RIZAL TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

RUNOFF AND RUNOFF

HYDROGRAPH

GROUP 6

NAME ACTUAL WRITTEN GROOMING

REPORT REPORT

Felipe, John Erick Lheversoll P.

Nieva, Jackielou G.

Sadiasa, Mhica Aldrea R.

Soralbo, Eunice Anne R.

SUBJECT/TIME/DAY: Hydrology (CE14)/4:00PM – 6:00PM/W

SECTION: CEIT-02-601E
SUBMITTED TO: Asst. Prof. Zorahayda V. Concepcion
(Instructor)

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. RUNOFF
A. Introduction to Runoff (with Diagram and Example) 4
B. Different Types of Runoffs 4
C. Runoff Water Cycle 5
D. Components of Runoff 6

II. FACTORS AFFECTING RUNOFF

A. Introduction to Factors Affecting Runoff 7
B. Climatic Factors 7
C. Physiographic Factors 8

III. RUNOFF HYDROGRAPH

A. Introduction to Hydrograph 8
B. Components of Hydrograph 9
C. Computation of Runoff 9
• Infiltration Method 9
• Emperical Formulas 11
D. Methods in Hydrograph that can be used and are not affected by rainfall 12
E. Base Flow Separation from Hydrograph 12

IV. RUNOFF AND HYDROGRAPH IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

A. Cause-and-Effect Relationship of Runoff and Hydrograph 13
B. Importance of Runoff in Civil Engineering 13
C. Importance of Hydrograph in Civil Engineering 13

V. References 14

VI. PowerPoint Presentation 15

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 GROUP 6 PROFILE
Subject: CE14-Hydrology
Time/Day: 4:00PM-6:00PM/W
Section: CEIT-02-601E

Name: Felipe, John Erick Lheversoll P.

Birthdate: May 01, 2004
Address: 102 Aguinaldo St. Brgy. Kalayaan, Angono, Rizal
Contact Number: 09755642621
Email: 2022-112756@[Link]

Name: Nieva, Jackielou G.

Birthdate: August 2, 2004
Address: 1772 Tramo St., Pasay City
Contact Number: 09165542655
Email: 2022-106199@[Link]

Name: Sadiasa, Mhica Aldrea R.

Birthdate: May 31, 2003
Address: Blk. 16 Northville Brgy. Bagong Nayon Antipolo
City, Rizal
Contact Number: 09924502185
Email: 2022-106230@[Link]

Name: Soralbo, Eunice Anne R.

Birthdate: April 16, 2004
Address: Road 2 Lot 46 Brgy. Sta. Ana Taytay Rizal
Contact Number: 09917873033
Email: 2022-105823@[Link]

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I. RUNOFF
One of the main parts of
hydrological cycle is the runoff, which
also called discharge, channel flow
or the stream flow. In hydrology,
runoff refers to the movement of
rainfall or other forms of precipitation
that travel to bodies of water, such as
rivers, streams, and oce ans. It
occurs when the amount of water on
the surface exceeds the land's ability
to absorb it. According to Britannica,
runoff includes interflow—water that
seeps through the soil surface and
flows gravitationally toward a stream channel (always above the main groundwater
level) before eventually emptying into the channel. It also encompasses groundwater
contributions to the stream, referred to as base flow or fair-weather runoff.

The National Geographic Society (2023) highlights that runoff is a significant

contributor to water pollution, as it collects various toxic substances while flowing along
the surface. They also identify two primary sources of runoff: natural processes (where
soil is eroded and transported to water bodies) and human activities, categorized as
point sources or non-point sources. The total runoff can be calculated by determining
the difference between total precipitation and other factors such as storage,
evapotranspiration, and abstractions. An example of runoff is during torrential
rainstorm.

