2.1 Introduction to solar energy.

Solar Energy:
Introduction:
Solar energy is an important, clean, cheap and abundantly available renewable energy. It
is received on Earth in cyclic, intermittent and dilute form with very low power density 0
to 1 kW/[Link] energy received on the ground level is affected by atmospheric clarity,
degree of latitude, etc. For design purpose, the variation of available solar power, the
optimum tilt angle of solar flat plate collectors, the location and orientation of the
heliostats should be calculated.
Units of solar power and solar energy:
In SI units, energy is expressed in Joule. Other units are angley and Calorie where
1 angley = 1 Cal/[Link]
1 Cal = 4.186 J
For solar energy calculations, the energy is measured as an hourly or monthly or yearly
average and is expressed in terms of kJ/m2/day or kJ/m2/hour. Solar power is expressed
in terms of W/m2 or kW/m2.
Essential subsystems in a solar energy plant:
1. Solar collector or concentrator: It receives solar rays and collects the energy. It may
be of following types:
a) Flat plate type without focusing
b) Parabolic trough type with line focusing
c) Paraboloid dish with central focusing
d) Fresnel lens with centre focusing
e) Heliostats with centre receiver focusing
2. Energy transport medium: Substances such as water/ steam, liquid metal or gas are
used to
transport the thermal energy from the collector to the heat exchanger or thermal storage.
In solar PV systems energy transport occurs in electrical form.
3. Energy storage: Solar energy is not available continuously. So we need an energy
storage medium for maintaining power supply during nights or cloudy periods. There are
three major types of energy
storage: a) Thermal energy storage; b) Battery storage; c) Pumped storage hydro-electric
plant.
4. Energy conversion plant: Thermal energy collected by solar collectors is used for
producing steam, hot water, etc. Solar energy converted to thermal energy is fed to steamthermal or
gas-thermal power plant.
5. Power conditioning, control and protection system: Load requirements of electrical
energy vary with time. The energy supply has certain specifications like voltage, current,
frequency, power etc.
The power conditioning unit performs several functions such as control, regulation,
conditioning,
protection, automation, etc.
Fig Subsystems in solar thermal energy conversion plants
6. Alternative or standby power supply: The backup may be obtained as power from
electrical
network or standby diesel generator.
Energy from the sun:
The sun radiates about 3.8 x 1026 W of power in all the directions. Out of this about 1.7 x
1017 W is
received by earth. The average solar radiation outside the earth’s atmosphere is 1.35
kW/m2
 varying from 1.43 kW/m2
(in January) to 1.33 kW/m2
(in July).
Solar thermal energy (STE) is a form of energy and a technology for
harnessing solar energy to generate thermal energy or electrical energy for use in industry,
and in the residential and commercial sectors. The first installation of solar thermal
energy equipment occurred in the Sahara Desert approximately in 1910
when a steam engine was run on steam produced by sunlight. Because liquid fuel engines
were developed and found more convenient, the Sahara project was abandoned, only to be
revisited several decades late.
Solar thermal collectors are classified by the United States Energy Information
Administration as low-, medium-, or high-temperature collectors. Low-temperature
collectors are flat plates generally used to heat swimming pools. Medium-temperature
collectors are also usually flat plates but are used for heating water or air for residential
and commercial use. High-temperature collectors concentrate sunlight
using mirrors or lenses and are generally used for fulfilling heat requirements up to 300
deg C / 20 bar pressure in industries, and for electric power production. However, there is
a term that used for both the applications. Concentrated Solar Thermal (CST) for fulfilling
heat requirements in industries and Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) when the heat
collected is used for power generation. CST and CSP are not replaceable in terms of
application.
The 377 MW Ivanpah Solar Power Facility is the largest solar power plant in the world, located in
the Mojave Desert of California. Other large solar thermal plants include the SEGS installation (354
MW),
also in the Mojave, as well as the Solnova Solar Power Station (150 MW), the Andasol solar power
station (150 MW), and Extresol Solar Power ion (100 MW), allin Spain.
A solar thermal collector system gathers the heat from the solar radiation and gives it to
the heat transport fluid. The heat-transport fluid receives the heat from the collector and
delivers it to the thermal storage tank, boiler steam generator, heat exchanger etc. Thermal

2.2 Solar radiation: Solar spectrum, radiation on the earth surface, direct, diffuse and global, solar
insolation, annul variation in solar radiation, optimal tilt for solar radiation.
2.3 Solar-photovoltaic (SPV) and solar-thermal systems.
Differences Between Solar Photovoltaic and Solar Thermal

The Sun is the ultimate energy provider. The development of the renewable energy market is, to a large
extent, based on that fact. Most of the green technologies currently operating harvest solar energy, directly
or indirectly. Among indirect solar energy sources, wind, low grade geothermal (used in ground source heat
pump systems), tidal and wave are either being largely employed and (wind) well established (low grade
geothermal) or under development (tidal and wave).

Direct solar energy source consist of solar rays reaching the atmosphere. They can be collected by two
different technologies: solar photovoltaics (also known as solar PV) and solar thermal systems. If you're
interested in solar systems, we offer you a free of charge, easy to use and personalized service that will
allow you to receive quotes from different solar energy suppliers. You just have to fill in the form on the
right. Let’s see how they work and what are the differences between them.

Technology

The core difference between solar PV and solar thermal can be found in their working principles. Solar PV
is based on the photovoltaic effect, by which a photon (the basic unit of light) impacting a surface made of a
special material generates the release of an electron. Solar thermal, on the other hand, uses sunlight to
heat a fluid (depending on the particular application, it can be water or other fluid).
The photovoltaic effect only takes place in a reduced number of materials, called semiconductors (such
as silicon -monocrystalline, polycrystalline and amorphous- and cadmium telluride), that, after specific
chemical procedures , allow the generation of an electric current when exposed to light. Those
semiconductors are shaped into thin layers that conform the core element of solar cells, the basic element
of a solar PV system, that produce a direct current.

Solar cells are integrated into larger structures known as solar panels, where the desired values of current
and voltage can be achieved. For grid- connected systems (that account for a large portion of the market),
the use of an inverter is necessary (to convert DC generated by cells into AC, used in the grid).

The working principle of solar thermal systems is far less sophisticated, but as useful for the generation of
consumable energy as the photovoltaic effect. It consists on the direct heating of water (or other fluids) by
sunlight. That energy conversion takes place at different devices depending on the range of temperatures
at which the working fluid is being heated.

Low and medium temperature collectors can be flat plate panels or evacuated tubes. High temperature
collectors consist of concentrated solar systems, such as parabolic trough, Fresnel reflectors, dish Stirling
and solar towers.

Some of the most important advantages of solar PV:

 Regarding power plants, PV design is much simpler than that of thermal. A PV power station is
formed of many solar panels connected in parallel and in serie. On the other hand, electricity
generation using solar thermal technology implies the transmission of energy from a hot fluid to a
generator. That has led to different and complex designs, some of them mentioned above.
 At a smaller scale, domestic PV systems are more versatile than thermal systems, since they can
power many appliances (solar thermal is limited to space and water heating). They also have
a larger lifespan.

Some of the most outstanding advantages of solar thermal are:

 Its possibility to store the energy generated, since thermal power plants don’t convert solar energy
directly into electricity and domestic thermal systems always include a water tank where heat can
be stored. PV systems, on the contrary, suffer from an inherent intermittency that stems from
sunlight patterns. The storage of electricity is normally not considered an option, due to energy
losses that make it really inefficient. That results in a more uniform and reliable supply of
electricity by thermal plants.
 Solar thermal technology for domestic use is much less complicated than solar PV. It’s important
to point out that the energy generation for residential uses vary from thermal to PV systems.
Thermal generate heat, while PV electricity. Thermal panels are also more space efficient.

2.4 Solar cell – types, working.

In this article, you’ll learn what is a solar panel, how it works? what are the different types of solar
panels, their advantages, and disadvantages?

Solar Panel and Types

The solar panel is also known as a PV (photo-voltaic) panel. Photo-voltaic cells use sunlight energy
and generate direct current electricity.

PV is used to convert sunlight energy, which is formed of energy particles known as “photons”, into
electricity that can be used to power electrical components. The combination of PV modules is called
PV panels.

Now lets look at solar panel system.

What is the Solar Panel System?
A solar panel system is a system of interconnected assembly (also known as an array) of photovoltaic
(PV) solar cells.

The energy produced by the solar panel is measured in volts or watts, it will vary according to the
type of system and solar cell that you are using.

Each of the solar panels (modules) in the array consists of a group of solar cells packed jointed in a
metal frame.

A single solar panel typically consists of 60, 72, or 96 solar cells. Every solar cell includes an inverter
to convert the direct current produced into the alternating current electricity used in the home. The
placed inverter can be large and centralized.

Working of Solar Panel

Solar panels receive the sunlight as a source of energy to produce electricity or heat. A photovoltaic
module is usually a connected combination of photovoltaic solar cells.

Photovoltaic modules constitute the photovoltaic array of a photovoltaic system that generates and
supplies solar electricity in many applications. Each module is rated under standard test conditions by
its DC output power and typically ranges from 100 to 365 watts.

The efficiency of a module given the same rated output, as 8% efficient 230W module will have twice
the area of a 16% efficient 230W module. There are some commercially available solar modules that
exceed 22% capacity and reportedly even exceed 24%.

A single solar module can provide only an inadequate amount of power, most of the installations
include multiple modules. A photovoltaic system includes an array of PV (photovoltaic) modules, an
inverter, interconnection wiring, a battery pack for storage, and optionally a solar tracking mechanism.

The most general application of solar panels is solar water heating systems.
Types of Solar Panel
Following are the different types of solar panels classified according to the generation of solar panel:

1. According to the first generation of solar panels

1. Monocrystalline Solar Panels (Mono-SI)
2. Polycrystalline Solar Panels (Poly-SI)
2. According to the second generation of solar panels
1. Amorphous Silicon Solar Cell (A-Si)
2. Thin-Film Solar Cells (TFSC)
3. According to the third generation of solar panels
1. Biohybrid Solar Cell
2. Concentrated PV Cell (CVP and HCVP)
3. Cadmium Telluride Solar Cell (CdTe)
First Generation Solar Panels
According to Green Match following are the different types of solar panels made of monocrystalline
silicon or polysilicon and are commonly used in traditional environments.

1. Monocrystalline Solar Panels (Mono-SI)

The monocrystalline solar panel is made of monocrystalline silicon is the purest. They are available in
the form of an equally dark look and rounded edges. The reason for the high purity of silicon is that
this type of solar panel has the highest efficiency of above 20% rate.

The benefits of using monocrystalline solar panels have a higher power output, occupy less space,
and last longer. They are also very expensive compared to other types of solar panels. Another
benefit to consider is that they are slightly less affected by high temperatures than polycrystalline
panels.
2. Polycrystalline Solar Panels (Poly-SI)

The polycrystalline solar panels have unique look than other panels. This type of solar panel has
squares and its angles are not cut. The appearance of this panel has a blue and speckled look.

These solar panels are manufactured by melting the raw silicon, which is a quicker and less
expensive process compared to monocrystalline panels.

This is also due to lower efficiency of around 15%, lower space efficiency, and a shorter lifespan,
even at lower final prices because they are affected to a greater degree by warmer temperatures.

But, the difference between mono- and polycrystalline types of solar panels is not so important and
the choice of using suitable solar panels will depend on your specific situation. This provides slightly
more space efficiency at a higher cost but the power outputs are the same.

