Module 7

Probability
Essential Question
How can you use measurements to find probabilities?

What Will You Learn?

How much do you already know about each topic before starting this module?

KEY Before After

— I don’t know. — I’ve heard of it. — I know it!

describe events using subsets

solve problems involving using the rule for the probability of
complementary events
find the probability of an event by using lengths of segments
and areas
solve problems involving probabilities of compound events using
permutations and combinations
solve problems involving probability of independent events
using the Multiplication Rule
solve problems involving conditional probability
solve problems involving mutually exclusive events using the
Addition Rule
solve problems involving events that are not mutually exclusive
using the Addition Rule
solve problems involving conditional probability using the
Multiplication Rule
decide if events are independent and approximate conditional
probabilities using two-way frequency tables

Foldables Make this Foldable to help

1 3
you organize your notes about probability.
Begin with one sheet of notebook paper.
1. Fold a sheet of paper lengthwise.
2. Fold in half two more times.
3. Cut along each fold on the left column.
4 Probability
4. Label each section with a topic.
Sample Probability Independent
& Mutually
2 Spaces and
Counting Dependent
Exclusive
Events Events

Module 7 • Probability 363

What Vocabulary Will You Learn?
• combination • finite sample space • outcome
• complement of A • geometric probability • permutation
• compound event • independent events • relative frequency
• conditional probability • infinite sample space • sample space
• dependent events • intersection of A and B • two-way frequency table
• event • joint frequencies • union of A and B
• experiment • marginal frequencies
• factorial of n • mutually exclusive

Are You Ready?

Complete the Quick Review to see if you are ready to start this module.
Then complete the Quick Check.

Quick Review
Example 1 Example 2
Outcome Tally Frequency
Suppose a die is rolled. What is the probability of A spinner numbered 1 |||| 4
rolling less than 5? 1–6 was spun. Find 2 |||| || 7
the experimental 3 |||| ||| 8
probability of landing 4 |||| 4
number of favorable outcomes on a 5. 5 || 2
P(less than 5) = _number
____________________
of possible outcomes 6 |||| 5
4 2
= _6_ or __
3 number of times a 5 is spun 2 1
2
P(5) = ___________________ __ __
total number of outcomes = 30 or 15
The probability of rolling less than 5 is _3_ or 67%.
The experimental probability of landing on a
1
5 is _15_ or 7%.

Quick Check
A die is rolled. Find the probability The table shows
Outcome Tally Frequency
of each outcome the results of an
1 ||| 3
experiment 2 |||| 5
1. P(greater than 1)
in which a spinner 3 |||| ||| 8
2. P(odd) numbered 1–4 4 |||| 4
3. P(less than 2) was spun.

4. P(1 or 6) 5. What is the experimental probability that the

spinner will land on a 4?
6. What is the experimental probability that the
spinner will land on an odd number?
7. What is the experimental probability that the
spinner will land on an even number?

How Did You Do?

Which exercises did you answer correctly in the Quick Check?

364 Module 7 • Probability

 Lesson 7-1

Sample Spaces
Today’s Goals
● Define sample spaces
Learn Sample Spaces and describe subsets of
sample spaces.
An experiment is a situation involving chance. An outcome is the
result of a single performance or trial of an experiment. ● Apply the Fundamental
Counting Principle to
The set of all possible outcomes make up the sample space of an define sample spaces.
experiment, which may be finite or infinite. A sample space that
Today’s Vocabulary
contains a countable number of outcomes is a finite sample space.
experiment
A sample space with outcomes that cannot be counted is an infinite
outcome
sample space. An event is a subset of the sample space.
sample space
Finite Infinite Discrete Infinite Continuous finite sample space
spinning tossing a coin all of the diameters infinite sample space
the until you get in a circle event
spinner two heads
{red, blue,
RED {H, TH, TTH, ...}
PURPLE
purple} Study Tip
BLUE Empty Set An empty
set is a set containing
no elements. In
probability, if there are
no possible outcomes
Infinite discrete sample spaces have outcomes that can be arranged in that satisfy an event,
then the sample space
a sequence or counted but go on indefinitely. Infinite continuous
is described using the
sample spaces cannot be counted or defined because there are
empty set ø.
infinite ways to fill the sample space.
You can represent a sample space by using an organized list, a table,
or a tree diagram.

Example 1 Define a Sample Space

A fair die is tossed once.
a. What is the sample space of the experiment?
The sample space S includes all possible outcomes of rolling a die.
S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
b. What is the sample space for the event of rolling a prime
number? Write the outcomes to complete the sample space.
The sample space S (prime number on a die) includes all prime
numbers less than 6.
S(prime number on a die) = {2, 3, 5}

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Lesson 7-1 • Sample Spaces 365

 Example 2 Represent a Sample Space
CLOTHING Kembe has a black hat and a red hat. He chooses one
hat for each day, Saturday and Sunday. Represent the sample
space for this experiment by making an organized list, a table, and
a tree diagram.
For each day, Saturday and Sunday, there are two possibilities: the red
hat (R) or the black hat (B).
Talk About It! Organized List
Why are R, B and B, R Pair each possible outcome from the Saturday’s hat choice with the
not the same outcome? possible outcomes from Sunday’s hat choice using coordinates.
S = {(R, R), (R, B), (B, B), (B, R)}
Table
Saturday’s hat choices are represented vertically, and Sunday’s hat
choices are represented horizontally.

Sunday
Saturday R B
R R, R R, B
B B, R B, B

Tree Diagram
Each event is represented by a different stage of the tree diagram.

Outcomes

Saturday’s Hat Choices R B

Study Tip
Tree Diagram Notation
Choose notation for Sunday’s Hat Choices R B R B
outcomes in your tree
diagrams that will Sample Space R, R R, B B, R B , B
eliminate confusion. In
the example, R stands
for red hat and B
Check
stands for black hat. GROUP WORK A geometry teacher always breaks her class up into the
red, yellow, and blue groups for class projects. Represent the sample
space for the next two class projects by making an organized list.
Copy the tree diagram. Enter the outcomes to complete the
organized list.
S = {(R, R), (R, Y), _____, (Y, R), _____, _____, (B, R), _____, _____.

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366 Module 7 • Probability

Example 3 Finite and Infinite Sample Spaces
Classify each sample space as finite or infinite. If it is finite,
write the sample space. If it is infinite, classify whether it is
discrete or continuous.
a. A marble is drawn from a bag that contains 3 orange
marbles, 5 green marbles, and 4 blue marbles.
There are only three possible outcomes of this experiment:
selecting an orange, green, or blue marble. The sample space
S is finite, S = {orange, green, blue}.

b. A spinner with four equal parts of green, blue, red, and

yellow is spun until it lands on yellow.
There are a(n) infinite number of possible outcomes of this
experiment, so its sample space is infinite. Because the
experiment ends after a certain number of spins when the
spinner lands on yellow, the sample space is discrete.

c. A ball is thrown into the air and its height is recorded in inches.
There are a(n) infinite number of possible outcomes of this
experiment, so its sample space is infinite. You can continue to
record heights of the thrown ball indefinitely, so the sample
space is continuous.

Learn Fundamental Counting Principle

For some large or complicated experiments, listing the entire sample
space may not be practical or necessary. oT find the number of possible
outcomes, you can use the Fundamental Counting Principle.
Study Tip
Key Concept • Fundamental Counting Principle Multiplication Rule
Words The number of possible outcomes in a sample space can The Fundamental
be found by multiplying the number of possible outcomes Counting Principle is
from each stage or event. sometimes called the
Multiplication Rule for
Symbols In a k-stage experiment, let Counting or the
n1= the number of possible outcomes for the first stage. Counting Principle.
n2= the number of possible outcomes for the second
stage after the first stage has occurred.
nk= the number of possible outcomes for the kth stage
after the first k-1 stages have occurred. Think About It!
Then the total possible outcomes of this k-stage If each stage of a two-
experiment is n1∙2n ∙ n ∙ …3 ∙ n . k stage experiment has
three outcomes, what
is the number of total
possible outcomes?

Lesson 7-1 • Sample Spaces 367

 Example 4 Use the Fundamental Counting Principle
COLLEGE Santiago lists the
Course Sections Offered
Use a Source number of sections available
Art History 6
Colleges typically for the courses he will take in
his first semester at college. French 5
assign general studies
courses to freshman How many different schedules Mathematics 9
undergraduates who could Santiago create for this Art 4
haven’t yet selected a semester? English 6
major. Use available
resources to find the You can estimate the total
freshman curriculum number of different schedules he can make. There are about 10
for a college of your sections of the mathematics course offered. For each of the other four
choice and determine courses, there are about 5 sections offered. Multiply to estimate that
the number of possible Santiago can create about 6250 schedules.
schedules that can
Find the number of possible outcomes by using the Fundamental
be created.
Counting Principle to complete the equation.

Art Possible
History French Mathematics Art English Outcomes

6 × 5 × 9 × 4 × 6 = 6480

Santiago could create 6480 different schedules. Because 6480 is

close to the estimate of 6250, the answer is reasonable.

Check
CLOTHING A sneaker company lets you customize your own sneaker
on their Web site. Using their most popular sneaker as the base, you
have the option to customize the color of each part of the sneaker.
Customize Your Shoes
Main Color 20
Maroon Peach Lt Blue Lt Green Gold
Red Lt Orange Blue Green Yellow
Pink Orange Dk Blue Dk Green Black
Magenta Dk Orange Midnight Gray White

Base 12
Side 29
Toe Cap 12
Sole 2
Laces 29

Part A Which is the best estimate for the number of possible

customizations?
A. 100 B. 3,600,000
C. 5,062,500 D. 36,000,000
Part B How many different customizations can be created?
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368 Module 7 • Probability

 Go Online Y ou can complete your homework online.
Practice
Example 1
1. Define the sample space, S, of a fair coin being tossed once.

2. A numbered spinner with six equal parts is spun once.

1
a. What is the sample space of the experiment? 6 2
b. What is the sample space for the event of landing on a
5 3
prime number?
4

3. DODECAGON A regular, 12-sided dodecagon is rolled once.

a. What is the sample space of the experiment?

b. What is the sample space for the event of rolling an even number?

4. SPINNERS A lettered spinner with five equal parts is is

spun once. A B
a. What is the sample space of the experiment?
C
E
b. What is the sample space for landing on a vowel?
D

Example 2
5. UNIFORMS For away games, the baseball team can wear blue or white shirts
with blue or white pants. Represent the sample space for each experiment by
making an organized list, a table, and a tree digram.
Michael E isenhut/123RF

Blue White
Pants Pants
Blue Shirts
White Shirts

6. CHILDCARE Khalid’s baby sister can drink either apple juice or milk from a bottle
or a toddler cup. Represent the sample space for each experiment by making an
organized list, a table, and a tree diagram.

Bottle Cup
Apple Juice
Milk

Lesson 7-1 • Sample Spaces 369

Example 3 G R
Classify each sample space as finite or infinite. If it is finite, write the sample B Y
space. If it is infinite, classify whether it is discrete or continuous. R B

G
7. A color tile is drawn from a cup that contains 1 yellow,

R
G
2 blue, 3 green, and 4 red color tiles.

R
8. A numbered spinner with eight equal parts is spun until it lands on 2.
8 1
9. A n angler casts a fishing line into a body of water and its
7 2
distance is recorded in centimeters. 6 3
5 4
10. A letter is randomly chosen from the alphabet.

Example 4
Find the number of possible outcomes for each situation.
11. A video game lets you decorate a bedroom 12. A cafeteria meal at Angela’s work includes
using one choice from each category. one choice from each category.

Number of Number of
Bedroom Décor Cafeteria Meal
Choices Choices

Paint color 8 Main dish 3

Comforter set 6 Side dish 4
Sheet set 8 Vegetable 2
Throw rug 5 Salad 2
Lamp 3 Salad Dressing 3
Wall hanging 5 Dessert 2
Drink 3

13. SHOPPING On a website showcasing outdoor patio plans, there are 4 types of
stone, 3 types of edging, 5 dining sets, and 6 grills. Kamar plans to order one item
from each category. How many different patio sets can Kamar order?

14. AUDITIONS The drama club held tryouts for 6 roles in a one-act play. Five people
auditioned for lead female, 3 for lead male, 8 for the best friend, 4 for the mother,
2 for the father, and 3 for the humorous aunt. How many different casts can be
created from those who auditioned?

Mixed Exercises 1 2
15. BOARD GAMES The spinner shown is used in a board game. If the
spinner is spun 4 times, how many different possible outcomes 6 3
are there?
5 4

370 Module 7 • Probability

16. BASKETBALL In a city basketball league there must be a minimum of 14 players
on a team’s roster. One 14-player team has three centers, four power forwards,
two small forwards, three shooting guards, and the rest of the players are point
guards. How many different 5-player teams are possible if one player is selected
from each position?

17. VACATION RENTAL Angelica is comparing vacation prices in Boulder, Colorado, and Sarasota,
Florida. In Boulder, she can choose a 1- or 2-week stay in a 1- or 2-bedroom suite. In Sarasota,
she can choose a 1-, 2-, or 3-week stay in a 2- or 3-bedroom suite, on the beach or not.
a. How many outcomes are available in Boulder?
b. How many outcomes are available in Sarasota?
c. How many total outcomes are available?

18. TRAVEL Maurice packs suits, shirts, and ties that Maurice’s Packing List
can be mixed and matched. Use his packing list to 1. Suits: Gray, black, khaki
draw a tree diagram to represent the sample space
2. Shirts: White, light blue
for possible suit combinations using one article from
each category. 3. Ties: Striped (But optional)

Find the number of possible outcomes for each situation.

