SAMPLE QUESTIONS ON AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION

1) Five small discs cut from spinach leaves were floated on a small volume of buffered hydrogen
carbonate solution in a flask attached to a respirometer. The discs were first exposed to bright light,
then to dim light and finally left in the dark. Oxygen release was recorded as positive values and
oxygen uptake as negative values as given in the table below.

Light Time interval in Oxygen uptake or release

intensity minutes in mm3
0–3 +57
3–6 +64
Bright light 6 – 9 +58
9 – 12 +60
Dim light 12 – 15 +16
15 – 18 +3
18 – 21 - 16
21 – 24 - 12
Dark 24 – 27 - 15
27 – 30 - 14
Present the data in a suitable graphical form

(i) Calculate the mean rate of oxygen release in bright light

Sum of oxygen release values in bright light:
57+64+58+60=239 mm3
Number of time intervals: There are 4 intervals.
Mean rate of oxygen release:
Mean rate=239 mm34 intervals=59.75 mm3/interval
Thus, the mean rate of oxygen release in bright light is 59.75 mm³ per interval.
(ii) Explain the significance of the results obtained from this experiment.
The results from this experiment reveal how light intensity affects the oxygen exchange in spinach
leaf discs, which is a direct measure of photosynthesis and respiration. Here’s a breakdown of the
significance:
1. Bright light (0–12 minutes):
• During this phase, the oxygen release is high, ranging from +57 mm³ to +64 mm³.
• Significance: This indicates that the rate of photosynthesis is higher than the rate of
respiration, as oxygen is being produced and released. Photosynthesis is most
efficient in bright light, where the light-dependent reactions generate oxygen from
water, showing that light is a key factor driving this process.
2. Dim light (12–18 minutes):
• The oxygen release drops significantly, with values of +16 mm³ and +3 mm³.
• Significance: In dim light, photosynthesis slows down as less light is available to
drive the light-dependent reactions. The lower oxygen release reflects a reduced rate
of photosynthesis, nearing the rate of respiration. This demonstrates the reduced
efficiency of photosynthesis under lower light conditions.
3. Dark (18–30 minutes):
• Oxygen uptake occurs, with values ranging from -16 mm³ to -14 mm³.
• Significance: In the dark, photosynthesis ceases completely because light is no
longer available to drive the process. The negative values reflect oxygen uptake,
meaning respiration is occurring without the counteraction of photosynthesis. This
shows that in the absence of light, the plant discs are only respiring, consuming
oxygen rather than releasing it.

Overall significance:
The experiment demonstrates the dependency of photosynthesis on light intensity. In bright light,
photosynthesis outpaces respiration, leading to net oxygen release. As light diminishes,
photosynthesis slows and respiration becomes more apparent, and in complete darkness, respiration
dominates. This helps underline the role of light in regulating the balance between photosynthesis
and respiration in plants.

Explain the use of the following in the experiment above: Five small leaf discs, not one; Hydrogen
carbonate solution; Buffered hydrogen carbonate solution
1. Five Small Leaf Discs (Not One):
• Reason for Use: Using five small discs instead of a single disc increases the reliability and
accuracy of the results by providing a larger surface area for gas exchange and more
consistent oxygen measurements.
• Significance: Multiple discs reduce the impact of any anomalies or variations in individual
discs (e.g., differences in cell structure or health). This helps ensure the results represent the
overall behaviour of the spinach leaves more accurately, giving a more consistent measure of
oxygen release and uptake during photosynthesis and respiration.

2. Hydrogen Carbonate Solution:

• Reason for Use: Hydrogen carbonate (HCO₃⁻) provides a source of carbon dioxide (CO₂)
in solution, which is necessary for photosynthesis.
• Significance: In the presence of light, the leaf discs carry out photosynthesis, consuming
CO₂. By dissolving hydrogen carbonate in the solution, a stable and sufficient supply of
CO₂ is ensured throughout the experiment. This allows the rate of photosynthesis to proceed
without being limited by a lack of carbon dioxide.