Second Generation Solar Panels

These cells are different from first-generation solar cells and are essentially used for photovoltaic
power stations, integrated with buildings or smaller solar systems.
1. Amorphous Silicon Solar Cell (A-Si)

These are the different types of solar panels that one used mainly in the manufacture of a pocket
calculator. The amorphous silicon solar panel uses triple layered technology, which is the most
excellent of the thin film variety.

The thickness of this solar sheet is around about 1 micrometer, it is approximately about one-millionth
of a meter. With only a 7% efficiency rate, these cells are less efficient than crystalline silicon ones,
which have an efficiency rate of circa 18%. The benefit of using this solar panel is that it is available at
a low cost.

2. Thin-Film Solar Cells (TFSC)

Thin-film solar panels also known as TFSC. These are made by placing one or more films of PV
material such as silicon, cadmium, copper, on a substrate. They are easy to produce and economies
of scale make them cheaper than options due to the low content required for their production.

Thin-film solar cells are flexible and less affected by high temperatures. By using these solar cells, it
opens up plenty of opportunities for alternative applications. The disadvantage of this solar cells is
that it takes more space, generally making them unsuitable for residential establishments.

Furthermore, they offer the lowest warranty because their lifespan is shorter than mono- and
polycrystalline type solar panels. It is best to installment where a lot of space is available.

Third Generation Solar Cells

In third-generation solar panels include a type of thin film technology but most of them are in the
development stage. Any of them produce electricity utilizing natural materials, others use inorganic
materials.
Biohybrid Solar Cell

The biohybrid solar cells have been founded by an expert team from Vanderbilt University. The
concept of this new technology is to take advantage of Photosystem 1 and thus to simulate the natural
process of photosynthesis.

Many of the materials applied in this cell are related to traditional methods. By combining multiple
layers of photosystem 1, the transformation from chemical to electrical energy becomes more
efficient. That is 1000 times more effective than the first generation types of solar panels.
Concentrated PV Cell (CVP and HCVP)

Compared to other types of solar panels, such CVP cells have a name that makes them so efficient:
curved mirror surfaces, lenses, and sometimes cooling systems are also used to bind the sun’s rays,
and thus their efficiency increases.

Concentrated PV cells produce electrical energy as traditional photovoltaic systems do. The efficiency
rate of those multi-junction type solar panels is up to 41%, one of the highest of all photovoltaic
systems.
Cadmium Telluride Solar Cell (CdTe)

In these different types of solar panels, cadmium telluride is used in this photovoltaic technology. That
allows the production of solar cells at a very low cost and thus a shorter period of time (for less than
one year).

In all solar energy technology, it requires minimal water for production. The advantage of using these
solar cells will keep their carbon footprint as low as possible. The main drawback of using cadmium
telluride is its quality of being toxic if ingested or inhaled.

Especially in Europe, as many people are very concerned about using the technology behind this type
of solar panel, this is one of the biggest hurdles to overcome.

Advantages of Solar Energy

Following are main advantages of solar energy:

1. Solar energy is a type of renewable source of energy.

2. By using solar panels, it reduces the consumption of electricity and you will get low electricity
bills.
3. It can be used for various purposes. For to generate electricity (photovoltaic) or heat (solar
thermal).
4. It requires low maintenance cost.
5. Technology is constantly advancing in the solar industry and improvements will be faster in
the future.
Disadvantages of Solar Energy
Following are the main disadvantages of solar energy:

1. The primary cost of purchasing a solar system is quite high.

2. Solar panels rely on sunlight to effectively collect solar energy.
3. The storage of solar energy is very expensive.
4. It requires a lot of space to fit the number of solar panels.
5. Although pollution related to solar power systems is much lower than other sources of energy.
Which Type of Solar Panel is Best for You?
If you are choosing the right type of solar panel its all come under the specifics of your property and
condition. Because every solar panel has its own pros and cons. The solution is simple, you should
proceed with depends on your assets and your goals for using the solar project.