• TYPES OF RUNOFFS

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 The runoff can be divided into the following three categories based on the amount
of time that passes between a rainfall event and its generation:

a. Surface Runoff: this occurs when prolonged and intense rainfall exceeds the
infiltration’s rate. Once all losses, such as absorption and evaporation, are
accounted for, the excess water begins to accumulate on the ground's surface.
This accumulation creates a flow, known as overland flow, which moves along
the natural slope of the land. As it joins with streams, channels, or oceans, it is
classified as surface runoff.

b. Sub-Surface Runoff/Interflow: this occurs when the rainfall enters the soil and
laterally travels without connecting the water table to the rivers, streams or seas.
Often times, it is treated as surface runoff as it travels much faster than
groundwater to get to the rivers or channels.

c. Base Flow/Ground Water Flow: this is a delayed flow occurring when the
portion of rainfall that, after hitting the ground, seeps into the soil, reaches the
water table, and then penetrates down into the bodies of water. Due to its slow
movement, base flow takes a significant amount of time to reach these water
bodies. It is commonly observed downstream, where the groundwater table lies
above the elevation of the channel.

Thus, we can say that:

Total Runoff = Surface runoff (including sub-surface runoff) + Base flow

• RUNOFF WATER CYCLE

Water moves around the Earth in different ways which is what we called the water
cycle, transporting materials essential to most life on Earth. Runoff is precipitation that
does not soak into the soil but instead moves on the Earth’s surface toward streams
(National Weather Service, n.d.). Based on the article, Riya P. (2018) stated that there
are four critical stages in runoff cycle:

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Stage 1: End of dry season but the start of intense and isolated storm
In the first stage, with the exception of reservoirs, lakes and ponds from previous
storms, all surfaces and channel storages are now depleted. Stream flow is sustained
solely by groundwater flow, which gradually decreases over time.
Stage 2: Start of rainfall and but saturation of interception and depression
storage
Here, any precipitation happens immediately and directly fall on the land surface
or stream surface a phenomenon known as channel precipitation- the instant
increase of stream flow. The majority of rainwater that reaches the ground is either held
on the surface or infiltrated into the soil, restoring soil moisture deficiency without
adding to the groundwater. At this point, overland flow only occurs from the watershed's
impermeable areas, like highways, etc., in contrast to what happens from the soil
surface since rainwater is used up by a number of losses, including infiltration loss and
depression storage.

Stage 3: End of isolated intense storm

By this stage, all damages on water losses such as–interception by vegetative
foliage and surface depression storage—are eventually fulfilled while the rate of
infiltration rate is also minimized, resulting for the overland flow to reach its peak level
and becoming the main source of surface flow. Furthermore, the stream flow meets
the subsurface flow, which has already begun.

Stage 4: End of rainfall

In this stage, overland flow, base flow and development of channel storage
occurs due to rainfall. Evaporation causes losing large amount of water from the soil,
interception and depression storages. Additionally, water that has been held in surface
depressions begins to seep downward and connect with the water table.

These stages illustrate the progression of runoff, beginning from dry conditions,
advancing through rainfall and storms, and culminating in the flow of water as runoff.
This cycle plays a vital role in redistributing water and sustaining ecosystems.
However, when poorly managed, it can lead to significant environmental issues such
as erosion and pollution.

• COMPONENTS OF RUNOFF
The listed components of runoff are from a catchment area:
a. Directed Precipitation on the Stream Channel - It refers to rainfall that falls
directly on the surface of a river or flooded area, causing runoff without being
absorbed or lost.

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 b. Surface Runoff - This is the most important part of the runoff. Surface runoff refers
to the amount of water that enters the stream from overland flow and is carried by
the stream on its surface. It is also referred to as quickflow.

c. Interflow - If water infiltrates the ground and encounters an impenetrable layer, it

may not reach the groundwater table. Instead, it moves laterally down the slope of
this layer, eventually emerging as a stream. This flow is referred to as interflow.

d. Groundwater Flow - Is an important component of runoff that sustains streams

and rivers during dry periods.

e. Regeneration - It refers to groundwater's contribution to streams and rivers. When

underground water resurfaces and flows into a stream, it helps keep water levels
stable, especially during dry spells when there is no rain. This process maintains
a consistent flow of water over time.
II. FACTORS AFFECTING RUNOFF

Runoff can be influenced by two factors, namely, climatic which includes types
of precipitation, rainfall intensity, duration of rainfall, and rainfall distribution; and
physiographic which includes size, shape, orientation and slope of watershed, land
use and soil type.

