer like a GPS system:

It reads your loca on (IP address), finds the best route (path), and guides your data packet to its des na on,
even if it involves mul ple roads (networks).

Layer 4: Transport Layer (In-Depth Explana on)

1. What Is the Transport Layer? (Defini on)

The Transport Layer ensures reliable data transfer between end devices. It manages segmenta on, flow
control, error correc on, and port addressing.

In simple terms:
It breaks data into segments, ensures all pieces arrive intact and in order, and directs them to the right
applica on.
 2. What Does the Transport Layer Do? (Func ons)

Func on Descrip on

Segmenta on Divides data into manageable chunks (segments).

Reliability Provides acknowledgments and retransmissions (TCP).

Flow Control Prevents sender from overwhelming receiver.

Mul plexing Uses port numbers to deliver data to specific apps.

3. How It Works (Step-by-Step Process)

When downloading a file:

Step 1: Layer 3 sends a packet with data to Layer 4.

Step 2: Transport Layer breaks it into segments.

Step 3: TCP adds sequence numbers and port numbers.

Step 4: Segments are sent to Layer 3 for rou ng.

Step 5: At receiving end, Transport Layer reassembles segments, checks for errors, and sends
acknowledgments.

4. Real-Life Example: Web Browsing

 When you load a website, TCP ensures all webpage data arrives fully and in order.

 If a segment is missing or corrupted, TCP requests retransmission.

5. Devices Opera ng at Transport Layer

Mostly end devices (computers, servers) handle Transport Layer.

6. Common Issues at Transport Layer

Problem Cause

Connec on Timeout Network conges on or unreachable server.

Problem Cause

Port Blocking Firewalls blocking ports.

Data Loss Segment corrup on or loss.

7. Final Analogy

Think of Transport Layer like a courier service that:

Cuts your large package into smaller boxes, labels them, tracks their delivery, and makes sure they all arrive
safely and in order.

Layer 5: Session Layer (In-Depth Explana on)

1. What Is the Session Layer? (Defini on)

The Session Layer manages sessions (connec ons) between applica ons, handling setup, maintenance, and
termina on.

In simple terms:
It keeps the conversa on going between two devices, like managing a phone call.

2. What Does the Session Layer Do? (Func ons)

Func on Descrip on

Session Establishment Opens connec ons between applica ons.

Session Maintenance Keeps sessions alive during communica on.

Session Termina on Ends sessions cleanly.

Synchroniza on Adds checkpoints to recover from errors.

3. How It Works (Step-by-Step Process)

During a video call:

Step 1: Session layer opens connec on between caller and receiver.

Step 2: Keeps session ac ve even during small interrup ons.

Step 3: Ends session when call finishes.

 4. Real-Life Example: Video Conferencing

 Maintains con nuous audio/video stream.

 Manages reconnec on if network drops briefly.

7. Final Analogy

Think of Session Layer like a telephone operator who connects calls and keeps them open un l hung up.

Layer 6: Presenta on Layer (In-Depth Explana on)

1. What Is the Presenta on Layer? (Defini on)

The Presenta on Layer formats, encrypts, and compresses data for the Applica on Layer.

In simple terms:
It makes sure data is readable and secure.

2. What Does the Presenta on Layer Do? (Func ons)

Func on Descrip on

Data Transla on Converts data formats (ASCII, EBCDIC).

Encryp on/Decryp on Secures data (SSL/TLS).

Compression/Decompression Reduces data size for efficiency.

3. How It Works (Step-by-Step Process)

When sending an encrypted email:

Step 1: Applica on sends data.

Step 2: Presenta on Layer encrypts data.

Step 3: Compresses it.

Step 4: Sends to Session Layer.

4. Real-Life Example: HTTPS Browsing

  Encrypts website data so no one can read it in transit.

 Compresses data for faster transfer.

7. Final Analogy

Think of Presenta on Layer like a translator and security guard who encrypts your le er and compresses it
before sending.

Layer 7: Applica on Layer (In-Depth Explana on)

1. What Is the Applica on Layer? (Defini on)

The Applica on Layer is where users interact with the network through so ware applica ons and protocols.

In simple terms:
It’s the interface where you use email, browse websites, or transfer files.

2. What Does the Applica on Layer Do? (Func ons)

Func on Descrip on

Network Services Provides protocols like HTTP, FTP, SMTP.

Resource Sharing Enables file and printer sharing.

Remote Access Allows remote login and control.

3. How It Works (Step-by-Step Process)

When you browse a website:

Step 1: Your browser sends an HTTP request.

Step 2: The Applica on Layer packages data using HTTP protocol.

Step 3: Data moves down through layers for transmission.

4. Real-Life Example: Web Browsing

 Interacts with web servers using HTTP/HTTPS.

 Sends and receives emails using SMTP/POP3.

 7. Final Analogy

Think of the Applica on Layer as the recep onist who takes your requests and sends them off to be
processed.

Summary Table (Bo om-Up)

Layer Unit of Data Key Func on Example Device/Protocol

1. Physical Bits Transmits raw bits NIC, Hub, Cables, Repeaters

2. Data Link Frame Framing, MAC addressing Switch, NIC, Ethernet, Wi-Fi

3. Network Packet Rou ng, logical addressing Router, IP protocol

4. Transport Segment Reliability, flow control TCP, UDP

5. Session Data Session management Session protocols

6. Presenta on Data Encryp on, compression SSL/TLS, JPEG, ASCII

7. Applica on Data User interface & services HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS