Nritya in the Scriptures: Concepts,

Lineage, and the Bharatanatyam

Connection

Abstract

This article offers an extended analysis of the concept of nritya (expressive

dance) in Indian classical tradition, as defined in scriptural sources and

practiced in performance forms such as Bharatanatyam. Nritya is studied in

relation to nṛtta (pure dance) and nāṭya (dramatic theatre), clarifying how

expressive meaning is distinguished from technical movement and dramatic

plot. The research builds upon classical Sanskrit treatises like the Nāṭyaśāstra of

Bharata, Abhinaya Darpaṇa of Nandikeśvara, Saṅgīta Ratnākara of Śārṅgadeva,

Mānasollāsa of Someśvara III, as well as Tamil sources such as Cilappatikāram.

By analyzing ślokas, codified gestures, aesthetic theory, and performance

manuals, it shows how nritya evolved as an art of conveying meaning through

body, face, and gesture, culminating in the structured format of Bharatanatyam.

The article further surveys modern scholarship, temple iconography, colonial

history, and contemporary pedagogy, situating nritya both as a scriptural

category and as a living performance practice.

1. Introduction

Indian classical dance is often described as the most textual of performance

traditions. Unlike many performance cultures that rely exclusively on oral

transmission, Indian dance is underpinned by a written corpus of theoretical

works dating back nearly two millennia. The most important among these is the

Nāṭyaśāstra, attributed to Bharata, which lays down the foundations of theatre,

dance, and music.

The triad of nāṭya, nṛtta, and nritya is central to the Indian performance

framework:

Nṛtta is abstract dance, consisting of rhythmic patterns and technical execution

without narrative content. It appeals to the spectator’s appreciation of form,

symmetry, and rhythm.

Nritya is expressive dance, where gestures, facial expressions, and bodily

movements are employed to communicate meaning, mood, and emotion.

Nāṭya is dramatic theatre, where actors, plot, dialogue, and characterization

work together to narrate a story.

Bharata presents this system as a divine revelation: Brahmā himself is said to

have created nāṭya, combining elements of the Vedas to offer humankind an art

that educates and entertains. In later centuries, commentators like

Abhinavagupta deepened the aesthetic interpretation, connecting nritya with the

theory of rasa (aesthetic relish).

In April 2025, manuscripts of the Nāṭyaśāstra were recognized by UNESCO’s

Memory of the World Programme, testifying to its enduring global significance

as the earliest comprehensive treatise on performing arts.

2. Scriptural Descriptions of Nritya

2.1 The Nāṭyaśāstra

The Nāṭyaśāstra consists of 36 chapters, dealing with acting, dance, music, stage

design, and aesthetics. Its treatment of dance is both technical and expressive.
Sloka (transliteration):

Yato hastas tato dṛṣṭir, yato dṛṣṭis tato manaḥ;

Yato manaḥ tato bhāvaḥ, yato bhāvaḥ tato rasaḥ. [Nāṭyaśāstra, IV.53]

Translation:

“Where the hand moves, there the eyes follow; where the eyes go, the mind

follows; where the mind moves, emotion arises; and where emotion arises, rasa

manifests.”

This famous passage shows how gesture, gaze, emotion, and aesthetic

experience are causally linked. Nritya is thus the medium where technical

movement (nṛtta) becomes emotionally resonant and communicative.

The Nāṭyaśāstra also introduces aṅgahāras (sequences of movements), cārīs (leg

movements), bhramarīs (spins), and karaṇas (basic dance units). Many of these

are depicted in temple sculptures (e.g., Chidambaram, Thanjavur), providing a

visual archive of dance as theorized in texts.

2.2 Abhinaya Darpaṇa (Nandikeśvara)

This text, often taught alongside Bharata’s work, is a manual of gestures and

expressions. Its very name means “The Mirror of Gesture,” emphasizing its role

as a practical guide.

Sloka (transliteration):

Nāṭyaṃ bhāvayutaṃ bhavet, nṛttam tu tālasaṃyutam;

Gītavādyānugāhīnaṃ, nrityam ityabhidhīyate [Abhinaya Darpaṇa, verse 2]

Translation:

“Dance with expression is nritya; with rhythm alone, it is nṛtta; accompanied by

song and instruments, it is nāṭya.”

This passage provides the clearest definition of the threefold division. The

Abhinaya Darpaṇa also lists 28 asamyuta-hastas (single-hand gestures), 23

samyuta-hastas (double-hand gestures), and their symbolic meanings. For

example:

Patāka hasta – denotes forest, river, refusal, blessing.

Tripatāka hasta – denotes crown, tree, arrow.

Ardhapatāka hasta – denotes leaves, knife, flag.

Each of these becomes meaningful in nritya when employed within a narrative

context.

2.3 Saṅgīta Ratnākara (Śārṅgadeva)

The Saṅgīta Ratnākara (13th century) is one of the last pan-Indian treatises

before regional styles crystallized. Its Nartanādhyāya integrates dance into the

larger category of saṅgīta (song, instrument, dance). It emphasizes that nritya is

the primary means by which rasa is embodied. Śārṅgadeva distinguishes

between mārga (classical, pan-Indian) and deśī (regional) traditions, showing

how nritya adapted across regions.

2.4 Mānasollāsa and Later Treatises

The Mānasollāsa of King Someśvara III (12th century) is an encyclopaedia of

arts, including sections on nritya-vinoda. It classifies eye movements (dr̥ṣṭis),

facial expressions, and bodily gestures. It also mentions the contextual use of
bhāvas in royal entertainment, showing how nritya was valued in court culture

as well as temple ritual.

Later works like the Nartana Nirṇaya continued the codification of gestures,

further bridging theory and practice.