19. SCHOOL T ala wears a school uniform that consists of a skirt or pants, a white shirt,
a blue jacket or sweater, white socks, and black shoes. She has 3 pairs of pants,
3 skirts, 6 white shirts, 2 jackets, 2 sweaters, 6 pairs of white socks, and 3 pairs of
black shoes.
Bread Meats Cheeses

20. FOOD A sandwich shop provides its customers with White Turkey American
a number of choices for bread, meats, and cheeses. Wheat Ham Swiss
Provided one item from each category is selected, Whole Grain Roast Beef Provolone
how many different sandwiches can be made? Chicken Colby-Jack
Muenster

21. List six different expressions that could be used to 2

evaluate the area of the composite figure. x
2
2 3
22. LICENSE PLATES One state requires license plates to consist of x+8
three letters followed by three numbers. The letter "O" and the
number "0" may not be used, but any other combination of letters
or numbers is allowed. How many different license plates can be
created?

23. COLLEGE Jack has been offered a number of internships that could occur in
3 different months, in 4 different departments, and for 3 different companies.
Jack is only available to complete his internship in July. How many different
outcomes are there for his internship?

Lesson 7-1 • Sample Spaces 371

24. BIKING Talula got a new bicycle lock that has a four-number combination.
Each number in the combination is from 0 to 9.
a. How many combinations are possible if there are no restriction on the number
of times Talula can use each number?
b. How many combinations are possible if T alula can use each number only
once? Explain.

25. BOARD GAMES Hugo and Monette are playing a board game in which the player
rolls two fair dice per turn.
a. In one turn, how many outcomes result in a sum of 8?
b. How many outcomes in one turn result in an odd sum?

26. WRITING Explain when it is necessary to show all the possible outcomes of an
experiment by using a tree diagram and when using the Fundamental Counting
Principle is sufficient.

27. REASONING A multistage experiment has n possible outcomes at each stage. If

the experiment is performed with k stages, write an equation for the total number
of possible outcomes P. Explain.

Higher-Order Thinking Skills

28. PERSEVERE A box contains n different objects. If you remove three objects from
the box, one at a time, without putting the previous object back, how many
possible outcomes exist? Explain your reasoning.

29. CREATE Sometimes a tree diagram for an experiment is not symmetrical.

Describe a two-stage experiment where the tree diagram is asymmetrical.
Include a sketch of the tree diagram. Explain.

30. WRITE Explain why it is not possible to represent the sample space for a multi-
stage experiment by using a table.

31. ANALYZE Determine if the following statement is sometimes, always, or never

true. Justify your argument.
When an outcome falls outside the sample space, it is a failure.

372 Module 7 • Probability

 Lesson 7-2

Probability and Counting

Learn Intersections and Unions Today’s Goals
● Describe events as
When two events A and B occur, the A B subsets of sample
intersection of A and B is the set of all spaces by using
outcomes in the sample space of event A intersections and
that are also in the sample space of event B. unions.
In the Venn diagram, the shaded portion ● Describe events as
represents the intersection. subsets of sample
spaces by using
To determine the probability of an outcome A ∩ B complements.
from the intersection of two or more events,
find the ratio of the number of outcomes in both Today’s Vocabulary
events to the total number of possible outcomes. intersection of A and B
union of A and B
Key Concept • Probability Rule for Intersections complement of A
The probability of the intersection of two events A and B occurring is the
ratio of the number of outcomes in both A and B to the total number of
possible outcomes. Study Tip
number of outcomes in A and B
P(A ＀ B) = __ ______________________
total number of possible outcomes
Intersection The
symbol for intersection
When two events A and B occur, the union of A and B is the set of all is ∩, and it is
outcomes in the sample space of event A combined with all outcomes associated with the
in the sample space of event B. In the Venn diagram, the shaded word and.
portion represents the union. P(A ∩ B) is read as the
probability of A and B.
Key Concept • Union of Two Events
The number of elements in the union of two events A and B is the
number of outcomes in both event A and B minus the number of Study Tip
outcomes in their intersection. Union The symbol for
n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) - n(A ∩ B) union is ∪, and it is
associated with the
Example 1 Find Intersections word or.
A fair die is rolled once. Let A be the event of rolling an odd number, n(A ∪ B) is read as, the
number of elements in
and let B be the event of rolling a number greater than 3. Find A ∩ B.
A or B.
The possible outcomes for event A are all the numbers on a die that
are odd, or {1, 3, 5}.
Think About It!
The possible outcomes for event B are all the numbers on a die that Is the sample space for
are greater than 3, or {4, 5, 6}. A ∩ B finite or infinite?
Justify your reasoning.
A ∩ B contains all of the outcomes that are in both sample
space A and B.

A ∩ B = {5}

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Lesson 7-2 • Probability and Counting 373

 Check
Let A be the event of the spinner landing 1 3
GREEN GREEN
on a blue section, and let B be the event
Go Online 15 5
of the spinner landing on a section with
You may want to BLUE GREEN
a number divisible by 3. What are the
complete the Concept
possible outcomes of each event? 13 7
Check to check your PURPLE BLUE
understanding. A = {7, ? }
11 9
B = {3, ? , 15} RED RED
A∩B={ ? }

Example 2 Find Probability of Intersections

PLAYING CARDS A card is selected from a standard deck of cards.
What is the probability that the card is a queen and is red?
Let A be the event of choosing a queen, and let B be the event of
choosing a red card. The total number of outcomes is the total number
of cards in a deck, or 52.

Math History
Minute
Scottish physician
John Arbuthnot
(1667–1735) published
Of the Laws of Chance
anonymously in 1692,

McGraw-Hill Education
the first work on
From the diagram, there are only 2 red cards that are also queens.
probability published in
English. This appears to number of outcomes in A and B
P(A ＀ B) = __ ______________________
total number of possible outcomes Probability Rule for
be the first time the Intersections
word “probability” is
__ 2
used in print. In a 1710 = 52 Substitution
paper, Arbuthnot 1_
= _26 Simplify.
discusses the first
application of 1
The probability that the card is both a queen and is red is __ _
26 , or about
probability to social
3.8%.
statistics.

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374 Module 7 • Probability

Example 3 Find Unions Think About It!
A fair die is rolled once. Let A be the event of rolling a number Why are 2 and 4 only
less than 5, and let B be the event of rolling a multiple of 2. listed once in A ∪ B?
Find A ∪ B. Explain.
The possible outcomes for event A are all the numbers on a die that
are less than 5, or {1, 2, 3, 4}.
The possible outcomes for event B are all the numbers on a die that
are multiples of 2, or {2, 4, 6}.
A ∪ B contains all of the outcomes that are in either sample space(s)
A or B.
A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6}

Check
1 3
Let A be the event of the spinner GREEN GREEN
landing on a blue section, and let B be
15 5
the event of the spinner landing on BLUE GREEN
a section with a number divisible
by 3. What are the possible outcomes 13 7
PURPLE BLUE
of each event?
11 9
A = {7, ? } RED RED
B = {3, ? , 15}
A ∪ B = {3, 7, 9, ? }

Learn Complements
A B
The complement of A consists of all the outcomes
in the sample space that are not included as
outcomes of event A. The complement of event A
can be noted as A＀, as shown in the Venn diagram.
The probability of rolling a die and getting a 3
1 A'
is 6__. What is the probability of not getting a 3?
There are 5 possible outcomes for this event: 1,
5 1
2, 4, 5, or 6. So, P(not 3) = _6__ . Notice that this probability is also 1 - _6_
or 1 - P(3).
Key Concept • Probability of the Complement of an Event
Words The probability that an event will not occur is equal to
1 minus the probability that the event will occur.
Symbols For an event A, P(A＀ ) = 1 - P(A).

Lesson 7-2 • Probability and Counting 375

 Example 4 Complementary Events
DIGITAL MEDIA Panju subscribes to a movie streaming service. For
movie night, he is going to let the program randomly pick a movie
from his list of favorites. What is the probability that a comedy
movie will not be chosen?

My Movie Queue
GENRES
Action 44
Anime 109
Children’s 8
Comedies 112
Documentaries 13
Dramas 30
Foreign 5
Horror 29

HOME GENRE SEARCH MY LIST

Let event A represent selecting a comedy movie from Panju’s

favorites. Then find the probability of the complement of A.
There are 112 comedy movies in Panju’s favorites list.
There are 350 total movies in Panju’s favorites list.
The probability of the complement of A is P(A＀) = 1 - P(A).

Talk About It! P (A ＀) = 1 - P (A ) Probability of a complement

11_2_
Why do you think the = 1 - _350 Substitution
probability of the 238 17
complement of an = _350
__ or __
25 Subtract and simplify.
event is found by
17
subtracting from 1? The probability that a comedy movie will not be chosen is_25
_ or 68%.

Check
RAFFLE The Harvest Fair sold 967 raffle tickets for a chance to win a
new TV. Copy and complete the table to find each probability of not
winning the TV with the given number of tickets.

Number of Tickets Probability of Not Winning

20
200
100
1

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376 Module 7 • Probability

 Go Online Y ou can complete your homework online.
Practice
Example 1
1. A fair die is rolled once. Let A be the event of rolling an even number, and
let B be the event of rolling a number greater than 4. Find A ∩ B.

2. A fair die is rolled once. Let A be the event of rolling an even number, and let B be
the event of rolling an odd number. Find A ∩ B.

Use the spinner.

3. Let A be the event of the spinner landing on 4 or 10, and let B be the
event of the spinner landing on a section with a number divisible by 4. 1 2
What are the possible outcomes of each event? 12 3
11 4
a. A = { ? }
10 5
b. B = { ? } 9 6
8 7
c. A ∩ B = { ? }

4. Let P be the event of the spinner landing on a section with a prime

number, and let Q be the event of the spinner landing on a section with a
number that is a multiple of 3. What are the possible outcomes of each
event?
bundit jonwises/Shutterstock

a. P = { ? }

b. Q = { ? }

c. P ∩ Q = { ? }

Example 2
5. A card is selected from a standard deck of cards. What is the
probability that the card is a diamond and is a seven?

6. A card is selected from a standard deck of cards. What is the

probability that the card has a number on it that is divisible by 2
and is black?

Lesson 7-2 • Probability and Counting 377

Example 3
Use the spinner. J A K
7. Let A be the event that the spinner lands on a vowel. Let B be the J E
event that it lands on the letter J. What are the possible outcomes
of each event? O A
a. A = { ? } S U
H
b. B = { ? }
c. A ∪ B = { ? }

8. Let X be the event that the spinner lands on a consonant. Let Y be the event that
it lands on the letter K. What are the possible outcomes of each event?
a. X = { ? }
b. Y = { ? }
c. X ∪ Y = { ? }

9. A random number generator is used to generate one integer between

1 and 20. Let C be the event of generating a multiple of 5, and let D be the
event of generating a number less than 12. What are the possible outcomes
of each event?
a. C = { ? }
b. D = { ? }
c. C ∪ D = { ? }

10. A random number generator is used to generate one integer between 1 and 100.
Let A be the event of generating a multiple of 10, and let B be the event of
generating a factor of 30. What are the possible outcomes of each event?
a. A = { ? }
b. B = { ? }
c. A ∪ B = { ? }

Example 4
Determine the probability of each event. Round to the nearest hundredth, if necessary.

11. What is the probability of drawing a card from a standard deck and not getting a
spade?

12. What is the probability of flipping a coin and not landing on tails?

13. Carmela purchased 10 raffle tickets. If 250 were sold, what is the probability that
one of Carmela’s tickets will not be drawn?

14. What is the probability of spinning a spinner numbered 1 to 6 and not landing
on 5?

378 Module 7 • Probability

Mixed Exercises
15. STATISTICS A survey found that about 90% of the junior class is right-handed.
If 1 junior is chosen at random out of 100 juniors, what is the probability that he
or she is left-handed?

16. RAFFLE Raul bought 24 raffle tickets out of 1545 tickets sold. What is the
probability that Raul will not win the grand prize of the raffle?

17. MASCOT At Riverview High School, 120 students were asked whether Votes
they prefer a lion or a timber wolf as the new school mascot. What is the
Lion 78
probability that a randomly-selected student will have voted for a lion as
the new school mascot? Timber Wolf 42
Total 120

18. COLLEGE In Evan’s senior class of 240 students, 85% are planning to attend
college after graduation. What is the probability that a senior chosen at random is
not planning to attend college after graduation?

19. DRAMA CLUB The Venn diagram shows the cast members who are in Act I Act II
Acts I and II of a school play. One of the students will be chosen Kate Tyrone
at random to attend a statewide performing arts conference. Let A be Paige Amy
Walter
the event that a cast member is in Act I of the play and let B be the Brad Alex
Garrett Fran
event that a cast member is in Act II of the play.
a. Find A ∩ B.
b. What is the probability that the student who is chosen to attend the conference is a cast
member in only one of the two Acts of the play.

20. GAMES LaRae is playing a game that uses a spinner. What is the
probability that the spinner will land on a prime number on her next 29 53
spin?
41 47
23 19
37

Lesson 7-2 • Probability and Counting 379

21. SHOPPING Raya asks 40 people outside the mall whether or not they Shopping Dining
visited for shopping or dining. She records the results in a Venn
diagram. One person will be chosen at random to be interviewed on 13 11 9
the local evening news. Find the probability that the person chosen will
7
be someone who visited the mall for shopping and dining.

Higher-Order Thinking Skills

22. PERSEVERE Let A be the possible integer side x+6 Z

measures of the rectangle with perimeter P = 52.
x 6 9
Let B represent the possible integer measures
XY in ＀XYZ.
of ‾
X ? Y
a. Find A ∩ B.
b. Find A ∪ B.

23. CREATE Let A be the months of the year with 31 days and let B be the
months of the year that begin with the letter J. Create a Venn diagram
to display this data.

24. WRITE Suppose you need to explain the concept of intersections and
unions to someone with no knowledge of the topic. Write a brief description of
your explanation.

25. ANALYZE Determine if the following statement is sometimes, always,

or never true. Justify your argument.
The union of two sets has more elements than the intersection of two sets.

26. FIND THE ERROR Let A be the event that the spinner lands on a vowel.
Let B be the event that it lands on the letter J. Truc says A ∪ B is A K
{A, E, O, U, J}, and Alan says A ∪ B is ∅. Who is correct? Explain. J
J E
O A
S U
H
380 Module 7 • Probability
 Lesson 7-3

Geometric Probability
Today’s Goals
Explore Probability Using Lengths of Segments ● Find the probability of an
event by using lengths
Online Activity Use dynamic geometry software to complete of segments.
the Explore. ● Find the probability of
an event by using
INQUIRY How can lengths of segments be areas.
used to determine probability? Today’s Vocabulary
geometric probability
Learn Probability with Length
Probability that involves a geometric measure such as length or area is
called geometric probability.

Key Concept • Length Probability Ratio

Words If a line segment (1) contains another segment (2) and a point
on segment (1) is chosen at random, then the probability that
length of segment (2)
the point is on segment (2) is _______________
length of segment (1) .

Example If a point E on
‾
A D is chosen at A B C D
random, then
BC_
‾
P(E is on BC ) = __
AD .
When determining geometric probabilities, we assume
• that the object lands within the target area, and
• it is equally likely that the object will land anywhere in the region.

Example 1 Use Length to Find Geometric Probability

Point X is chosen at random on P S . Find
‾ P Q
S.
the probability that X is on R‾ R S
4 11 10
S ? PS = 25
What is the length of P‾
What is the length of R
‾S ? RS = 10
RS
P(X is on R
‾S ) = _PS
_ Length probability ratio
10_
= _25 RS = 10; PS = 25
Think About It!
_2_
= 5 or 0.4 Simplify. What is the probability
that X is not on R
‾S?
‾
The probability that X is on RS is 40%. ? %

Go Online Y ou can complete an Extra Example online.

Lesson 7-3 • Geometric Probability 381
 Check Z
Point A is chosen at random on W ‾ Z . Find the probability Y 3
to the nearest percent that A is not on Y‾ Z.
What is the length of W
‾ Z ? WZ = ? X 5
What is the length of Y
‾ Z ? YZ = ?
To the nearest percent, P(A is not on Y ‾Z ) is
about ? %.
6
W

Example 2 Model Real-World Probabilities

IMAGE SHARING A Web site that hosts an image sharing gallery
updates its front page for new content every 6 minutes. Assuming that
you open the gallery at a random time, what is the probability that you
will have to wait 5 or more minutes for the content to refresh?
You can use a number line to model the situation. Since the page is
updated every 6 minutes, the next update will be in 6 minutes or less.
A B D

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

‾
The event of waiting 5 or more minutes is modeled by BD on the
number line.
B_ D
Find P(waiting 5 minutes or more) = __
AD Length probability ratio

1
= _6_ BD = 1 and AD = 6

So, the probability of waiting 5 or more minutes for the gallery to

1
refresh is _6_ or about 17%.

Explore Probability and Decision Making

Online Activity Use the guiding exercises to complete the Explore.

INQUIRY How can you use geometric

probability to make decisions?

Learn Probability with Area

Geometric probability can also involve area.
Key Concept • Area Probability Ratio
Words If region A contains a region B and a point E in region A is
chosen at random, then the probability that point E is in
area of region B
region B is ______________
area of region A .
Example If point E is chosen at random in rectangle A,
area of region B A
then P(point E is in circle B) = ___________
area of region A .
B

382 Module 7 • Probability

 Example 3 Use Area to Find Geometric Probability Study Tip
LAWN GAMES Haruko Games is Assumptions When
designing a new lawn game where determining the
4 in. probability that a toss
each player will attempt to hit a
circular target by tossing a beanbag will land on the target,
we are assuming that
onto a larger, circular board.
2 ft the toss must land on
the game board, and
not on the ground
surrounding the board.
Part A What is the probability that a toss will land on the target?
Find the ratio of the area of the circular target to the area of the board.
area of target Study Tip
P(toss lands on target) = ______________
area of game board Area probability ratio
Units of Measure
π(2)2 Notice that the
= ____ Area = πr2
π(12)2 diameter of the target
is given in inches, while
4 1
= _144
__ or __
36 Simplify. the diameter of the
game board is given in
1 feet. When finding
The probability that the toss lands on the target is _36
_ or about 3%.
geometric probabilities,
be sure to check that
all measurements are
in the same unit, in
Part B To make the game more enjoyable, the company wants to order to avoid
increase the probability of hitting the target. What diameter miscalculations.
should they use for the circle so that the probability of a toss
landing on the target is 10%? Round to the nearest hundredth
of a inch.

Find the diameter of a circle so that the geometric probability of a toss

landing in the circle is 10% or 0.1.
area of target
P(toss lands on target) = ______________
area of game board Area probability ratio
d 2
π(__
2)
0.1 = _____ Substitution
π(12)2

d2
0.1 = _576
__ Simplify.

576(0.1) = d2 Multiply each side by 576.

57.6 = d2 Simplify.

7.59 ≈ d Take the square root of

each side.

To increase the probability of a toss landing on the target, the diameter

of the target should be about 7.59 inches.

Go Online Y ou can complete an Extra Example online.

Lesson 7-3 • Geometric Probability 383
 Example 4 Use Angle Measures to Find Geometric
60° Probability
125° blue
green
55° Use the spinner to find the probability of landing in each section.
red
a. P(pointer landing on purple): The angle measure of the purple region
90° is 30°.
yellow 3_0_
P(pointer landing on purple) = _360 or 8.3%.
30°
purple b. P(pointer landing on green):
The angle measure of the green region is 125°.
12_5_
P(pointer landing on green) = _360 or 34.7%.
c. P(pointer landing on neither yellow nor red):
Combine the angle measures of the yellow and red regions: 90 + 55.
360 - 145
____ or ___ 215
P(pointer landing on neither yellow nor red) = ____
360 360
or 59.7%

Example 5 Use Probability to Make Decisions

DECISION MAKING Jayla is visiting the museum and wants to take a
guided tour. A friend suggested that she do the tour with Demarcus,
rather than Cody, because Demarcus’ tour was more informative.
Tours with Demarcus depart every 45 minutes, while tours with
Go Online Cody depart every 30 minutes.
You can complete an
Extra Example online. a. What is the probability that Jayla will have to wait 20 minutes or
less for each tour guide? Explain your reasoning.
The region below y = 45 represents the possible 50 y

Think About It! wait time for Demarcus’ tour. The region to the left 40
of x = 30 represents the possible wait time for 30
Jayla can wait no more
than 20 minutes without
Cody’s tour. The area formed by the intersection 20

risking her favorite is 45 • 30 or 1350 units2. 10

x
exhibit closing. If Cody’s The region to the left of x = 20 and below y = 20
O 10 20 30 40 50
tour should depart first, represents the possible waiting times of 20 minutes
should she wait for or less for both tour guides. The area of the square is 400 units2.
Demarcus’ tour or go 4_0_0_
The geometric probability is _1350 or about 30%.
on a tour with Cody?
Explain your reasoning. b. What is the probability that Jayla will have to wait 20 minutes or
less for one tour guide? Explain your reasoning.
The region representing the possible wait times for Demarcus’ and
Cody’s tour is the same as in part a.
The region bounded by the lines x = 30 and 50 y
y = 20 represents the possibility of waiting 40
20 minutes or less for Cody’s tour. The area of 30
this rectangle is 600 units2. 20
The region bounded by the lines x = 20 and 10
Go Online x
y = 45 represents the possibility of waiting
to learn how to use O 10 20 30 40 50
20 minutes or less for Demarcus’ tour. The area
probability tools to
of this rectangle is 900 units2.
make fair decisions in
Expand 7-2. Because the rectangles that describe Cody and Demarcus’ tour times
overlap, the waiting time of 20 minutes or less is counted twice. So, the
6_0_0_ _ 9_0_0_ _ 4_0_0_ _ 11_0_0_
geometric probability is _1350 + 1350 - 1350 = 1350 , or about 81%.
384 Module 7 • Probability
 Go Online Y ou can complete your homework online.
Practice
Example 1
P . Find the probability of
Point M is chosen at random on Z‾
each event.
P
1. P(M is on Z‾
Q) 2. P(M is on Q‾
R)
R
Q 5
Z 3
P)
3. P(M is on R‾ 4. P(M is on Q‾
P)
2

P . Find the probability of

Point X is chosen at random on L‾
each event. LM N O P
N)
5. P(X is on L‾ 6. P(X is on M‾
O) 2 8 10 4

Example 2

7. WILDLIFE Three frogs are sitting on a 15-foot log. The first two
frogs are spaced 5 feet apart and the third frog is 10 feet away
from the second one. What is the probability that when a
fourth frog hops onto the log, it lands between the first two? 5 ft 10 ft

8. LIVESTOCK Four pigs are lined up at a feeding trough.

What is the probability that when a fifth pig comes to eat, it
lines up between the second and third pig? 4 ft 6 ft 2 ft

9. DRIVING In a 5-minute traffic cycle, a traffic light is green for 2 minutes

27 seconds, yellow for 6 seconds, and red for 2 minutes 27 seconds. What is the
probability that when you get to the light it is green?

10. CARS Once a particular electric car is plugged into a charger, it takes two
hours for the battery to have a full charge. If you check the battery level
randomly during a charge, what is the probability that the battery will be
1 _1_
between _ 4 and 2 charged?

11. MOVIES A certain store plays a two-hour movie on repeat during store hours. In
the movie, there is a song that lasts for 6 minutes and 31 seconds. What is the
probability that when a customer randomly enters the store, the song will be
playing in the movie?

12. RADIO A radio station is running a contest in which listeners call in when they
hear a certain song. The song is 2 minutes 40 seconds long. The radio station
claims that they will play the song sometime between noon and 4 P.M. If you
randomly turn on that radio station between noon and 4 P.M., what is the
probability that the song will be playing?

Lesson 7-3 • Geometric Probability 385

Example 3
13. GAMES One carnival game tasks players with launching a fish charm onto a
circular landing pad. The largest prize is awarded if the charm lands in the 2 ft 4 ft
center circle with a 4-foot diameter. What is the probability the charm lands 2 ft
in the center circle?

14. RECREATION A parachutist is aiming to land in a circular target with a 10-yard

radius. The target is in a rectangular field that is 120 yards long and 30 yards
wide. Given that the parachutist will land in the field, what is the probability he
will land in the target?

Example 4
Use the spinner to find each probability. If the spinner
lands on a line it is spun again. PURPLE
40°
15. P(pointer landing on red) RED
70°
ORANGE 110°
16. P(pointer landing on blue) YELLOW
80°
GREEN
17. P(pointer landing on green)
30°
BLUE
18. P(pointer landing on either green or blue)

19. P(pointer landing on neither red nor yellow)

Example 5
20. STATE YOUR ASSUMPTION Deangelo is planning a bus ride to the airport. He can
choose between the Crimson bus, which arrives at the bus stop every 8 minutes,
or the Gold bus, which arrives at the bus stop every 15 minutes. He would prefer
to take the Gold bus because the bus makes fewer stops. In order to get to the
airport by a certain time, Deangelo cannot wait more than 5 minutes without
risking being late for his flight.

a. What assumption do you have to make to solve this problem?

b. T o the nearest percent, what is the probability that Deangelo will have to wait
5 minutes or less to see both buses?

c. T o the nearest percent, what is the probability that Deangelo will have to wait
5 minutes or less to see only one of the buses?

386 Module 7 • Probability

Mixed Exercises
Describe an event with a 33% probability for each model.
21. 22. 23.
YELLOW RED
GREEN
GREEN 10 20 30 40
RED YELLOW

YELLOW RED
GREEN

Find the probability that a point chosen at random lies in the shaded region.
24. 25. 26.
13
2
5 12 5

27. DARTS Each sector of a dart board has the same central angle. If a 7 24 1
22
3
thrown dart has equal probability of hitting any point in play on the 14 6
11 16
dart board, what is the probability that the dart will land in a shaded 18 17
sector? 13 8
10 12
20 4
19 15
9 2
23 5 21

28. GAMES Washers is a popular outdoor game where players attempt to 17 in.
throw washers into a 17-inch by 17-inch square pit. Generally, when a
4 in.
player throws a washer into the square box, he or she scores 1 point;
however, if the washer lands within the circular region in the center
of the board with a 4-inch diameter, then the player scores 5 points.

a. W hat is the probability a washer is tossed into the circular region?

Round to the nearest percent. Use π ≈ 3.14.
b. What assumption do you have to make to solve this problem?

Lesson 7-3 • Geometric Probability 387

29. ENTERTAINMENT A rectangular dance stage is lit by two lights that
light up circular regions of the stage. The circles have radii of the
same length and each circle passes through the center of the other.
The stage perfectly circumscribes the two circles. A spectator throws
a bouquet of flowers onto the stage. Assume the bouquet has an
equal chance of landing anywhere on the stage. (Hint: Use inscribed
equilateral triangles and segments of circles.)

a. What is the probability that the flowers land on a part of the stage that is
illuminated?

b. What is the probability that the flowers land on the part of the stage where
the spotlights overlap?

30. CONSTRUCT ARGUMENTS Prove that the probability that a randomly chosen
x
point in the circle will lie in the shaded region is equal to _360
__ . x°

Higher-Order Thinking Skills

31. PERSEVERE Find the probability that a point chosen at
random would lie in the shaded area of the figure. Round to r
the nearest tenth of a percent.
r r

32. ANALYZE An isosceles triangle has a perimeter of 32 centimeters. If the lengths

of the sides of the triangle are integers, what is the probability that the area of
the triangle is exactly 48 square centimeters? Justify your reasoning.

33. WRITE Can athletic events be considered random events? Explain.

34. CREATE Represent a probability of 20% using three different geometric figures.

35. WRITE Explain why the probability of a randomly 1 in. 1 in.

chosen point falling in the shaded region of either of the
squares shown is the same.
0.75 in. 0.4375 in2

388 Module 7 • Probability

 Lesson 7-4
Probability with Permutations
and Combinations
Today’s Goals
Explore Permutations and Combinations ＀ Use permutations to
compute probabilities.
Online Activity Use dynamic geometry software to complete ＀ Use combinations to
the Explore. compute probabilities.