• CLIMATIC

a. Type of Precipitation - Different types of precipitation affect runoff differently.

Rainfall causes immediate surface runoff, with its intensity and amount determining
the runoff. Snow or hail, however, don't cause immediate runoff and only contribute
after melting, with water infiltrating the soil and producing less surface runoff.
b. Rainfall Intensity - Rainfall intensity is important in deciding how much runoff
happens. When rainfall is stronger than the soil can absorb, runoff happens quickly.
Lighter rainfall results in less runoff. Stronger rain leads to more runoff, while lighter
rain causes less.

c. Duration of Rainfall - The duration of rainfall is permanently linked to the volume

of runoff, primarily because the soil's infiltration rate gradually decreases as rainfall
continues, eventually stabilizing. As a result, even light rainfall that lasts for an
extended period can cause significant and long-lasting runoff.

d. Rainfall Distribution - It influences runoff in a watershed, which can be measured

using the "distribution coefficient." This ratio compares the maximum rainfall at a
specific point to the average rainfall across the entire watershed.

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 • PHYSIOGRAPHIC

a. Size of Watershed - If all factors are the same, two watersheds of different sizes will
produce similar runoff. However, larger watersheds take longer to drain, resulting in
lower peak flow and depth, whereas smaller watersheds have faster runoff and higher
peaks.

b. Shape of Watershed - The shape of the watershed has a large influence on runoff.
The terms "form factor, compactness, and coefficient" are often used to describe the
shape of a watershed.
• Form Factor - is the ratio of the watershed's area to the square of its maximum
length, which indicates how quickly runoff reaches the outlet. More circular
shapes produce faster runoff.
• Compactness - refers to how closely the watershed's shape resembles a circle.
More compact shapes result in quicker runoff.
• Coefficient - a measure that combines shape, size, and slope to forecast runoff
behavior.

c. Slope of Watershed - The slope of a watershed influences runoff by controlling

overland flow time and rainfall concentration in drainage channels, resulting in peak
runoff.
d. Orientation of Watershed - The orientation of a watershed influences evaporation,
transpiration, and snowmelt. The sun's heat affects these processes, and in
mountainous areas, the direction of the wind receives more rainfall and runoff than
the opposite side.
e. Land Use - Land use affect runoff yield. In forested areas with dense vegetation,
more rainwater is absorbed by the soil, resulting in less surface runoff. In contrast,
barren fields with no cover experience higher surface runoff.
f. Soil Type - Surface runoff in a watershed is influenced by soil type because water
loss is determined by infiltration rates, which vary between soils.

III. RUNOFF HYDROGRAPH

Hydrograph - a graphical or tabular presentation of instantaneous runoff/discharge
rate against time. Sometimes, it is also known as storm hydrograph, flood hydrograph
or simply hydrograph.

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 A hydrograph presents the total runoff (direct +
base flow) occurring at a given time. It also
shows the distribution of total runoff with
respect to time at a certain point of
measurement. The hydrographs are mainly in
two types, i.e., – single peaked and multi-
peaked. The multi-peaked hydrograph is also
known as complex hydrograph. The
occurrence of single or multi-peaked
hydrograph depends on rainfall characteristics,
complexity of watersheds and their peculiar
interactions.