3. Buffered Hydrogen Carbonate Solution:

• Reason for Use: A buffered solution maintains a constant pH by resisting changes caused by
the presence or removal of CO₂ during the experiment.
• Significance: As the leaf discs undergo photosynthesis, they absorb CO₂, which could
increase the pH of the solution, making it more alkaline. Conversely, during respiration,
CO₂ is released, potentially lowering the pH by forming carbonic acid in water. Fluctuations
in pH can affect the activity of enzymes involved in photosynthesis and respiration, such as
RuBisCO (in the Calvin cycle). By using a buffered hydrogen carbonate solution, the pH
remains stable, ensuring that any changes in oxygen uptake or release are due solely to light
intensity, rather than being influenced by pH-related enzyme inhibition or stimulation. This
helps maintain consistent experimental conditions, making the results more reliable.
Buffering thus ensures that the environment around the leaf discs remains optimal for both
photosynthesis and respiration, preventing misleading data due to changes in the acidity or
alkalinity of the solution.
In summary, the five discs improve result reliability, the hydrogen carbonate ensures a constant
supply of CO₂ for photosynthesis, and the buffering maintains stable conditions to provide accurate
measurements of oxygen exchange.

2) In an experiment, samples of algae were collected at 1-minute intervals over a period of 5

minutes. The quantities of glycerate-3-phosphate (GP) and ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) were
measured. At the beginning of the experiment, the concentration of carbondioxide supplied was
high. After 2 minutes, the concentration of carbondioxide was reduced. The graph in the figure
below shows the results of this experiment.
Describe the effects of the decrease in carbondioxide after 2 minutes on:
Glycerate 3-phosphate (GP)
Ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP)
(b) Suggest explanation for these changes to the levels of glycerate 3- phosphate (GP)
and RuBP

The decrease in carbon dioxide (CO₂) concentration after 2 minutes would have specific
effects on the levels of glycerate-3-phosphate (GP) and ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP)
due to the disruption in the Calvin cycle, which relies on CO₂ as a substrate.

1. Effect on Glycerate-3-Phosphate (GP):

• Initial effect (before 2 minutes): When CO₂ concentration is high, the enzyme RuBisCO
catalyses the reaction between CO₂ and RuBP, forming an unstable six-carbon compound,
which quickly breaks down into two molecules of glycerate-3-phosphate (GP). As a result,
GP levels would initially be high.
• After the decrease in CO₂ (after 2 minutes): As CO₂ concentration decreases, less CO₂ is
available for RuBisCO to fix. Since CO₂ is required for the formation of GP, the production
of GP will decline. Consequently, the concentration of GP will fall because RuBP cannot be
converted into GP efficiently without sufficient CO₂.
##########
• GP levels eventually stabilise because the Calvin cycle reaches a new equilibrium where the
slowed-down reactions due to limited CO₂ availability prevent further decline in GP
concentration.
##########
2. Effect on Ribulose Bisphosphate (RuBP):
• Initial effect (before 2 minutes): When CO₂ concentration is high, RuBP is continually
consumed in the Calvin cycle as it reacts with CO₂ to form GP. As a result, the levels of
RuBP would be relatively stable or slightly lower as it is constantly being used.
• After the decrease in CO₂ (after 2 minutes): With less CO₂ available, the enzyme
RuBisCO will fix less CO₂, so less RuBP will be used in the reaction. However, RuBP will
continue to be regenerated from GP and other intermediates in the Calvin cycle. Since there
is less CO₂ to use up RuBP, the concentration of RuBP will increase as it accumulates
without being consumed in CO₂ fixation.
##############
• Initial rise: RuBP accumulates as less CO₂ is available for fixation, but regeneration
continues.
• Slight decline: The reduction in Calvin cycle intermediates and the slower regeneration of
RuBP cause its concentration to fall slightly.
• Levelling off: The Calvin cycle reaches a new equilibrium, with RuBP stabilising as both its
regeneration and consumption slow down.
#############