Following are some scenarios you can consider.

#1. If you have a lot of space on your roof to install solar panels then you should go for polycrystalline
panels. Because they are less expensive and has lower efficiency.

#2. If you have limited space, installing high-efficiency monocrystalline solar panels. They are
expensive and you can save more money on your electricity bills.

#3. If you are using solar panels on large commercial roofs then you have to choose thin-film panels.
Because they have lower efficiency and the roof has more area to place them.

2.5Solar PV module: Types, rated power and actual power from module, standard test condition
(STC).

The Kyoto agreement on global reduction of greenhouse gas emissions has prompted
renewed interest in renewable energy systems worldwide. Many renewable energy
technologies today are well developed, reliable, and cost competitive with the
conventional fuel generators. The cost of renewable energy technologies is on a falling
trend and is expected to fall further as demand and production increases. There are
many renewable energy sources such as biomass, solar, wind, mini-hydro, and tidal
power. One of the advantages offered by renewable energy sources is their potential to
provide sustainable electricity in areas not served by the conventional power grid.
The growing market for renewable energy technologies has resulted in a rapid
growth in the need for power electronics. Most of the renewable energy technologies
produce DC power, and hence power electronics and control equipment are required to
convert the DC into AC power.
Inverters are used to convert DC to AC. There are two types of inverters: standalone
and grid-connected. The two types have several similarities, but are different in
terms of control functions.
A stand-alone inverter is used in off-grid applications with battery storage. With
backup diesel generators (such as PV–diesel hybrid power systems), the inverters may
have additional control functions such as operating in parallel with diesel generators and
bidirectional operation (battery charging and inverting). Grid-interactive inverters must
follow the voltage and frequency characteristics of the utility-generated power
presented on the distribution line. For both types of inverters, the conversion efficiency is
a very important consideration. Details of stand-alone and grid-connected inverters for PV
and wind applications are discussed in this chapter.
The density of power radiated from the sun (referred to as the ‘‘solar energy
constant’’) at the outer atmosphere is 1.373kW/m2. Part of this energy is absorbed
and scattered by the earth’s atmosphere. The final incident sunlight on earth’s surface
has a peak density of 1kW/m2 at noon in the tropics. The technology of photovoltaic
PV) is essentially concerned with the conversion of this energy into usable electrical
form. The basic element of a PV system is the solar cell.
Solar cells can convert the energy of sunlight directly into electricity. Consumer
appliances used to provide services such as lighting, water pumping, refrigeration,
telecommunications, and television can be run from photovoltaic electricity.
Solar cells rely on a quantum-mechanical process known as the ‘‘photovoltaic effect’’ to
produce electricity. A typical solar cell consists of a p n junction formed in a
semiconductor material similar to a diode. Figure 1 shows a schematic diagram of the
cross section through a crystalline solar cell. It consists of a 0.2–0.3mm thick
monocrystalline
or polycrystalline silicon wafer having two layers with different electrical
properties formed by ‘‘doping’’ it with other impurities (e.g., boron and phosphorus).
An electric field is established at the junction between the negatively doped (using
phosphorus atoms) and the positively doped (using boron atoms) silicon layers. If
light is incident on the solar cell, the energy from the light (photons) creates free charge
carriers, which are separated by the electrical field. An electrical voltage is generated at
the external contacts, so that current can flow when a load is connected. The photocurrent
(Iph), which is internally generated in the solar cell, is proportional to the radiation
intensity.