• COMPONENTS OF HYDROGRAPH
1. Rising Limb - It is also known as concentration curve, is the ascending portion
of hydrograph. Its slope steepness depends on the rise of discharge due to
gradual building of storage in drainage channels as well as over the watershed
surface. The shape of rising limb is dependent on the storm and watershed
characteristics, both.
2. Crest Segment - it contains the peak flow. It is extended from the point of
inflection on the rising limb to a similar inflection point on the falling limb. The
peak flow occurs, when various parts of the watershed yield the runoff
simultaneously to the outlet. Hydrographs of some watersheds resulted from a
single and relatively short duration rainfall, have two or more peaks. Multi-peak,
i.e. complex hydrographs can also occur, when two or more storms occur in a
close succession.
3. Falling limb - It is the descending portion of hydrograph, is also known as
recession limb. The falling limb is extended from the point of inflection at the end
of crest segment to the commencement of natural ground water flow. It represents
the withdrawal of water from the storage build up in the watershed during initial
phase of hydrograph. The point of inflection on the falling limb of the hydrograph
indicates the stage, when rainfall has been stopped and channel flow is due to
storage made over the watershed.
• COMPUTATION OF RUNOFF
A. Infiltration Method - Infiltration may be defined as the entry of water from the
top soil surface into lower soil profiles. The capacity of any soil to absorb the
rain water, falling continuously at an excessive rate, goes on decreasing with
time until infiltration is reached at the minimum rate i.e., at basic intake rate. The
infiltration rate is the function of time.

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 Estimation of surface runoff volume
from a large area having uniform
infiltration characteristics, is done by
subtracting the infiltration loss from
the total rainfall. The amount of
rainfall occurred on the watershed is
determined by installing rain gauge,
which records the rainfall depth.

Infiltration Index- the average rate of water loss through infiltration, such that the
volume of rainfall excess is equal to the volume of direct runoff.

i. ɸ-Index: It is defined as the rate of

rainfall, at which the volume of excess
rainfall is being equal to the direct runoff
volume. The ɸ-index incorporates the
initial loss of rain water, caused by
infiltration phenomenon. It is predicted by
counting as a constant rate of infiltration
capacity.
Numerically, the ɸ-index may be written
as-

ɸ =Total basin recharge/Rainfall

discharge

ii. W-Index: - It is also known as average infiltration rate, is defined as the average
rate of infiltration during the time, when rainfall intensity exceeds the infiltration capacity
(i.e., maximum infiltration rate).

Where:
F = total water lost through infiltration

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 tr = time during which rainfall intensity exceeds the infiltration capacity
P = total amount of rainfall for the duration tr
Q = amount of surface runoff
S = amount of effective surface retention

B. Emperical Formulas
1. Runoff Coefficient Method - In this method, the runoff is computed simply by
multiplying the runoff coefficient to the rainfall amount
R = K.P
Where:
R = runoff, cm
K = runoff coefficient (dimensionless)
P = rainfall depth, cm

2. Inglis Formula - (1940) developed following two empirical formulae for

computing the runoff rate for two different types of area.

Where: R is indicated for runoff depth (cm) and P is for rainfall depth (cm).
3. Khosla’s Formula - This formula was developed by Khosla (1953), assuming
the temperature as a factor in yield of surface runoff.

in which, R and P are the same as in Inglis formula and T is the average
temperature (°F) of the watershed.

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• BASE FLOW SEPARATION FROM HYDROGRAPH
A runoff hydrograph represents the cumulative runoff resulted from surface and
sub-surface (base flow) runoff. The surface runoff or direct runoff hydrograph is
obtained from the total storm hydrograph by separating the base flow. The separation
of base flow is an arbitrary manner, unless a large flow from the antecedent storm is
available. Due to this reason the errors made in the base flow separation are taken as
negligible.

• METHODS IN HYDROGRAPH THAT CAN BE USED AND ARE NOT AFFECTED

BY RAINFALL

1. Straight Line Method:

This method consists of drawing a straight line from the beginning of the
surface runoff to an arbitrary point on the recession limb, representing the end of
the direct runoff. In Fig. 2.7, it is shown by the line a. b, in which point ‘a’ represents
the beginning of direct runoff, is identified by the view of sharp change in the runoff
rate.
The arbitrary point ‘b’ is roughly located at the time N = 0.84 A0.2 days after
the peak of the hydrograph, in which ‘A’ is the watershed area (km2) and N is in
days. The accuracy of N depends on careful study of a number of isolated storm
hydrographs. This method of base flow separation is the simplest among all three
methods.