Summary of effects:
• GP levels will decrease after the reduction in CO₂ because the fixation of CO₂ into GP is
reduced.
• RuBP levels will increase as it is no longer being used effectively in the absence of
sufficient CO₂ but continues to be regenerated in the Calvin cycle.
This pattern reflects the Calvin cycle’s dependency on CO₂ for the continued production of GP and
the utilisation of RuBP.
3) Experiments on cultures of a unicellular protist to investigate the effect of light and
carbon dioxide on certain metabolites. In the first experiment, the levels of PGA, RuBP
and sucrose in the protist were determined at different time intervals in the presence of
light. At the 35th minute, light was switched off, suddenly putting the protists in darkness;
the results are shown in the table below
Time (minutes) 0 20 35 40 50 60 70
Amount of RuBP 35 35 35 30 15 10 10
metabolite PGA 45 45 45 50 65 70 70
Sucrose 10 54 72 66 52 35 20

Represent the data provided graphically

Using the graph obtained in (a) above, explain the variation in the levels of the metabolites with
time

RuBP:
• Initial Level: Remains relatively constant at 35 units until the 35th minute.
• Light Shutoff: Decreases rapidly after light is switched off, suggesting a direct dependence
on light.
 • Dark Period: Continues to decrease, possibly due to consumption in other metabolic
processes.
PGA:
• Initial Level: Remains relatively constant at 45 units until the 35th minute.
• Light Shutoff: Increases slightly after light is switched off, indicating a potential shift in
metabolic pathways.
• Dark Period: Continues to increase, possibly due to the breakdown of other metabolites or
increased production.
Sucrose:
• Initial Level: Starts low at 10 units and increases rapidly until the 35th minute.
• Light Shutoff: Continues to increase slightly after light is switched off, suggesting a
delayed response to light conditions.
• Dark Period: Decreases gradually, likely due to consumption or breakdown.
Overall Observations:
• Light Dependence: The levels of all three metabolites are influenced by light. RuBP, in
particular, shows a strong dependence on light for maintenance.
• Interconnected Pathways: The changes in one metabolite's level likely affect the others,
indicating interconnected metabolic pathways.
• Metabolic Shifts: The shift in light conditions seems to trigger changes in metabolic
processes, leading to altered metabolite levels.
Possible Explanations:
• Photosynthesis: RuBP is a key molecule in photosynthesis. Its decrease in the dark suggests
a reduction in photosynthetic activity.
• Glycolysis: PGA is a product of glycolysis, a process that can occur in both light and dark
conditions. Its increase might be due to increased glycolytic activity or decreased
consumption in other pathways.
• Sucrose Synthesis: Sucrose is a storage molecule. Its initial increase might be due to
efficient photosynthesis, while the subsequent decrease could be attributed to consumption
or breakdown for energy.
Further Analysis:
• Additional Metabolites: Analyzing the levels of other metabolites involved in
photosynthesis and respiration could provide a more complete picture of metabolic changes.
• Enzyme Activity: Measuring the activity of key enzymes involved in these pathways would
help elucidate the underlying mechanisms.
• Environmental Factors: Investigating the effects of other environmental factors (e.g.,
temperature, CO2 concentration) could provide additional insights into the protist's
metabolic responses.

####### (different source)

Summary:
• RuBP levels remain stable initially but decline after light is turned off due to reduced
regeneration.
• PGA levels increase as RuBP is used up, showing a buildup of this intermediate in the
absence of sufficient energy for conversion into other metabolites.
• Sucrose levels initially rise due to photosynthesis but decline after light is turned off as the
plant uses stored sucrose for respiration.
###########

4) The rate of photosynthesis of Digitaria bipartite, a C4 plant and Astropa belladonna, a C3 plant
was investigated under different intracellular carbon dioxide concentrations. The results are shown
in the table below

Carbon dioxide concentration Rate of photosynthesis (mol of CO2 assimilated per m2 of leaf
(ml per dm3) area per second)
Digitaria bipartite Astropa belladonna
0 0.0 0.0
25 12.5 0.0
50 35.0 5.0
75 37.5 14.0
100 37.5 25.0
150 37.5 40.0
200 37.5 47.5