Today’s Vocabulary
INQUIRY How does the order in which objects
permutation
are arranged affect the sample space of events?
factorial
combination

Learn Probability Using Permutations

A permutation is an arrangement of objects in which order is important.
One permutation for shuffling the songs on a 7-track playlist would be
Track 5, Track 7, Track 1, Track 2, Track 6, Track 4, and Track 3. Using the
Fundamental Counting Principle, there are 7 · 6 · 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 · 1 or 5040
possible playlists.
The expression 7 · 6 · 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 · 1 used to calculate the number of
permutations of the 7 tracks can be written as 7!, which is read 7 factorial.

Factorial
Words The factorial of a positive integer n is the product of the
positive integers less than or equal to n, and is written as n!.
Symbols n! = n · (n - 1) · (n - 2) · … · 2 · 1, where 0! = 1

Suppose you will listen to only four of the seven shuffled tracks. Using the Go Online
Fundamental Counting Principle, the number of permutations of 4 tracks You can watch a video
played from a 7-track playlist is 7 · 6 · 5 · 4 or 840. to see how to find a
probability using
Another way of describing this situation is that this is the number of
permutations.
permutations of 7 tracks taken 4 at a time, denoted 7P4 . This number can
also be computed by using factorials.

Key Concept • Permutations

Words The number of permutations of n distinct objects taken r
at a time is denoted by P __n_!__
n rand given by P n=r (n - r)!

Symbols The number of permutations of 7 objects taken 4 at a

time is P
7 ·_
___7_! __ = _ 6_· 5_
· 4_· _
3 ·_
2_·1
7 4= (7 - 4)! 4·3·2·1 or 840.

(continued on the next page)

Lesson 7-4 • Probability with Permutations and Combinations 389

 Recall that the probability of an event is the ratio of the number of
favorable outcomes to the number of total outcomes.oTfind probabilities
with permutations, the number of favorable outcomes and the number of
total outcomes can be written as a permutation.

Key Concept • Permutations with Repetition

The number of distinguishable permutations of n objects in which one
object is repeated r 1times, another is repeated r times,
2 and so on,
n!
is ________.
r1!2· r ! · ... · rk!

Example 1 Probability and Permutations of n Objects

PERFORMING ARTS Tyesha and Liam sign up for an open mic night
with 32 available slots that are filled at random. What is the probability
that Tyesha will perform first and Liam will perform second?

Step 1 Find the number of possible outcomes.

The number of possible outcomes in the sample space is the number
of permutations of the 32 performers’ order, or 32!.

Step 2 Find the number of favorable outcomes.

The number of favorable outcomes is the number of permutations of
the other performers’ order given that Tyesha performs first and Liam
performs second: (32 - 2)! or 30!.

Think About It! Step 3 Calculate the probability.

30! ←_n_u_m_b_e_r_o_f _fa_v_o_ra_b_le__
o_ut_co me_
s
How would the P(Tyesha 1, Liam 2) =_32!
__ _
←number of possible outcomes
___
probability differ, if at 1
all, of Liam performing 30 !
= ____ ____
32 · 31 · 30! Expand 32! and divide out common factors.
first and Tyesha
1
performing second? 1
= __
992
_
Simplify.
The probability that Tyesha will perform first and Liam will perform second
1_
is __
992, or about 0.1.

Check
Five geometry students are asked to randomly choose a polygon
and describe its properties. What is the probability that the first three
students choose the hexagon, the pentagon, and the triangle, in that
order?

Go Online Y ou can complete an Extra Example online.

390 Module 7 • Probability

 Example 2 Probability and Permutations
with No Repetition
SLIDESHOW For a project, Rami selects 12 family photographs that
will randomly play in a slideshow. The slideshow will not show repeat
photos until all 12 photos have been shown. Three photos are of
Rami’s entire family, two photos are of his brother, three photos are
just of him, and four photos are of his sister. What is the probability
that the first four pictures in the slideshow will be of Rami’s sister?
Step 1 Find the number of possible outcomes.
Because the photos will not repeat, order in this situation is important. The
number of possible outcomes in the sample space is the number of
permutations of 12 photos taken 4 at a time,
12P4 .
(_
12_!)__ 12_
· 1_
1 ·_10
_·_9_· _
8!
12P
4 = __
(12 - 4)! =
_
8! or 11,880
Step 2 Find the number of favorable outcomes.
The number of favorable outcomes is the number of permutations
of the 4 photos of Rami’s sister
, or 4!.
Step 3 Calculate the probability. Think About It!
The probability of the four photos of Rami’s sister appearing as the first If the price of the prize
4_!__ __1__
four in the slideshow is__
11,880 , or 495 .
were changed to
$85,225, would the
probability that Mishka
Example 3 Probability and Permutations arranges the tiles as the
with Repetition correct price increase,
decrease, or stay the
GAME SHOW One game show has contestants arrange five number same? Justify your
tiles to build their guess at the price of a prize. Mishka is given five reasoning.
tiles with the numbers 2, 2, 5, 5, and 8. If Mishka arranges the tiles
randomly, what is the probability that she arranges them as the
correct price of $25,852?
Step 1 There is a total of five numbers. Of these numbers, 2 occurs
2 times, 5 occurs 2 times, and 8 occurs 1 time. So, the number of
distinguishable permutations of these numbers is
__5_!__ = _12_0_, or 30 Simplify.
(2! · 2!) 4

Step 2 There is only 1 favorable arrangement, the actual price, 25,852.

Step 3 The probability that a permutation of these numbers selected at
1
random results in the correct price of 25,852, is _30
__ .

Check Study Tip

GAMES The physics team is holding a Randomness When
BLUE
BLUE

game night fundraiser. To win a grand BL outcomes are decided

UE D
prize in a particular game, you must G RE EN RE at random, they are
spin the spinner four times and land R ED equally likely to occur
N YELLO and their probabilities
on blue, red, green, and yellow, in
GREE W
can be calculated
that order. What is the probability
N

RE
RED
EE
RED

using permutations
D

that you will spin the winning

GR

sequence? and combinations.

Go Online Y ou can complete an Extra Example online.

Lesson 7-4 • Probability with Permutations and Combinations 391
 Learn Probability Using Combinations
A combination is a selection of objects in which order is not important.
Go Online
A combination of n objects taken r at a time, or nCr , is calculated by
You can watch a video
dividing the number of permutations Pn rby the number of
to see how to find a
arrangements containing the same elements, r!.
probability using
combinations. Key Concept • Combinations
Symbols The number of combinations of n distinct objects taken r at
a time is denoted bynCr and is given by C ___n_! __
n r= (n - r)!r! .
Study Tip
Example The number of combinations of 7 objects taken 3 at a
Permutations and ___7_! __ _7_!_ 7 ·_6_·_
_ 5_·_
4!
Combinations time is C
7 3= (7 - 3)!3! = 4!3! = 4! · 6 or 35.
Use permutations
when the order of Recall that the probability of an event is the ratio of the number of
an arrangement is favorable outcomes to the number of total outcomes. oT find
important, and use probabilities with combinations, the number of favorable outcomes and
combinations when the the number of total outcomes can each be written as a combination.
order is not important.
Example 4 Probability and Combinations
If three points are randomly chosen from those A
named on pentagon ACEGJ, what is the K B
probability that they all lie on the same line J C
segment?
H D
Step 1 Find the number of possible outcomes.
Because the order in which the points are chosen
G E
F
does not matter, the number of possible
outcomes in the sample space is the number of combinations of 10
points taken 3 at a time, 10C3 .
Talk About It! 10 ! 10__
·9__· _8_·_7_! or 120
10C
3 = ___ ____
(10 - 3)!3! =
_
7! · 3!
If you pull letter tiles
from a bag containing Step 2 Find the number of favorable outcomes.
all 26 letters, and you
want to pull 3 vowels There are 5_ C
favorable outcomes. The points could lie on‾A, C
‾ E,
and 6 consonants, E‾
G, G
‾ J , or JA .
should you calculate
the probability using a Step 3 Calculate the probability.
permutation or a The probability of three randomly chosen points lying on the same
combination? Explain. 5
__ , or __1 _ .
segment is _120 24

Check
A lattice is a point at the intersection of two or more grid lines in a
coordinate plane.
y B
If two lattice points are chosen randomly in A
W X
rectangle ABCD, including its sides, the probability
Go Online that they are in rectangle WXYZ, including
You can complete an its sides, is ? . D Z Y C
O x
Extra Example online.
If four lattice points are chosen randomly in
rectangle ABCD, including its sides, the probability that they are W, X,
Y, and Z is ? .
392 Module 7 • Probability
 Go Online Y ou can complete your homework online.
Practice
Example 1
1. CHEERLEADING The cheerleading squad is made up of 12 girls. A captain and a
co-captain are selected at random. What is the probability that Chantel and Clover
are chosen as leaders?

2. BOOKS You have a textbook for each of the following subjects: Spanish,
English, Chemistry, Geometry, History, and Psychology. If you choose
4 of these books at random to arrange on a shelf, what is the probability that
the Geometry textbook will be first from the left and the Chemistry textbook
will be second from the left?

3. RAFFLE Alfonso and Cordell each bought one raffle ticket at the state fair. If
50 tickets were randomly sold, what is the probability that Alfonso got ticket 14
and Cordell got ticket 23?

4. CONCERT Nia and Ciro are going to a concert with their high school’s key club. If
they choose a seat in the row below at random, what is the probability that Ciro
will be in seat C11 and Nia will be in C12?

C7 C8 C9 C10 C11 C12 C13 C14 C15 C16

C6 C17

Examples 2 and 3
5. PHONE NUMBERS What is the probability that a 7-digit telephone number
generated using the digits 2, 3, 2, 5, 2, 7, and 3 is the number 222-3357?

6. IDENTIFICATION A store randomly assigns their employees work identification

numbers to track productivity. Each number consists of 5 digits ranging from 1–9.
If the digits cannot repeat, find the probability that a randomly generated number
is 25938.

7. STUDENT COUNCIL The table shows the finalists for class president. Class President Finalists
The order in which they will give their speeches will be chosen Alan Shepherd
randomly. Chaminade Hudson
a. What is the probability that Denny, Kelli, and Chaminade are the Denny Murano
first 3 speakers, in any order? Kelli Baker

b. What is the probability that Denny is first, Kelli is second, and Tanika Johnson
Chaminade is third? Jerome Murdock
Marlene Lindeman

Lesson 7-4 • Probability with Permutations and Combinations 393

Example 4
8. TROPHIES Taryn has 15 soccer trophies but she only has room to display 9 of
them on a shelf. If she chooses them at random, what is the probability that each
of the trophies from the school invitational from the 1st through 9th grades will be
chosen?

9. FROZEN YOGURT Kali has a choice of 20 flavors for her triple scoop cone. If she
chooses the flavors at random, what is the probability that the 3 flavors she
chooses will be vanilla, chocolate, and strawberry?

10. BUSINESS Kaja has a dog walking business that serves 9 dogs. If she chooses 4
of the dogs at random to take an extra trip to the dog park, what is the probability
that Cherish, Taffy, Haunter, and Maverick are chosen?

11. FOOD TRUCKS A restaurant critic has 10 new food trucks to try. If she tries half of
them this week, what is the probability that she will choose Nacho Best Tacos,
Creme Bruleezin, Fre Sha Vaca Do’s, You Can’t Get Naan, and Grillarious?

12. DONATIONS Emily has 20 collectible dolls from different countries that she
will donate. If she selects 10 of them at random, what is the probability that
she chooses the dolls from Ecuador, Paraguay, Chile, France, Spain, Sweden,
Switzerland, Germany, Greece, and Italy?

13. AMUSEMENT PARK An amusement park has 12 major attractions: four roller
coasters, two carousels, two drop towers, two gravity rides, and two dark rides.
The park’s app will randomly select attractions for you to visit in order. What
is the probability that the four roller coasters are the first four suggested
attractions?

Mixed Exercises
14. BUSINESS TRAVEL A department manager is selecting team members at
random to attend one of four conferences in Los Angeles, Atlanta, Chicago, and
New York. If there are 20 team members, what is the probability that Jariah,
Sherry, Emilio, and Lavon are chosen for the conferences?

15. DINING You are handed 5 pieces of silverware for

the formal place setting shown. If you guess their
placement at random, what is the probability that the
knife and spoon are placed correctly?

A 10 7 3 5
16. CARDS What is the probability in a line of these
five cards that the ace would be first from the left
and the 10 would be second from the left? A 10 7 3 5

394 Module 7 • Probability

17. Points A, B, C, D, and E are coplanar, but no 3 are collinear.
a. What is the total number of lines that can be determined by these points?
⟷
b. What is the probability that AB would be chosen at random from
all of the possible lines formed?

18. CRAFTING Jaclyn bought some decorative letters for a scrapbook project. P O
If she randomly selected a permutation of the letters shown, what is the H
probability that they would form the word “photography”? Y
R
G

P
T

H O
19. BUSINESS Andres sent emails to 20 of his contacts advertising his new

A
lawn services. If 6 contacts responded to the email, what is the
probability that the Michaelsons, the Rodriquezes, the Farooqis, the
Salahis, the Kryceks, and the Waltons responded?
DAY 1 STANDINGS
20. GAME SHOW The people on the list at the right will be considered to MCAFEE, DAVID
participate in a game show. What is the probability that Wyatt, Gabe, FORD, GABE
and Isaac will be chosen as the first three contestants? STANDISH, TRISTAN
NOCHOLS, WYATT
PURCELL, JACK
ANDERSON, BILL
WRIGHT, ISAAC
FILBERT, MITCH

21. SALES The owner of a hair salon advertises that on the first day of
5% OFF 10% OFF
each month, the first 6 customers will receive one of the coupons
shown at the right for a discount off their total bill. Each coupon is 15% OFF 20% OFF
given at random to a different customer.
25% OFF 50% OFF
a. What is the probability that the first customer on May 1 gets the
10% discount and the second customer gets the 25% discount?
Explain your answer using favorable and possible outcomes.

b. How many different groups of two coupons can the first two
customers on August 1 receive regardless of order?
22. DONATIONS As part of a school beautification project, 12 alumni each
Donated Trees
donated a tree to be planted on the school grounds. The types of
Number
trees are shown in the table. There will be a sign next to each tree Type
of Trees
with the donor’s name.
Cherry 5
a. If the trees are planted in a row at random, what is the probability Dogwood 4
that they will be in alphabetical order by donor name? Explain.
Crabapple 2
b. If 4 trees are randomly selected and planted near the school Redbud 1
entrance, what is the probability that they will all be dogwood
trees? Explain.