2.6 Curve: I-V and P-V curve and module parameters.

A simplified equivalent circuit of a solar cell consists of a current source in parallel with a
diode as shown in Fig. 2a. A variable resistor is connected to the solar cell generator as a
load. When the terminals are short-circuited, the output voltage and also the voltage
across the diode are both zero. The entire photocurrent (Iph) generated by the solar
radiation then flows to the output. The solar cell current has its maximum (Isc). If the load
resistance is increased, which results in an increasing voltage across the p n junction of
the diode, a portion of the current flows through the diode and the output current
decreases by the same amount. When the load resistor is open circuited, the output
current is zero and the entire photocurrent flows through the diode. The
relationship between current and voltage may be determined from the diode
characteristic equation:.

where q is the electron charge, k is the Boltzmann constant, Iph is photocurrent, I0 is the
reverse saturation current, Id is diode current, and T is the solar cell operating
temperature (K). The current versus voltage (I-V) of a solar cell is thus equivalent
to an ‘‘inverted’’
diodeA number of semiconductor materials are suitable for the manufacture of solar cells.
The
most common types using silicon semiconductor material (Si) are:
• Monocrystalline Si cells
• Polycrystalline Si cells
• Amorphous Si cells
A solar cell can be operated at any point along its characteristic current–voltage curve, as
shown in Fig. 3.
 Two important points on this curve are the open circuit voltage (Voc) and
short-circuit current (Isc). The open-circuit voltage is the maximum voltage at zero
current, whereas the short circuit current is the maximum current at zero voltage. For a
silicon solar cell under standard test conditions, Voc is typically 0.6–0.7 V, and Isc is
typically 20–40mA for every square centimeter of the cell area. To a good approximation,
Isc is proportional to the illumination level, whereas Voc is proportional to the logarithm of
the illumination level.
A plot of power (P) against voltage (V) for this device (Fig. 3) shows that there is a
unique point on the I-V curve at which the solar cell will generate maximum
power. This is known as the maximum power point (Vmp, Imp). To maximize the
power output, steps are usually taken during fabrication to maximize the three basic
cell parameters: open-circuit voltage, short-circuit current, and fill factor (FF)—a term
describing how ‘‘square’’ the I-V curve is, given by

Fill Factor =
For a silicon solar cell, FF is typically 0.6–0.8.
Because silicon solar cells typically produce only about 0.5 V, a number of cells are
connected in series in a PV module. A panel is a collection of modules physically
and electrically grouped together on a support structure. An array is a collection of
panels (see Fig. 4).

2.7 PV module ratings and cost.

for 14% efficiency, the cost ranges from Rs 52 per Wp for 200-250 W to Rs 88 per Wp for 0-50W. in
case of panels with 15% efficiency, the cost ranges from Rs 37 per Wp for 250-300 W to Rs 63 per Wp for
50-100 W. for 16% efficiency, the cost ranges from Rs 37 per Wp for above 300 W to Rs 68 per Wp for 50-
100 W.

2.8 Blocking and bypass diode.

Blocking diodes are used differently than bypass diodes. Bypass diodes in solar panels are connected in
“parallel” with a photovoltaic cell or panel to shunt the current around it, whereas blocking diodes are
connected in “series” with the PV panels to prevent current flowing back into them.

2.9 PV arrays.
A solar array comprises a collection of linked solar modules made up of multiple solar panels. Also
referred to as photovoltaic arrays, solar arrays are installed to take care of the energy needs of residential
and commercial establishments on a large scale.