2. Method-II:
In this method the base flow curve existing prior to the commencement of
surface runoff, is extended till it intersects the straight line drawn from the peak of
the hydrograph. This point is joined to the arbitrary point (b), simply by a straight
line. In Fig. 2.7, it is shown by straight line ac and cb. The area below this line of
hydrograph represents the base flow, while the area above the line is noted as
direct runoff. This method is most suitable and widely used for base flow
separation.

3. Method-III:
This method is based on the use of a
composite base flow recession curve. In this
method, the base flow recession curve, after
depletion of the flood water is extended back-
ward till it intersects the straight line, drawn
from the point of inflection.
In Fig. 2.7, it is shown by joining the point a
to point f and point f to b by a smooth curve.
This method is appropriate, particularly when
groundwater contribution is expected to be
significant and reaches the stream, quickly.

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IV. IMPORTANCE OF RUNOFF AND HYDROGRAPH IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
Runoff and hydrographs are closely related in civil engineering, particularly in
hydrology, stormwater management, and infrastructure design. Their relationship is
defined by how runoff is generated and how it is represented through hydrographs.

• Cause-and-Effect Relationship of Runoff and Hydrograph

a. Runoff is the cause, while the hydrograph is the effect or graphical representation
of how runoff behaves over time.
b. When rainfall occurs, runoff is generated due to surface characteristics (e.g., soil
type, land use, slope).
c. The hydrograph visually depicts how runoff accumulates, peaks, and recedes in
a drainage basin or watershed.

• Importance of Runoff in Civil Engineering:

1. Water Resource Management – Helps in estimating available water for drinking,
irrigation, and industrial use.

2. Flood Control – Understanding runoff patterns aids in designing drainage

systems and flood mitigation strategies.

3. Soil Erosion & Land Degradation – Runoff can cause soil erosion, reducing
agricultural productivity and degrading land.

4. Urban Planning – Helps in designing efficient stormwater drainage in cities.

5. Environmental Impact – Runoff carries pollutants, affecting water quality in

rivers, lakes, and groundwater.

• Importance of Hydrograph in Civil Engineering:

1. Flood Forecasting & Management – Hydrographs help predict peak discharge,
which is vital for flood control measures.
2. Reservoir and Dam Operations – Used in designing and managing storage
structures to optimize water release.
3. River Basin Management – Helps in understanding how a river system
responds to rainfall.
4. Hydraulic Structure Design – Used in designing bridges, culverts, and drainage
structures.
5. Climate Change Studies – Hydrographs help analyze changes in rainfall-runoff
relationships over time.

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REFERENCES
Runoff. (n.d.-b). [Link]
Runoff and its types — lesson. Social Science, Class 8. (n.d.).
[Link]
3b26fac4-67e6-4923-9930-43cdbbd7285c
NOAA’s National Weather Service. (n.d.-b). Hydrology Education: the water cycle.
[Link]
Managing water runoff: Factors that shape water runoff patterns in agriculture. (n.d.).
[Link]
agriculture
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (1998, July 20). Runoff | Surface flow,
erosion, sedimentation. Encyclopedia Britannica.
[Link]
D, M. (2017, June 8). Runoff: Process and sources | Functions | Precipitation |
Geography. Geography Notes. [Link]
2/runoff/runoff-process-and-sources-functions-precipitation-
geography/4676?fbclid=IwZXh0bgNhZW0CMTEAAR0wyfSodIGN_azjt--
82JReJQKIkvPaGRT7jvibGeQ0LL2yovogje5jFfg_aem_uWNdUz2vWYPnAYSzR
Ei9yw\
P, R. (2018b, March 20). Runoff: Meaning, types and factors | Rainfall | Geography.
Geography Notes. [Link]
meaning-types-and-factors-rainfall-
geography/6037?fbclid=IwY2xjawI5QTFleHRuA2FlbQIxMAABHfWPtN2Q4aLmsz
D1qD18h_mhah_Yvi6nguvM2hAuXk9WCqKp9OG0KNicTw_aem_jlUQumHwqOh
bDgOXIKcUww

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