Lesson 7-4 • Probability with Permutations and Combinations 395

23. PARKING STICKERS Parking stickers contain randomly generated numbers with
5 digits ranging from 1 to 9. No digits are repeated. What is the probability that a
randomly generated number is 54321?

24. CONSTRUCT ARGUMENTS Prove that Cn n - r n =

r C.

Higher-Order Thinking Skills

25. PERSEVERE Fifteen boys and fifteen girls entered a drawing for four free movie
tickets. What is the probability that all four tickets were won by girls?

26. ANALYZE Is the following statement sometimes, always, or never true? Justify your
reasoning.

nP
r n=r C

27. WRITE Compare and contrast permutations and combinations.

1
28. CREATE Describe a situation in which the probability is given by __C_ .
73

29. PERSEVERE A student claimed that permutations and combinations were related
by r! · C
n r=
n r P . Use algebra to show that this is true. Then explain why C and
nr
nP
r differ by the factor r.

30. FIND THE ERROR Charlie claims that the number of ways n objects can be
arranged if order matters is equal to the number of permutations of n objects
taken n - 1 at a time. Do you agree with Charlie? Explain your reasoning.

396 Module 7 • Probability

 Lesson 7-5

Probability and the Multiplication Rule

Today’s Goals
Explore Independent and Dependent Events ● Apply the multiplication
rule to situations
Online Activity Use the video to complete the Explore. involving independent
events.
● Apply the multiplication
INQUIRY How can one event affect the
rule to situations
probability of a second event?
involving dependent
events.

Learn Independent Events Today’s Vocabulary

compound event
A compound event or composite event consists of two or more
independent events
simple events. Independent events are two or more events in
dependent events
which the outcome of one event does not affect the outcome of
the other events.
Suppose a coin is tossed and the spinner shown
is spun. The sample space for this experiment is
{(H, 1), (H, 2), (H, 3), (T, 1), (T, 2), (T, 3)}. 1 2 Study Tip
and The word and
3 often illustrates
compound events.
For example, if you
Using the sample space, the probability of the roll a die, finding the
1
coin landing on heads and the spinner on 2 is P(H and 2) = _6_ . probability of getting
an odd number and
Notice that the same probability can be found by multiplying the
getting a number
probabilities of each simple event.
greater than 5
1 1 1 1 _1_
P(H ) = 2__ P(2) = _
3 P(H and 2) = _·2_ or
3
_
6
indicates that the
probabilities of the
This example illustrates the first of two Multiplication Rules individual events
for Probability. should be multiplied.

Key Concept • Probability of Two Independent Events

Words The probability that two independent events both occur
is the product of the probabilities of each individual event.
Symbols If two events A and B are independent, then P(A and B) =
P(A) • P(B).

This rule can be extended to any number of events.

Consider choosing objects from a group of objects. If you
replace the object each time, choosing additional objects are
independent events.

Lesson 7-5 • Probability and the Multiplication Rule 397

 Example 1 Probability of Independent Events
GAMING Ana is a member of a gaming Web site that randomly pairs
users together to solve puzzles. Of the 50 other players currently
online, Ana is friends with 10 of them. Suppose Ana is paired with a
player for a game. Not liking the outcome, she disconnects and is
paired with another player.
a. What is the probability that neither player that Ana is paired with
is a friend of hers?
These events are independent because the set of possible matches is
reset to 50 once Ana disconnects. Let F represent a player who is
Ana’s friend and NF represent a player who is not Ana’s friend.
Complete the equation to determine the probability of independent
events.
User 1 User 2

P(NF and NF) = P(NF) • P(NF)

40 40 40
= _50
_ · __
50 P(NF) = _50
_

1600 16
= _2500
___ or __
25 Simplify.
16
So, the probability that neither of the two players is Ana’s friend is _25
_
or 64%.
b. What assumption do you have to make in order to solve
this problem?
We assume that the same 50 players remain in the set for both
selections. If the number of available players changes, or the number
of available players who are friends with Ana changes, the probability
will change.

Alternate Method
y
You can also use an area model to calculate the 1 5
probability that neither player is a friend of Ana’s. 5 4
3
The probability that a player is not a friend of 4
2
40
_ or _4_.
Ana’s is _50 5
5
1

The blue region represents the probability of two O 1 2 3 4 5 x

sequential players not being friends with Ana. The 4 1

16_ 5 5
area of the blue region is _
25 of the entire shaded
region.
The orange region represents the probability of two sequential players
1_
being friends with Ana. The area of the orange region is _
25 of the
entire shaded region.

Check
WEATHER Paola’s weather app tells her that there is a 20% chance of
rain on Tuesday and a 50% chance of rain on Wednesday. What is the
probability that it will rain on both Tuesday and Wednesday? ? or ?
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398 Module 7 • Probability

Learn Probability of Dependent Events
Study Tip
Dependent events are two or more events in which the outcome of
one event affects the outcome of the other events. Conditional Notation
The notation P(B|A) is
Suppose a marble is chosen from the bag and read the probability
placed on the table. Then, another marble is that event B occurs
chosen from the bag. The sample space for this given that event A has
experiment is {(R, B), (R, R), (B, R), (B, B)}. already occurred. The
“|” symbol should not
When choosing the first marble, there are 7
be interpreted as a
possible outcomes. The probability of choosing division symbol.
5
a red marble on the first draw is _7_ . Because
that marble is not returned to the bag, there are
only 6 possible outcomes for the second drawing. If a red marble has
already been chosen, the probability of choosing a red marble on the
4 Go Online
second draw is __
6.
You can watch a video
The second of the Multiplication Rules of Probability addresses the to see how to use the
probability of two dependent events. Multiplication Rule
to find the probability
Key Concept • Probability of Two Dependent Events
of two independent
Words The probability that two dependent events both occur is the events.
product of the probability that the first event occurs and the
probability that the second event occurs after the first event
has already occurred.
Symbols If two events A and B are dependent, then
P(A and B) = P(A) • P(B|A).

This rule can be extended to any number of events.

Think About It!

Example 2 Independent and Dependent Events Write an example of
Determine whether the events are independent or dependent. a series of three
Explain your reasoning. dependent events.
a. One spinner is spun twice.
The outcome of the first spin in no way changes the probability of
the outcome of the second spin. Therefore, these two events are
independent.
b. In a raffle, one ticket is drawn for the first place prize, and then
another ticket is drawn for the second place prize.
After the first place prize ticket is drawn, the ticket is removed and
cannot be chosen again. This affects the probability of the second
place prize winning ticket, because the sample space is reduced by
one ticket. Therefore, these two events are dependent.
c. A random number generator generates two numbers.
The number for the first generation has no bearing on the number
for the second generation. Therefore, these two events are
independent.

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Lesson 7-5 • Probability and the Multiplication Rule 399

 Check
Copy and complete the table. Determine whether the events are
independent or dependent.

Independent Dependent
Of the $100 that Rei has to spend, she
wants to spend $59 on a blouse and
$44 on some jeans.
Rei asks each of three store associates
which handbag they prefer.
Rei purchases a handbag and a belt.

Example 3 Probability of Dependent Events

FOOD The pizza that José and Tessa are eating has 10 slices and is
half cheese, half mushroom. Tessa spins the pizza around and
randomly selects a slice of mushroom pizza. If José spins the pizza
and selects a slice after that, what is the probability that both he
and Tessa select a slice of mushroom pizza?
These events are dependent because Tessa does not replace the
slice she selected. Let M represent a slice of mushroom pizza and
C represent a slice of cheese pizza.
P(M and M) = P(M) • P(M|C) Probability of dependent events
5 4 2
= _10_ · _9_ or __
9 After the first slice of mushroom pizza
is selected, 9 total pieces remain, and
4 of those slices have mushrooms.

So, the probability that both friends randomly select slices with
2
mushrooms is _9_ or about 22%.

Check
SCHOOL On a math test, 5 out of 20 students got all the questions correct.
If three students are chosen at random without replacement, what is
the probability that all three got all the questions correct on the test?

Pause and Reflect

Did you struggle with anything in this lesson? If so, how did you
deal with it?

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400 Module 7 • Probability

 Go Online Y ou can complete your homework online.
Practice
Example 1
1. CLOTHING Omari has two pairs of red socks and two pairs of white socks in a
drawer. He has a drawer with 2 red T-shirts and 1 white T-shirt. If he randomly
chooses a pair of socks from the sock drawer and a T-shirt from the T-shirt drawer
,
what is the probability that he gets a pair of red socks and a white T-shirt?

2. Phyllis drops a penny in a pond, and then she drops a nickel in the pond. What
is the probability that both coins land with tails showing?

3. A die is rolled and a penny is flipped. Find the probability of rolling a two and
landing on a tail.

4. A bag contains 3 red marbles, 2 green marbles, and 4 blue marbles. A marble is
drawn randomly from the bag and replaced before a second marble is chosen.
Find the probability that both marbles are blue.

5. The forecast predicts a 40% chance of rain on Tuesday and a 60% chance on
Wednesday. If these probabilities are independent, what is the chance that it will
rain on both days?

Example 2
Determine whether the events are independent or dependent. Explain
your reasoning.
6. You roll an even number on a fair die, and then spin a spinner numbered
1 through 5 and it lands on an odd number.

7. An ace is drawn from a standard deck of 52 cards, and is not replaced. Then, a
second ace is drawn.

8. In a bag of 3 green and 4 blue marbles, a blue marble is drawn and not
replaced. Then, a second blue marble is drawn.

9. You roll two fair dice and roll a 5 on each.

Example 3
10. LOTTERY Mr. Hanes places the names of four of his students, Joe, Sofia,
Hayden, and Bonita, on slips of paper. From these, he intends to randomly
select two students to represent his class at the robotics convention. He draws
the name of the first student, sets it aside, then draws the name of the second
student. What is the probability he draws Sofia, then Joe?

Lesson 7-5 • Probability and the Multiplication Rule 401

11. CARDS A card is drawn from a standard deck of playing cards and is not
replaced. Then a second card is drawn. Find the probability the first card is a
jack of spades and the second card is black.

12. INTRAMURAL SPORTS The table shows the color and Jersey Color Amount
number of jerseys available for the intramural volleyball
blue 20
tournament. If each jersey is given away randomly, what is
white 15
the probability that the first and second jerseys given away
are both red? red 25
black 10

Mixed Exercises
13. SPORTS The format used to determine an overall champion varies by sport. One
type of format used is the best-of-seven series, where up to seven games are
played and four wins determine a champion. If you assume that each team has
an equal chance of winning each game, what is the probability of a team
winning the first four games in a best-of-seven series?

14. BUSINESS A sales management team consists of three directors and three
assistant directors. To ensure that each team member has an equal chance to
be chosen to represent the team at a national conference, all 6 names are
placed into a hat and four names are drawn at random. What is the probability
that those chosen will consist of 3 directors and 1 assistant director?

15. MAGIC Iris performs a magic trick in which she holds a standard deck of cards and
has each of three people randomly choose a card from the deck. Each person
keeps his or her card as the next person draws. What is the probability that all
three people will draw a heart?

16. SCHOOL The probability that a student takes geometry and French at Saul's
school is 0.064. The probability that a student takes French is 0.45. If taking
geometry and taking French are dependent events, what is the probability that a
student takes geometry?

17. EXTRACURRICULAR ACTIVITIES At Bell High School, 43% of the students are in
an after-school club and 28% play sports. What is the probability that a student
is in an after-school club if he or she also plays a sport if being in a club and
playing sports are independent events?

402 Module 7 • Probability

Sunita and Derek work for a company that produces microchips. Part of their job
is to estimate the number of defective chips given the total number produced.
The table shows the estimated contents of 2 boxes of microchips. Use this
information for Exercises 18 and 19.
18. Derek randomly selects one chip from Box B, does not Number of Chips Defective
put it back, and then randomly selects another chip
Box A 100 4%
from Box B. What is the probability that both chips are
Box B 150 2%
defective? Explain.

19. Sunita randomly selects one chip from Box A, and then she randomly selects
1_
another chip from Box A. The probability that both chips are defective is __
625 .
Did Sunita replace the first chip before selecting the second one? Explain.

20. TRAVEL A travel agency conducts a survey to determine whether

Fly F Drive D
people drive (D) or fly (F) to their vacation destinations. The
results indicated that P(D) = 0.6, P(D ∩ F) = 0.2, and the
probability that a family did not vacation is 0.1.
a. What is the probability that a family reached their vacation
destination by flying?
b. What is the probability that a family that drives will also fly?

21. BUSINESS TRENDS You are trying to decide whether you should expand a
business. If you do not expand and the economy remains good, you expect
$2 million in revenue. If the economy is bad, you expect $0.5 million. The cost to
expand is $1 million, but the expected revenue after the expansion is $4 million
in a good economy and $1 million in a bad economy. You assume that the
chances of a good and a bad economy are 30% and 70%, respectively. Create
a tree diagram to represent the situation.
BLU

EEN

22. REASONING If Fred spins the spinner twice, determine the probability GR GE
E

GR

EEN AN
that he lands on sections labeled “orange” and “green.” Show that OR
P(orange) • P(green | orange) = P(green) • P(orange | green) in this GR
EEN
R ED
GE

situation and explain why this is true in terms of the model. Justify
AN

your answer.
RED
OR

Lesson 7-5 • Probability and the Multiplication Rule 403

23. TRICKS Sam is doing a trick with a standard deck of 52 playing cards where she
begins each trick with a fresh deck of cards. Her friend Tracy randomly selects a
card, looks at it, and puts it back in the deck. Then Sam randomly selects the
same card. Are the events independent? What is the probability that they both
pick the queen of spades? Explain.