Present the data in the table above graphically

Compare the rates of photosynthesis of two plants at the carbon dioxide concentrations shown in (a)
above
Explain your answer in (b) above
At Low CO₂ Concentrations (0 and 25 ml/dm³):
• Both plants show a rate of photosynthesis of 0.0 mol CO₂/m²/s at 0 ml/dm³ CO₂
concentration, indicating that no photosynthesis occurs without available carbon
dioxide.
• At 25 ml/dm³, Digitaria bipartita (C4 plant) exhibits a photosynthesis rate of 12.5
mol CO₂/m²/s, while Astropa belladonna (C3 plant) remains at 0.0 mol CO₂/m²/s,
highlighting the C4 plant's ability to efficiently utilize low levels of CO₂.
2. At Moderate CO₂ Concentrations (50 to 100 ml/dm³):
• As CO₂ concentration increases to 50 ml/dm³, Digitaria bipartita shows a
substantial increase in photosynthesis to 35.0 mol CO₂/m²/s, while Astropa
belladonna increases to 5.0 mol CO₂/m²/s. This demonstrates the C4 plant’s
advantage in CO₂ assimilation.
• At 75 ml/dm³, Digitaria bipartita reaches 37.5 mol CO₂/m²/s, and Astropa
belladonna increases to 14.0 mol CO₂/m²/s. The C4 plant remains efficient in CO₂
fixation, maintaining a higher photosynthesis rate compared to the C3 plant.
• At 100 ml/dm³, the rates are equal (both plants remain stable at their respective
rates), with Digitaria bipartita plateauing at 37.5 mol CO₂/m²/s while Astropa
belladonna rises to 25.0 mol CO₂/m²/s.
3. At High CO₂ Concentrations (150 and 200 ml/dm³):
• At 150 ml/dm³, Digitaria bipartita maintains a rate of 37.5 mol CO₂/m²/s,
indicating its ability to saturate and efficiently utilize CO₂ without further increase,
while Astropa belladonna continues to rise to 40.0 mol CO₂/m²/s.
• At 200 ml/dm³, Digitaria bipartita still remains at 37.5 mol CO₂/m²/s, while
Astropa belladonna achieves 47.5 mol CO₂/m²/s, reflecting that C3 plants may
benefit from high CO₂ concentrations after reaching their limits.

Conclusion:
• Digitaria bipartita (C4 plant) demonstrates consistently higher rates of photosynthesis
compared to Astropa belladonna (C3 plant) at lower CO₂ concentrations, showcasing its
efficient CO₂ fixation capability, particularly under low CO₂ conditions.
• As CO₂ concentration increases, Astropa belladonna shows an increase in its
photosynthetic rates, highlighting the potential advantages C3 plants have in high CO₂
environments, although they do not reach the high levels of photosynthesis achieved by C4
plants under low CO₂ conditions.

Explain, in biochemical terms, the distribution of C3, C4 and CAM plants at their environments
The distribution of C3, C4, and CAM (Crassulacean Acid Metabolism) plants is significantly
influenced by their biochemical mechanisms of carbon fixation, which have evolved in response to
varying environmental conditions such as temperature, light intensity, and water availability. Here’s
an explanation of each type of plant and how its biochemistry determines its distribution in different
environments:

1. C3 Plants
Biochemical Mechanism:
• C3 plants fix carbon dioxide (CO₂) using the enzyme ribulose bisphosphate
carboxylase/oxygenase (RuBisCO) in a process known as the Calvin cycle. The initial
product of CO₂ fixation is a three-carbon compound, glycerate-3-phosphate (GP).
• C3 photosynthesis is most efficient in cool, moist environments with moderate sunlight
since RuBisCO can also catalyse the reaction with oxygen (photorespiration), which is
detrimental to plant efficiency.
Distribution:
• Cool, Wet Climates: C3 plants are predominantly found in temperate regions where
temperatures are moderate, and water is relatively abundant, such as forests, grasslands, and
wetlands.
• High-Carbon Dioxide Environments: They thrive in environments with adequate sunlight
and CO₂ availability but may struggle in high-temperature, low-water scenarios where
photorespiration becomes more prevalent.