2.5 Tamil Sources

The Tamil epic Cilappatikāram provides detailed descriptions of dance and

music in the Sangam era. It refers to dancing girls (viraliyar), their training, the

instruments used, and the emotions conveyed. Unlike the more prescriptive

Sanskrit treatises, it provides a narrative glimpse of performance as lived

practice, showing how nritya was embedded in social and religious life.

3. Key Conceptual Building Blocks

3.1 Rasa–Bhāva Theory

At the heart of nritya is the rasa–bhāva system. Bhāvas (emotions, moods, states

of mind) are embodied by the performer and transformed into rasas (aesthetic

sentiments) experienced by the audience.

The eight traditional rasas are:

Śṛṅgāra (love, beauty)

Hāsya (laughter, humor)

Karuṇā (compassion)

Raudra (anger)

Vīra (heroism)

Bhayānaka (fear)

Bībhatsa (disgust)

Adbhuta (wonder)
Abhinavagupta later added Śānta (peace) as the ninth rasa.

3.2 Fourfold Abhinaya

Āṅgika – body language: gestures, postures, movement.

Vācika – spoken word, poetry, song.

Āhārya – costume, make-up, ornaments, props.

Sāttvika – involuntary expressions like tears, trembling, blushing.

Nritya especially emphasizes āṅgika and sāttvika abhinaya, but the others

enhance the total effect.

3.3 Technical Vocabulary

The Nāṭyaśāstra and Abhinaya Darpaṇa provide a rich lexicon:

Hasta-viniyoga – symbolic applications of hand gestures.

Cārī – ways of moving the legs/feet.

Maṇḍala – standing postures.

Bhramarī – spins/turns.

3.4 Tāṇḍava and Lāsyā

Two registers dominate Indian dance aesthetics:

Tāṇḍava – vigorous, energetic, often associated with Śiva.

Lāsyā – graceful, delicate, associated with Pārvatī.

Both influence nritya and are dramatized in Bharatanatyam compositions.

4. Literature Survey

Kapila Vatsyayan emphasized the interdisciplinary nature of nritya, linking it to

sculpture, painting, and ritual. Her Classical Indian Dance in Literature and the

Arts remains foundational.

Mandakranta Bose highlighted the textual foundations of classical dance and its

pedagogy.

Avanthi Meduri analyzed the colonial and post-colonial reconfigurations of

Bharatanatyam, showing how nritya was redefined for modern audiences.

Ananda Coomaraswamy and G.K. Duggirala (1917) translated Abhinaya

Darpaṇa, making gesture science accessible to English readers.

Padma Subrahmanyam, a dancer-scholar, linked textual descriptions of karaṇas

to temple sculptures, restoring forgotten aspects of nritya technique.

5. Bharatanatyam: Scriptural Theory in Practice

5.1 Mārgam Structure

A Bharatanatyam recital typically follows a mārgam (path):

1. Alarippu – invocatory, warming up the body (nṛtta).

2. Jatisvaram – musical composition with rhythmic patterns (nṛtta).

3. Śabdam – introduction of abhinaya (nritya).

4. Varnam – centerpiece, combining rhythm and narrative expression.

5. Padams & Jāvalis – lyrical and devotional, emphasizing subtle abhinaya.

6. Tillana – fast-paced rhythmic finale.

7. Maṅgalam – benedictory conclusion.

5.2 Varnam as the Core of Nritya

The Varnam is often 30–40 minutes long and combines demanding footwork

(nṛtta) with elaborate expressive storytelling (nritya). Through abhinaya, the

dancer portrays longing for the divine, devotion to a deity, or episodes from

epics.

5.3 Padams and the Subtlety of Abhinaya

Padams are slow, lyrical pieces where subtle facial expressions (sāttvika

abhinaya) dominate. For example, the theme of nāyikā–bhāva (the heroine’s

states of mind) is explored through gestures of love, jealousy, or separation.

5.4 Pedagogy and Scriptural Anchoring

Bharatanatyam pedagogy continues to cite Nāṭyaśāstra and Abhinaya Darpaṇa.

Students are taught hastas with their śāstric definitions and encouraged to

internalize rasa–bhāva theory.

6. Conclusions

1. Across Sanskrit and Tamil sources, nritya is defined as expressive dance,

distinct from but dependent on nṛtta.

2. Abhinaya is the defining feature, transforming abstract rhythm into

communication.

3. Later treatises expanded its scope across courts and temples.

4. Bharatanatyam provides a living laboratory for nritya, demonstrating the

endurance of scriptural frameworks.

5. Modern scholarship enriches understanding by situating nritya in historical,

cultural, and pedagogical contexts.

References

1. Bharata. Nāṭyaśāstra. Ed. Manomohan Ghosh. Calcutta: Asiatic Society,

1950.

2. Nandikeśvara. Abhinaya Darpaṇa. Tr. A. K. Coomaraswamy & G. K.

Duggirala. Harvard University Press, 1917.

3. Śārṅgadeva. Saṅgīta Ratnākara. Tr. R. K. Shringy & Prem Lata Sharma.

Motilal Banarsidass, 1978.

4. Someśvara III. Mānasollāsa. Ed. G. K. Shrigondekar. Baroda: Gaekwad

Oriental Series, 1925.

5. Ilango Adigal. Cilappatikāram. Tr. R. Parthasarathy. Penguin Classics, 1993.

6. Vatsyayan, Kapila. Classical Indian Dance in Literature and the Arts. Sangeet

Natak Akademi, 1977.

7. Bose, Mandakranta. Speaking of Dance: The Indian Critique. Penguin, 1991.

8. Meduri, Avanthi. Bharatanatyam: History and Theory. Routledge, 2008.

9. Subrahmanyam, Padma. Karanas: Common Dance Codes of India and

Indonesia. Abhinav Publications, 1978.