24. CONSTRUCT ARGUMENTS Use the formula for the probability of two dependent
events P(A and B) to derive the conditional probability formula for P(B | A).

25. USE A MODEL A double fault in tennis is when the serving player fails to land
their serve “in” without stepping on or over the service line in two chances.
Kelly’s first serve percentage is 40%, while her second serve percentage is 70%.
a. Draw a probability tree that shows each outcome.

b. What is the probability that Kelly will double fault?

Higher-Order Thinking Skills

26. ANALYZE There are n different objects in a bag. The probability of drawing
object A and then object B without replacement is about 2.4%. What is the value
of n? Explain.

27. WRITE An article states the chance that a person is left-handed given that his or her
parent is left-handed. Explain how you could determine the likelihood that a person
being left-handed and their parent being left-handed are independent events.

28. CREATE Describe a pair of independent events and a pair of dependent events.
Explain your reasoning.

29. PERSEVERE If P(A | B) is the same as P(A), and P(B | A) is the same as P(B), what
can be said about the relationship between events A and B?

404 Module 7 • Probability

 Lesson 7-6

Probability and the Addition Rule

Today’s Goals
Explore Mutually Exclusive Events ● Apply the addition rule
to situations involving
Online Activity Use the guiding exercises to complete the Explore. mutually exclusive
events.

INQUIRY How can you find the probability of

● Apply the addition rule
to situations involving
two or more events that may not share events that are not
common outcomes? mutually exclusive.

Today’s Vocabulary
mutually exclusive

Learn Probability of Mutually Exclusive Events

To find the probability that one event occurs or another event occurs,
you must know how the two events are related. If the two events
cannot happen at the same time, they are said to be mutually
exclusive. That is, the two events have no outcomes in common.
One way of finding the probability of two mutually exclusive events
occurring is to examine their sample space.
When a die is rolled, what is the 1 2 5
probability of getting a 3 or a 4? From
the Venn diagram, you can see that
3 4
there are two outcomes that satisfy
this condition, 3 and 4. So,
1 6
P(3 or 4) = 2__ __
6 or .3
Notice that this same probability can be found by adding the
probabilities of each simple event.
__1 1 _1_ _ 1_ 2 _1_
P(3) = 6 P(4) = 6__ P(3 or 4) = +
6 = 6or 6
__
3

This example illustrates the first of two Addition Rules for Probability.

Key Concept • Probability of Mutually Exclusive Events

Words If two events A and B are mutually exclusive, then the
Study Tip
probability that A or B occurs is the sum of the probabilities
of each individual event. or The word or is a key
word indicating that at
Symbols If two events A and B are mutually exclusive, then least one of the events
P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B). occurs. P(A or B) is
read as the probability
This rule can be extended to any number of events. that A occurs or that
B occurs.

Lesson 7-6 • Probability and the Addition Rule 405

 Example 1 Identify Mutually Exclusive Events
A card is drawn from a standard deck of 52 cards. Determine
whether the events are mutually exclusive or not mutually exclusive.
Explain your reasoning.
a. drawing a 3 or a 2

Talk About It! There are no common outcomes – a card cannot be both a 2 and a 3.
Describe a pair of These events are mutually exclusive.
events that are
b. drawing a 7 or a red card
mutually exclusive.
The 7 of diamonds is an outcome that both events have in common.
These events are not mutually exclusive.
c. drawing a queen or a spade
Because the queen of spades represents both events, they are not
mutually exclusive.

Example 2 Probability of Mutually Exclusive Events

SOCIAL MEDIA Daniel
organizes all of his social
media contacts into three
groups. If the program Close Friends Acquaintances Restricted
sends Daniel an update
from a randomly chosen
contact, what is the
probability that the contact
is either a close friend or acquaintance?
These are mutually exclusive events, because the contacts selected
Think About It!
cannot be a close friend and an acquaintance.
What assumption did
you make in order to Let event F represent selecting a close friend. Let event A represent
solve this problem? selecting an acquaintance. There are a total of 10 + 68 + 24 or
102 contacts.
Because the events are mutually exclusive, you know that
P(F or A) = P(F) + P(A).
bundit jonwises/Shutterstock

P(F or A) = P(F) + P(A) Probability of mutually exclusive events

6_8_ _ 2_4_ 6_8_ 2_4_

= _102 + 102 P(F) = _102 and P(A) = _102

9_2_ 46
= _102 or _51_ Add.

So the probability that the update is from a close friend or

46
acquaintance is _51_ or about 90%.

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406 Module 7 • Probability

Check
BIODIVERSITY Of the Extinct
more than 79,800 3, 1% Critically Endangered
Data Deficient 17, 5%
species on a Red List of 4, 1%
Endangered
Threatened Species, 31, 9%
seabirds are of particular
interest because they are
Vulnerable
indicators of broader Least 49, 14%
marine health issues. The Concern
circle graph shows the 207, 60% Near
proportion of seabird Threatened
35, 10%
species in each Red List
category. What is the
probability that a randomly selected species of seabird is on the
critically endangered list or the endangered list?

Learn Probability of Events that are Not Mutually

Exclusive
If two events can happen at the same time, they are not mutually exclusive.
When a die is rolled, what is the >2 Even
probability of getting a number greater
than 2 or an even number? From the 3 4
Venn diagram, you can see that there are 2
5 numbers on a die that are either greater 5 6
than 2 or are an even number: 2, 3, 4, 5,
5
and 6. So, P(greater than 2 or even) = __ 1
6.
Because it is possible to roll a number that is greater than 2 and an
even number, these events are not mutually exclusive. Consider the
probability of each individual event.
4 3
P(greater than 2) = _6_ P(even) = _6_
Adding these probabilities results in a number greater than 1 because
two of the outcomes, 4 and 6, are in the intersection of the sample
spaces—they are both greater than 2 and even. To account for the
intersection, subtract the probability of the common outcomes.
P(greater than 2 or even) = P(greater than 2) + P(even) - P(greater
4_ _ 3_ _ 2_ 5
than 2 and even) = _+
6 − 6or 6
__
6
This leads to the second of the Addition Rules for Probability.
Key Concept • Probability of Events That Are Not Mutually Exclusive
Go Online
Words If two events A and B are not mutually exclusive, then the You can watch a video
probability that A or B occurs is the sum of their individual to see how to use the
probabilities minus the probability that both A and B occur. Addition Rule to find
Symbols If two events A and B are not mutually exclusive, then the probability of two
P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A and B). events that are not
This rule can be extended to any number of events. mutually exclusive.
Go Online Y ou can complete an Extra Example online.

Lesson 7-6 • Probability and the Addition Rule 407

 Example 3 Events That Are Not Mutually Exclusive
A game piece is selected at random
from the plate at the right. What is
the probability that the game piece is
round or orange?
Because some of the game pieces are
both round and orange, these events
Think About It! are not mutually exclusive. Use the
2 rule for two events that are not mutually exclusive. The total number of
Why is _10_ subtracted
game pieces from which to choose is 10.
from the sum of the
probabilities P(round) P(round or orange) = P(round) + P(orange) - P(round and orange)
and P(orange)? 5 4 2
= _10_ + _10_ _− 10_
7
= _10_
The probability that a game piece will be round or orange is
_7_ or 70%.
10

Check
A polygon is chosen at random. Find the
probability of each set of events.

choosing a figure that has more than 4 lines of

?
symmetry or more than 7 sides
choosing a figure that has more than
15 diagonals or a total interior angle ?
measure greater than 900°
choosing a figure that has more than 2 pairs of
?
parallel sides or at least 1 diagonal

Pause and Reflect

Did you struggle with anything in this lesson? If so, how did you
deal with it?

Go Online Y ou can complete an Extra Example online.

408 Module 7 • Probability

 Go Online Y ou can complete your homework online.
Practice
Example 1
Determine whether the events are mutually exclusive or not mutually exclusive. Explain
your reasoning.
1. A die is rolled while a game is being played. The result of the next roll is a 6 or an
even number.

2. SALES A street vendor is selling T-shirts outside of a

Red Blue White
concert arena. The colors and sizes of the available
Small 1 2 2
T-shirts are shown in the table. The vendor selects a
T-shirt that is blue or large. Medium 3 2 4
Large 4 5 6
Extra Large 7 6 3

Examples 2 and 3
3. AWARDS The student of the month gets to choose one award from 9 gift certificates
to area restaurants, 8 T-shirts, 6 water bottles, or 5 gift cards to the mall. What is the
probability that the student of the month chooses a T-shirt or a water bottle?

4. SALES PROMOTIONS At a grand opening event, a store allows customers to choose an

envelope from a bag. Ten of the envelopes contain store coupons, 8 envelopes contain
gift cards, and 2 envelopes contain $100. What is the probability that a customer selects
an envelope with a gift card or an envelope with $100?

5. TRAFFIC If the chance of making a green light at a certain intersection is 35%, what is
the probability of arriving when the light is yellow or red?

6. STUDENTS In a group of graduate students, 4 out of the 5 females are international

students, and 2 out of the 3 men are international students. What is the probability of
selecting a graduate student from this group that is a male or an international student?

Lesson 7-6 • Probability and the Addition Rule 409

Mixed Exercises
CARDS Suppose you pull a card from a standard 52-card deck. Find the probability
of each event.
7. The card is a 4. 8. The card is red.

9. The card is a face card. 10. The card is not a face card.

11. P(queen or heart) 12. P(jack or spade)

13. P(five or prime number) 14. P(ace or black)

15. A drawing will take place where one ticket is to be drawn from a set of 80 tickets
numbered 1 to 80. If a ticket is drawn at random, what is the probability that the
number drawn is a multiple of 4 or a factor of 12?

16. SCHOOL The Venn diagram shows the extracurricular

activities enjoyed by the senior class at Valley View
High School.
Drama 30 Band
a. How many students are in the senior class?
38 51
b. How many students participate in athletics?
10
c. If a student is randomly chosen, what is the 4 8
probability that the student participates in athletics
or drama?
Athletics
d. If a student is randomly chosen, what is the 137
probability that the student participates in only
drama and band? 67

17. BOWLING Cindy’s bowling records indicate that for any frame, the probability
that she will bowl a strike is 30%, a spare 45%, and neither 25%. What is the
probability that she will bowl either a spare or a strike for any given frame?

18. SPORTS CARDS Dario owns 145 baseball cards, 102 football cards, and
48 basketball cards. What is the probability that he randomly selects a
baseball or a football card?

410 Module 7 • Probability

19. SCHOLARSHIPS A review committee read 3000 application essays for one
$5000 college scholarship. Of the applications reviewed, 2865 essays were the
required length, 2577 of the applicants had the minimum required grade-point
average, and 2486 had the required length and minimum grade-point average.
What is the probability that an application essay selected at random will have the
required length or the required gradepoint average?

20. PETS Ruby’s cat had 8 kittens. The litter included 2 orange females, 3 mixed-
color females, 1 orange male, and 2 mixed-color males. Ruby wants to keep one
kitten. What is the probability that she randomly chooses a kitten that is female
or orange?

21. SPORTS The table shows the age and number of Mason Sports Complex
participants in each sport at a sporting complex. What is
Age Soccer Volleyball Basketball
the probability that a player is 14 or plays basketball?
14 28 36 42
15 30 26 33
16 35 41 29
22. USE A MODEL Vicente and Kelly are designing a board
game. They decide that the game will use a pair of dice
and the players will have to find the sum of the numbers
rolled. Vicente and Kelly created the table shown to help
determine probabilities. Each player will roll the pair of 1, 1 1, 2 1, 3 1, 4 1, 5 1, 6
dice twice during that player’s turn.
2, 1 2, 2 2, 3 2, 4 2, 5 2,6
a. What is the probability of rolling a pair or two
3, 1 3, 2 3, 3 3, 4 3, 5 3, 6
numbers that have a sum of seven?
4, 1 4, 2 4, 3 4, 4 4, 5 4, 6
b. What is the probability of rolling two numbers whose 5, 1 5, 2 5, 3 5, 4 5, 5 5, 6
sum is an even number or not rolling a 2? Round to
6, 1 6, 2 6, 3 6, 4 6, 5 6, 6
the nearest thousandth.

23. PARKS The table shows Parks and Recreation

Age Swimming Drama Art
Department classes and the number of participants ages
7 40 35 25
7–9. What is the probability that a participant chosen at
random is in drama or is an 8-year-old? 8 30 21 14
9 20 44 11

24. FLOWER GARDEN Erin is planning her summer Flower Orange Yellow White
garden. The table shows the number of bulbs she Dahlia 5 4 3
has according to type and color of flower. If Erin Lily 3 1 2
randomly selects one of the bulbs, what is the
Gladiolus 2 5 6
probability that she selects a bulb for a yellow flower
or a dahlia? Iris 0 1 4

Lesson 7-6 • Probability and the Addition Rule 411

 Higher-Order Thinking Skills
25. PERSEVERE Y ou roll 3 dice. What is the probability that the outcome of at least
two of the dice will be less than or equal to 4? Explain your reasoning.

26. FIND THE ERROR T eo and Mason want to determine the probability that a red
marble will be chosen out of a bag of 4 red, 7 blue, 5 green, and 2 purple marbles.
Is either of them correct? Explain your reasoning.

Teo Mason
4 4
P(R) = _17_ P(R) = 1 - _18
__

ANALYZE Determine whether the following are mutually exclusive. Explain.