ARRAY DESIGN
The major factors influencing the electrical design of the solar array are as follows:
• The sun intensity
• The sun angle
• The load matching for maximum power
• The operating temperature
These factors are discussed in the following subsections.
SUN INTENSITY:
The magnitude of the photocurrent is maximum under a full bright sun (1.0
sun). On a partially sunny day, the photocurrent diminishes in direct
proportion to the sun intensity. At a lower sun intensity, the I-V characteristic
shifts downward as shown above. On a cloudy day, therefore, the short-circuit
current decreases significantly. The reduction in the open-circuit voltage,
however, is small. The photo conversion efficiency of the cell is insensitive to
the solar radiation in the practical working range. This means that the
conversion efficiency is the same on a bright sunny day as on a cloudy day.
We get a lower power output on a cloudy day only because of the lower solar
energy impinging on the cell.
SUN ANGLE:
The cell output current is given by I = Iocosθ, where Io is the current with
normal sun (reference), and θ is the angle of the sun line measured from the
normal. This cosine law holds well for sun angles ranging from 0 to about 50°.
Beyond 50°, the electrical output deviates significantly from the cosine law,
and the cell generates no power beyond 85°, although the mathematical cosine
law predicts 7.5% power generation.
SHADOW EFFECT:
The array may consist of many parallel strings of series-connected cells. Two
such strings are shown in Figure 9.13. A large array may get partially shadowed due to a
structure interfering with the sun line. If a cell in a long series string gets completely
shadowed, it loses the photo-voltage but still must carry the string current by virtue of its
being in series with all other cells operating in full sunlight. Without internally generated
voltage, the shadowed cell cannot produce power. Instead, it acts as a load, producing
local I2R loss and heat. The remaining cells in the string must work at higher voltage to
make up the loss of the shadowed cell voltage.
TEMPERATURE EFFECTS:
With increasing temperature, the short-circuit current of the cell increases,
whereas the open-circuit voltage decreases. The effect of temperature on PV power is
quantitatively evaluated by examining the effects on the current and the voltage
separately.
EFFECT OF CLIMATE:
On a partly cloudy day, the PV module can produce up to 80% of its full
sun power. It can produce about 30% power even with heavy clouds on an extremely
overcast day. Snow does not usually collect on the module, because it is angled to catch
the sun. If snow does collect, it quickly melts. Mechanically, the module is designed to
withstand golf-ball-size hail.
ELECTRICAL LOAD MATCHING:
The operating point of any power system is the intersection of the source
line and the load line. If the PV source having the I-V and P-V characteristics shown in
Figure is supplying power to a resistive load R1, it will operate at point [Link] the load
resistance increases to R2 or R3, the operating point moves to A2 or A3, respectively. The
maximum power is extracted from the module when the load resistance is R2. Such a load
SUN TRACKING:
More energy is collected by the end of the day if the PV module is
installed on a tracker with an actuator that follows the sun. There are two types of sun
trackers:
• One-axis tracker, which follows the sun from east to west during the day.
• Two-axis tracker, which follows the sun from east to west during the day, and from
north to south during the seasons of the year.
2.10 Numerical problems on arrays.
Globally a formula E = A x r x H x PR is followed to estimate the electricity generated in
output of a photovoltaic system.
E is Energy (kWh), A is total Area of the panel (m²), r is solar panel yield (%), H is annual
average solar radiation on tilted panels and PR = Performance ratio, constant for losses
(range between 0.5 and 0.9, default value = 0.75). r is the yield of the solar panel given by
the ratio : electrical power (in kWp) of one solar panel divided by the area of one panel

Example : the solar panel yield of a PV module of 250 Wp with an area of 1.6 m² is 15.6% . It
is worth mentioning that this nominal ratio is given for standard test conditions (STC) :
radiation=1000 W/m², cell temperature=25 °C, Wind speed=1 m/s, AM=1.5 The unit of the
nominal power of the photovoltaic panel in these conditions is called “Watt-peak” (Wp or
kWp=1000 Wp or MWp=1000000 Wp).

Now you have to find the global annual irradiation incident on your PV panels with your
specific inclination (slope, tilt) and orientation (azimuth) to calculate H.

PR: estimates the quality of a photovoltaic installation as it gives the performance of the
installation independently of the orientation, inclination of the panel. It includes all losses
which depend on the size of the system, technology used and the site.

The DC Current generated undergoes a series of losses before it can finally become AC
Current and used by us.

Example of losses that gives the PR value

 shadow losses
 Temperature losses
 DC cables losses
 AC cables losses
 Inverter losses
 Losses due to dust