27. choosing a quadrilateral that is a square and a quadrilateral that is a rectangle

28. choosing a triangle that is equilateral and a triangle that is equiangular

29. choosing a complex number and choosing a natural number

30. WRITE Explain why the sum of the probabilities of two mutually exclusive events
is not always 1.

412 Module 7 • Probability

 Lesson 7-7

Conditional Probability
Today’s Goals
Explore Conditional Probability ● Recognize and explain
the concepts of
Online Activity Use the guiding exercises to complete the Explore. conditional probability
and independence in
everyday situations.
INQUIRY How can you find the probability of
an event given that another event has already Today’s Vocabulary
conditional probability
occurred?

Learn Conditional Probabilities

The conditional probability of an event B is the probability that the event
will occur given that an event A has already occurred. In addition to finding
the probability of two or more dependent events, conditional probability
can be used when additional information is known about an event.
Suppose two dice are rolled and it is known
that one of the die shows a 5. What is the
probability that the sum of the numbers rolled
is 7? Because one event, rolling a 5, has already
occurred, the sample space for the other event
is reduced from 36 to 11 outcomes. This
example leads to the following formula.

Key Concept • Conditional Probability

(A a nd B)
The conditional probability of B given A is P(B|A) = P
_______ , where
P(A)
P(A) ≠ 0.
Study Tip
The Venn diagram shows the Conditional Probability
rolled a 5 rolle
d a sum of
7 P(5|odd) is read the
sample space for both events.
probability that the
The probability of rolling a sum
number rolled is a 5
of 7 on two dice given that one
given that the number
die shows a 5, is represented rolled is odd.
by the probability of the
intersection of the two events
divided by the probability of
the given event.
In this case, if event A is rolling
a 5 and event B is rolling a sum
of 7,
_2_
P (A an d B ) 36 2 Go Online
P(B|A) = ___P_ ___ = ___ = __ .
(A ) _11_ 11
36
You can watch a video
to see how to find a
conditional probability.

Lesson 7-7 • Conditional Probability 413

 Apply Example 1 Conditional Probability
GROCERY SHOPPING There are currently 16 customers in line at the deli
counter, each holding a numbered ticket from 179 to 194. Naveen will
help customers holding tickets with even numbers, and Ellie will help
customers holding tickets with odd numbers. If a customer is helped by
Naveen, what is the probability that the customer is holding ticket 190?
1 What is the task?
Describe the task in your own words. Then list any questions that you
may have. How can you find answers to your questions?
Sample answer: I need to determine the probability of a customer
holding ticket 190 given that the customer is helped by Naveen. What
two events are occurring and how do they relate to the formula for
conditional probability? I can read through the problem again to
identify what event B will occur given that event A has already
occurred.
2 How will you approach the task? What have you learned that
you can use to help you complete the task?
Sample answer: I will find P(A), the probability that the number on the
ticket is even, then I will find P(A and B), the probability that the ticket
is both 190 and even. I will use the formula for conditional probability
to find the solution.
3 What is your solution?
There are 16 available tickets.
The sample space from event A contains 8 outcomes. From least to
greatest, these outcomes are: {180, 182, 184, 186, 188, 190, 192, 194}.
8 1
So, P(A) = _16_ or _2_.
The sample space for P(A and B) contains 1 outcome: {190}.
1
So, P(A and B) = _16_.
P(A and B)
P(B|A) = ___P_ _ __
(A ) Formula for conditional probability
1
=_
8
Simplify.
Go Online 4 How can you know that your solution is reasonable?
to practice what you’ve
Write About It! Write an argument that can be used to defend
learned in Lessons 7-2
your solution.
and 7-5 through 7-7.
Sample answer: This situation can be represented with a Venn diagram.
There are only eight even numbers in the sample space, and only one
1
out of these numbers is 190. Therefore, the P(B|A) =_8_ .
Check
SCHOOL A high school has a total of 1700 students, with 450 seniors.
Of the 1700 students, 1550 are taking a math class, 280 of which are
seniors. If a student is chosen at random, what is the probability that he
Go Online
or she is taking a math class, given that the student is a senior? Write
You can complete an
your answer as a fraction or as a percent expressed to the nearest tenth.
Extra Example online.

414 Module 7 • Probability

 Go Online Y ou can complete your homework online.
Practice
Example 1
1. CLUBS The Spanish Club is having a potluck lunch where each student brings in
a cultural dish. The 10 students randomly draw cards numbered with consecutive
integers from 1 to 10. Students who draw odd numbers will bring main dishes.
Students who draw even numbers will bring desserts. If Cynthia is bringing a
dessert, what is the probability that she drew the number 10?

2. A card is randomly drawn from a standard deck of 52 cards. What is the

probability that the card is a king of diamonds, given that the card drawn is a
king?

3. GAME In a game, a spinner with the 7 colors of the rainbow is spun. Find the
probability that the color spun is blue, given the color is one of the three primary
colors: red, yellow, or blue.

4. Fifteen cards numbered 1–15 are placed in a hat. What is the probability that the
card has a multiple of 3 on it, given that the card picked is an odd number?

Mixed Exercises
5. A blue marble is selected at random from a bag of 3 red and 9 blue marbles
and not replaced. What is the probability that a second marble selected will
be blue?

6. A die is rolled. If the number rolled is less than 5, what is the probability that it is
the number 2?

7. If two dice are rolled, what is the probability that the sum of the faces is 4, given
that the first die rolled is odd?

8. A spinner numbered 1 through 12 is spun. Find the probability that the number
spun is an 11 given that the number spun was an odd number.

9. If two dice are rolled, what is the probability that the sum of the faces is 8, given
that the first die rolled is even?

10. PICNIC A school picnic offers students hamburgers, hot dogs, chips, and a drink.
a. A t the picnic, 60% of the students order a hamburger and 48% of the students
order a hamburger and chips. What is the conditional probability that a
student who orders a hamburger also orders chips?
b. If 50% of the students ordered chips, are the events of ordering a hamburger
and ordering chips independent? Explain.
c. If 80% of the students who ordered a hot dog also ordered a drink and 35% of
all the students ordered a hot dog, find the probability that a student at the
picnic orders a hot dog and drink. Explain.

Lesson 7-7 • Conditional Probability 415

11. The Venn diagram shows students’ favorite places to study, the rary L Home H
library (L) or home (H). Lib

a. A total of 60 students responded to the survey. Determine the

number of students who replied that they study neither at the 12 6 36
library nor at home.
b. What is the probability that if a student selected the library, he
or she selected the library and at home? Explain.

c. A student says that selecting the library and selecting at home are
independent events. Do you agree? Explain.

Higher-Order Thinking Skills

12. WRITE Let A represent the event of owning a house and let B represent the event
of owning a car. Are these events independent or dependent? How do you think
P(A|B) compares to P(B|A)? Explain your reasoning.

13. PERSEVERE Of all the students at North High School, 25% are enrolled in Algebra
and 20% are enrolled in Algebra and Health.
a. If a student is enrolled in Algebra, find the probability that the student is
enrolled in Health as well.

b. If 50% of the students are enrolled in Health, are being enrolled in Algebra
and being enrolled in Health independent events? Explain.

c. Of all the students, 20% are enrolled in Accounting and 5% are enrolled in
Accounting and Spanish. If being enrolled in Accounting and being enrolled in
Spanish are independent events, what percent of students are enrolled in
Spanish? Explain.

14. ANALYZE In a standard deck of playing cards, the face-value cards are the cards
numbered 2–10. Two cards are to be randomly drawn without replacing the first
card. Find the probability of drawing two face-value cards and the conditional
probability that exactly one of those cards is a 4. Explain.

416 Module 7 • Probability

 Lesson 7-8

Two-Way Frequency Tables

Today’s Goals
Explore Two-Way Frequency Tables ● Construct and interpret
two-way frequency
Online Activity Use the tables to complete the Explore. tables and use them to
determine whether
events are
INQUIRY How can you use data in a two-way independent.
frequency table to determine whether two
events are independent? Today’s Vocabulary
two-way frequency table
marginal frequencies
joint frequencies
Learn Independent Events in Frequency Tables relative frequency
A two-way frequency table, or contingency table, is used to show the
frequencies of data from a survey or experiment classified according
to two variables, with the rows indicating one variable and the columns
indicating the other.
The two-way frequency Two-Way Frequency Table
table shows the results Shower in Shower in
Totals
of a survey of 220 men the Morning the Evening
and women about the Women 98 37 135
time of day that they
Men 23 62 85
shower. The frequencies
reported in the Totals Totals 121 99 220
row and Totals column
are called marginal frequencies, with the bottom rightmost cell
reporting the total number of observations. Marginal frequencies allow
you to analyze with respect to one variable. For example, the marginal
frequencies in the right column separate the data by gender.
The frequencies reported in the interior of the table are called joint
frequencies. These show the frequencies of all possible combinations
of the categories for the first variable with the categories for the
second variable.
A relative frequency is Two-Way Relative Frequency Table
the ratio of the number Shower in Shower in
of observations in a Totals
the Morning the Evening
category to the total
Women _9_8_ _3_7_ _13_5_
number of observations. 220 220 220
When survey results are Men _2_3_ _6_2_ _8_5_
220 220 220
classified according to
_12
_1_ _9_9_ 22
_ _0_
variables, you may want Totals 220 220 220
to decide whether these
variables are independent of each other. Variable A is considered
independent of variable B if P(A and B) = P(A) · P(B).

Lesson 7-8 • Two-Way Frequency Tables 417

 Example 1 Frequency and Relative
Frequency Tables
BREAKFAST Francesca asks a random sample of 140 upperclassmen
at her high school whether they prefer eating breakfast at home or
at school. She finds that 55 juniors and 23 seniors prefer eating
breakfast at home before school, while 12 juniors and 50 seniors
prefer eating breakfast at school.

Part A Organize the responses in a two-way frequency table.

Identify the variables. The students surveyed can be classified
according to class and preference. Because the survey included only
upperclassmen, the variable class has two categories: senior or junior.
The variable preference also has two categories: prefers eating
breakfast at home and prefers eating breakfast at school.
Create a two-way frequency table. Let the rows of the table represent
class and the columns represent preference. Then fill in the cells of
the table with the information given.
Add a Totals row and a Totals column to your table and fill in these
cells with the correct sums.

Breakfast Breakfast at
Totals
at Home School
Senior 23 50 73
Junior 55 12 67
Totals 78 62 140

Part B Construct a relative frequency table.

To complete a relative frequency table for these data, start by
dividing the frequency reported in each cell by the total number of
respondents, 140. Then, write each fraction as a percent rounded to
the nearest tenth.

Breakfast at Home Breakfast at School Totals

Think About It!
Senior _2_3_ = 16.4% _5_0_ = 35.7% _7_3_ = 52.1%
What is the probability 140 140 140
that a surveyed student _5_5_ = 39.3% _1_2_ = 8.6% _6_7_ = 47.9%
is a junior who prefers Junior 140 140 140
eating breakfast
Totals _7_8_ = 55.7% _6_2_ = 44.3% _14_0_ = 100%
at home? 140 140 140

Go Online Y ou can complete an Extra Example online.

418 Module 7 • Probability

 Example 2 Independence and Relative Frequency
MUSIC Anaud polls
EDM Hip-Hop Totals
240 of his friends on
social media about College
100 107 207
what grade they are Freshman
in and whether they High School
prefer electronic dance 16 17 33
Senior
music (EDM) or hip-hop.
He posts the results of Totals 116 124 240
the survey in the table.
Use the table to determine whether a respondent’s musical preference
is independent of his or her grade level.
In a two-way frequency table, you can test for the independence of
two variables by comparing the joint relative frequencies with the
products of the corresponding marginal relative frequencies.
Divide each reported frequency by 240 to convert the frequency table
to a relative frequency table. Enter each fraction as a percent rounded
to the nearest tenth. Complete the table.
EDM Hip-Hop Totals
College _10
_0_ _10
_7_ _20
__7
Freshman 240 = 41.7% 240 = 44.6% 240 = 86.3%

High School _1_6_ = 6.7% _1_7_ = 7.1% _3_3_ = 13.8%

Senior 240 240 240

_1_
16_ _12
_4_ _2_
40_
240 = 48.3% 240 = 51.7% 240 = 100%
Totals

Calculate the expected joint relative frequencies if the two variables

were independent. Then compare them to the actual relative
frequencies.
For example, if 86.3% of respondents were college freshmen and
48.3% of respondents prefer EDM, then one would expect that 86.3% ·
48.3% or about 41.7% of respondents are college freshmen who prefer
EDM. The table below shows the expected joint relative frequencies.
EDM Hip-Hop Totals
College
41.7% 44.6% 86.3%
Freshman
High School
6.7% 7.1% 13.8%
Senior

Totals 48.3% 51.7% 100%

Comparing the two tables, the expected and actual joint relative
frequencies are the same. Therefore, the musical preferences for these
respondents are independent of grade level.

Go Online Y ou can complete an Extra Example online.

Lesson 7-8 • Two-Way Frequency Tables 419

 Check
SCHOOL Immediately after a physics test, the entire class sits together
at lunch and discusses how long each of them studied and how many
questions they guessed on. The table shows the responses from the
classmates.

Guessed Guessed
on < 5 on > 5 Totals
Problems Problems
Studied 4 Hours or Less 9 3 12
Studied More Than 4 Hours 12 4 16
Totals 21 7 28

True or False: For these classmates, guessing on more than 5 problems

on the physics test is independent of studying 4 hours or less.

Example 3 Conditional Probability with Two-Way

Frequency Tables
You can use joint and marginal relative frequencies to approximate
conditional probabilities.
MEMES Abu posts a question to an online forum about the originality
of posts to the site. Of the 55 respondents who have posted viral
memes, 27 photos and 15 videos were not original content, while
3 photos and 10 videos were original content.
Part A Construct a relative frequency table of the data. Round each
percent to the nearest tenth.

Not Original Original

Totals
Content Content
Video 27.3% 18.2% 45.5%
Photo 49.1% 5.5% 54.5%
Think About It! Totals 76.4% 23.6% 100%
Why do we divide by
0.545 when finding the Part B Find the probability that a viral meme on the forum is not
conditional probability original content given that is it a photo.
in the example?
The probability that a meme is not original content given that it is a
photo is the conditional probability P(not original content|photo).
P(not original content and photo)
P(not original content|photo) = ______________________
P(photo)
0.491
≈_ ___
0.545 or 90.1%

So the probability that a viral meme on the forum is not original

content given that it is a photo is 90.1%.

Go Online Y ou can complete an Extra Example online.

420 Module 7 • Probability

 Go Online Y ou can complete your homework online.
Practice
Example 1
1. VEHICLES One hundred people are surveyed about the type of vehicle they drive.
The survey finds that 15 males and 40 females drive SUVs, while 35 males and
10 females drive trucks.
a. Organize the responses in a two-way frequency table.

SUV Truck Totals

Male
Female
Totals

b. Construct a relative frequency table.

SUV Truck Totals

Male

Female

Totals

2. SOCIAL MEDIA One hundred students are asked whether or not they have social
media accounts. The survey finds that 25 males and 35 females have social media
accounts, while 25 males and 15 females do not have social media accounts.
a. Organize the responses in a two-way frequency table.

Social Media No Social Media Totals

Male
Female
Totals

b. Construct a relative frequency table.

Social Media No Social Media Totals

Male
Female
Totals

Lesson 7-8 • Two-Way Frequency Tables 421

Example 2
3. COLLEGE A ride-sharing company surveys 2000 of its customers who are college
students. The survey asks the following two questions about the previous
academic year:
• Are you attending college in or out of state?
• Did you visit home more than four times this school year?
The survey finds that of the 1260 students who attend an in-state college, 928
visited home more than four times and 332 visited home four or less times. Of the
740 students who attend an out-of-state college, 118 visited home more than four
times and 622 visited home four or less times.
a. Organize the responses in a two-way frequency table.
b. Construct a relative frequency table. Enter each fraction as a percent rounded
to the nearest tenth, if necessary.
c. Suppose you let event A represent whether the students attend an in-state or an
out-of-state college, and event B represent whether the students visit home
more than four times or visit home four or fewer times. Use the table to
determine whether the number of visits home is independent or dependent on
whether the student is attending college at an in-state or out-of-state institution.
Justify your response.

Example 3
4. TICKETS A movie theater is keeping track of the last 800 tickets it sold to two
different movies. Of the 578 adult tickets sold, 136 of them were for the animated
film and 442 were for the documentary film. Of the 222 student tickets sold, 181 of
them were for the animated film and 41 were for the documentary film.
a. Copy and complete the two-way frequency table shown.
Adult Student Totals
Animated 181
Documentary
Totals 578 800

b. Construct a relative frequency table of your completed two-way frequency

table. Round each percent to the nearest tenth, as necessary.
Adult Student Totals
Animated
Documentary
Totals

c. Find the probability that a ticket sold is an adult ticket given that it is a documentary
ticket. Show your work by writing the formula that you used to perform the calculation.

422 Module 7 • Probability

Mixed Exercises
5. SCHOOL The two-way frequency table Did Not
compares data about students in a class Completed
Complete Totals
who completed or did not complete Homework
Homework
homework and those who passed or did
Passed Exam 18 2 20
not pass an exam. How many students
completed their homework and passed Did Not Pass
4 2 6
the exam? Identify whether marginal or Exam
joint frequencies are used. Totals 22 4 26

6. MOVIES Raquel surveys 160 people to determine if Drama Comedy Totals

they prefer drama or comedy movies. The relative Male 12.5% 25% 37.5%
frequency table shows the data collected from the
Female 46.9% 15.6% 62.5%
survey. Determine whether gender is independent of
movie type preference. Explain your reasoning. Totals 59.4% 40.6% 100%

7. TECHNOLOGY For a business report on technology use, Darnell asks a random

sample of 72 shoppers whether they own a smart phone and whether they own
a tablet computer. His survey shows that out of 51 shoppers who own smart
phones, 9 of them also own a tablet, while out of 21 shoppers who do not own
smart phones, 15 of them do not own tablets either. Find the conditional
probability that a shopper has a tablet, given that he or she has a smart phone.
Justify your reasoning.

8. CONSTRUCT ARGUMENTS Paz asks a Does Not

random sample of seniors at her high Has a Job Totals
Have a Job
school whether they own a car and whether
Has a Car 21.9% 12.5% 34.4%
they have a job. The results of the survey
are shown in the two-way relative frequency Does Not
25% 40.6% 65.6%
table. Paz says that the conditional Have a Car
probability that a student has a job given Totals 46.9% 53.1% 100%
that he or she has a car is 46.7%. Do you
agree? Justify your argument.

Lesson 7-8 • Two-Way Frequency Tables 423

 Higher-Order Thinking Skills
9. PERSEVERE Suppose an exit poll held outside a Age and Votes for Votes for
voting area on the day of an election produced
Gender Candidate A Candidate B
these results.
18–30 Male 19 32
a. Which events are mutually exclusive? 18–30 Female 31 18
31–45 Male 51 12
b. Find the probability that a male between the 31–45 Female 43 20
ages of 46 and 60 would vote for Candidate A. 46–60 Male 42 35
46–60 Female 20 42
c. Find the probability that a female would vote for 60+ Male 45 21
Candidate A.
60+ Female 27 18
d. Find the probability that someone who voted for
Candidate B was a female and age 18–30.

e. According to the data, on which demographic(s) does Candidate A need to

focus campaign efforts?

f. According to the data, on which demographic(s) does Candidate B need to

focus campaign efforts?

10. ANALYZE A market research firm asks a random sample of 240 adults and
students at a movie theater whether they would rather see a new summer
blockbuster in 2-D or 3-D. The survey shows that 64 adults and 108 students
prefer 3-D, while 42 adults and 26 students prefer 2-D.
a. Organize the responses into a two-way frequency table.

b. Convert the table from part a into a two-way relative frequency table. Round
to the nearest tenth of a percent. Out of every 10 people surveyed, about
how many would prefer to see the movie in 3-D? Explain.

c. Find the probability that a person surveyed prefers seeing the movie in 3-D,
given that he or she is an adult. Write the formula that you used to perform
the calculation.

d. An analyst at the firm claims that the probability that a person surveyed is a
student given that he or she does not prefer to see the movie in 3-D is 10.8%.
Do you agree? Justify your answer.

e. Is a preference for 2-D or 3-D movies independent of age? Explain your

reasoning.

424 Module 7 • Probability

 Module 7 • Probability

Review
Essential Question
How can you use measurements to find probabilities?
You can find the number of favorable outcomes for an experiment and also find the total
number of possible outcomes for an experiment and then find probabilities using a ratio.
That ratio can be used to predict how many times a certain event may occur.

Module Summary
Lessons 7-1 through 7-3 Lessons 7-5 through 7-7

Probability of Simple Events Probability of Compound Events

• The number of possible outcomes in a sample • If two events A and B are independent, the
space can be found by multiplying the number P(A and B) = P(A) · P(B).
of possible outcomes from each stage or event. • If two events A and B are dependent, then
• For the probability of the intersection of two P(A and B) = P(A) · P(B | A).
or more events, find the ratio of the number of • If two events A or B are mutually exclusive, then
outcomes in both events to the total number of P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B).
possible outcomes. • If two events A or B are not mutually exclusive,
• When two events A and B occur, the union of then P(A or B) = P(A ) + P(B) - P(A and B).
A and B is the set of all outcomes in the sample • The conditional probability of B given A is
space of event A combined with all outcomes P(A and B)
in the sample space of event B. P(B | A) = ________
P(A) , where P(A) ≠ 0.
• If region A contains a region B and a point
E in region A is chosen at random, then Lesson 7-8
the probability that point E is in region B is
area of region B
____________
Frequency Tables
area of region A. • The frequencies in the T otals row and Totals
column are marginal frequencies.
Lesson 7-4 • The frequencies in the interior of the table are
joint frequencies.
Permutations and Combinations
• The number of distinguishable permutations of n • A relative frequency is the ratio of the number of
objects in which one object is repeated r 1times, observations in a category to the total number of
another is repeated r 2times, and so on, is observations.
____n_!____.
r !r ! · … · r !
12 k
Study Organizer
• The number of permutations of n distinct objects
Foldables
taken r at a time is denoted by nPr and given by
n_! __ Use your Foldable to review this module. Working
P = ___
nr (n - r)! . with a partner can be helpful. Ask for clarification
• The number of combinations of n distinct objects of concepts as needed.
taken r at a time is denoted by nCr and is given Probability
n_! __
by nC
r
= ___
(n - r)!r! .
Sample Probability Independent
& Mutually
Spaces and Exclusive
Counting Dependent
Events Events

Module 7 Review • Probability 425

Test Practice
1. MULTIPLE CHOICE Two dice are tossed. 4. OPEN RESPONSE Jenell’s birthday is in May.
Which is the sample space of the event that Let W be the event that his birthday lands
the sum of the outcomes is 5? (Lesson 7-1) on a weekend. Let P be the event that his
A. {(5, 5)} birthday is a prime number.

B. {(1, 4), (2, 3)} What is W ∩ P? (Lesson 7-2)

C. {(1, 4), (2, 3), (3, 2), (4, 1)} May

D. {(1, 5), (2, 5), (3, 5), (4, 5), (5, 5)} Sun Mon Tues Wed Thurs Fri Sat
1 2 3 4 5 6
7 8 9 10 11 12 13
14 15 16 17 18 19 20
21 22 23 24 25 26 27
2. OPEN RESPONSE A restaurant has a special 28 29 30 31
deal where you can build your own meal
from certain selections in the menu. The
number of selections available in each
category is shown in the table.

Item Number of Choices

Drink 12
Appetizer 7 5. MULTIPLE CHOICE Point J will be placed
Main Entrée 8 randomly on ¯
AD .
Side Dishes 14
Dessert 9 3 D
C
If a person selects one of each item, how
many different meals can be ordered? 14
(Lesson 7-1)

5 B

A
What is the probability that point J is on ¯
AC to
3. MULTIPLE CHOICE An integer between the nearest percent? (Lesson 7-3)
1 and 12 is generated using a random number
A. 14%
generator. Let A be the event of generating
a multiple of 4, and let B be the event of B. 77%
generating a factor of 12. Which of the C. 64%
following represents A ∩ B? (Lesson 7-2)
D. 86%
A. {4, 12}
B. {4, 8, 12}
C. {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12}
D. {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12}

426 Module 7 Review • Probability

6. MULTIPLE CHOICE Josefina is at a carnival 8. OPEN RESPONSE The numbers 0–39 are
trying to win a prize. She must toss a bean used to create a locker combination. Show
bag in the hole to win. how to determine the probability that the
combination is 20-21-22. (Lesson 7-4)
12 in.

3 in.
12 in.
9. MULTI-SELECT Select all the situations that
are dependent events. (Lesson 7-5)

A. Two dice are tossed.

B. Two marbles are selected from a bag.
What is the probability that when tossed
randomly, the bean bag lands in the hole? C. Two students are chosen as the captains
Assume that the bean bag lands on the of a team.
board. (Lesson 7-3) D. A coin is tossed and a card is chosen.
A. 4.9% E. Three books are selected from the
B. 7.065% library.
C. 19.625% F. One student from each class is chosen
to collect papers.
D. 28.26%

10. OPEN RESPONSE The table shows the

7. MULTIPLE CHOICE If three points are books of several different genres available
randomly chosen from those named on to read on Imelda’s bookshelf.
hexagon ABCDEF, what is the probability
Genre Number of Books
that they all lie on the same line segment?
Action 8
(Lesson 7-4)
Mystery 5
E H D Romance 2
Science fiction 12
G I
Horror 3
F C
Imelda selects two different books. What is
L J the probability, as a fraction, that Imelda
selects two mysteries? (Lesson 7-5)
A K B
1
A. __ __
1320
1
B. __
220
__

1_
C. __
216
3_
D. __
220

Module 7 Review • Probability 427

11. MUL TI-SELECT Suppose a die is tossed 14. MULTIPLE CHOICE In a recent survey,
once. Which of these events are mutually 1650 students were asked what they
exclusive? Select all that apply. (Lesson 7-6) are studying. Of the 1650 students,
948 students are learning Spanish.
A. Landing on a 4 or a 5
426 students are studying physics,
B. Landing on a 2 or an even 378 of whom are also learning Spanish.
C. Landing on a 2 or a prime If a student is chosen at random, what is
D. Landing on 4 or an odd the probability that he or she is studying
physics, given the student is studying
E. Landing on an odd or a prime Spanish? (Lesson 7-7)
A. 57.5%
12. MULTIPLE CHOICE A group of college
B. 52.9%
students was surveyed about their
browser use. The results are shown on C. 39.9%
the circle graph. D. 25.8%
Browser C 15. MULTIPLE CHOICE The table shows the
1% Browser D
8% results of a survey asking whether the
respondent preferred to use the Internet
Browser E on a phone or laptop.
4%
Phone Laptop Total
12–29 years old 85 21 106
Browser A
48% 30+ years old 124 87 211
Browser B
39% Total 209 108 317
What is the probability that a participant is
30+ years old given that they prefer a
What is the probability that a student laptop to use the Internet? (Lesson 7-8)
selected randomly will use either A. 27.4%
Browser A or Browser D? (Lesson 7-6) B. 41.2%
47
A. _100
__
C. 59.3%
12 D. 80.6%
B. _25
__

14 16. OPEN RESPONSE Booker asks 29 students

C. ___
25 from his math class and 21 different students
8_7_
D. _100 from his science class when they typically
start working on their homework. Of the
students, 18 from math class and 8 from
13. OPEN RESPONSE Two dice have been
science class respond that they do their
tossed. What is the probability of tossing a
homework as soon as they return home
sum of 8 given that at least one die landed
from school, and 11 from math class and 13
on an odd number? (Lesson 7-7)
from science class respond that they start
working on homework after dinner. What is
the probability, as a percent to the nearest
tenth, that a student waits to start homework
until after dinner, given that they are in
Booker’s math class? (Lesson 7-7)

428 Module 7 Review • Probability