2. C4 Plants
Biochemical Mechanism:
• C4 plants utilize an additional step in carbon fixation. They initially convert CO₂ into a
four-carbon compound (oxaloacetate) using phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEP
carboxylase). This process occurs in mesophyll cells and helps concentrate CO₂ for
subsequent fixation in the bundle-sheath cells via the Calvin cycle.
• C4 photosynthesis is more efficient under high light intensity, elevated temperatures, and
lower atmospheric CO₂ levels, significantly reducing photorespiration.
Distribution:
• Warm, Arid Regions: C4 plants are commonly found in tropical and subtropical
environments, such as savannas, grasslands, and arid regions, where temperatures are high
and water availability can be limited.
• High Light Intensity Areas: Their biochemical efficiency allows them to thrive in
environments with intense sunlight, such as open fields and grasslands, where they can
outcompete C3 plants.

3. CAM Plants
Biochemical Mechanism:
• CAM plants also fix CO₂ into a four-carbon compound like C4 plants but do so differently.
They open their stomata at night to take in CO₂, which is then fixed into organic acids (e.g.,
 malate). During the day, the stomata close to minimize water loss, and the CO₂ is released
from the organic acids for use in the Calvin cycle.
• This adaptation allows CAM plants to conserve water in arid environments while still
performing photosynthesis.
Distribution:
• Desert and Semi-arid Environments: CAM plants are predominantly found in extremely
dry environments, such as deserts and rocky areas, where water conservation is crucial for
survival.
• Variable Temperature Conditions: They can tolerate high temperatures during the day but
benefit from cooler nighttime conditions, making them well-suited for environments with
significant temperature fluctuations.

Conclusion
In summary, the distribution of C3, C4, and CAM plants is closely tied to their biochemical
pathways for carbon fixation, which have adapted to maximize efficiency under specific
environmental conditions.
• C3 plants thrive in cool, moist climates but face challenges in warmer, drier conditions due
to photorespiration.
• C4 plants excel in warm, arid conditions with high light intensity, minimizing
photorespiration and maximizing photosynthetic efficiency.
• CAM plants are adapted for extreme water conservation in deserts, allowing them to
photosynthesize efficiently despite limited water availability.
This distribution reflects a remarkable example of how plant biochemistry shapes ecological niches
and adaptations to diverse environmental stresses.

Uganda's diverse plant life showcases a variety of photosynthetic pathways. C3 plants, like
maize, rice, beans, cassava, coffee, tomatoes, potatoes, wheat, barley, and oats, are commonly
found. C4 plants, such as sugarcane, sorghum, millet, finger millet, maize (under certain
conditions), crabgrass, Bermuda grass, and Johnsongrass, are well-suited for warmer climates and
drought-prone regions. CAM plants, including pineapples, cacti, crassula plants, orchids, lithops,
aloe vera, kalanchoe, and echeveria, have adaptations for water conservation and thrive in arid
conditions. These diverse photosynthetic strategies allow plants to flourish in various ecosystems
across Uganda.

5) The table below shows how the rate of photosynthesis of C4 and C3 plants vary with the
temperature at different light intensities. The rate is in arbitrary units.

Temperature/0C 0 5 10 20 30 35 40
C4 plants at high light intensity 0 5 12 25 28 32 38
C3 plants at high light intensity 0 10 12 15 18 20 10
C3 plants at low light intensity (Arbitrary units) 0 2 5 8 10 10 6

Represent the above results graphically on the same axes.

Explain how differently temperature affects photosynthesis in C3 plants and C4 plants.
C3 plants:
• The rate of photosynthesis increases steadily with temperature up to a certain point, after
which it begins to decline.
• This is because the enzymes involved in photosynthesis become denatured at higher
temperatures, which reduces their activity.
• At low light intensity, the rate of photosynthesis is lower overall, and it declines more
rapidly at higher temperatures.
C4 plants:
• The rate of photosynthesis increases more rapidly with temperature than in C3 plants, and it
continues to increase at higher temperatures.
• This is because C4 plants have a more efficient photosynthetic pathway that is less sensitive
to temperature.
• At high light intensity, the rate of photosynthesis is higher overall, and it continues to
increase at higher temperatures.
Overall, the graph shows that C4 plants are more tolerant of high temperatures than C3 plants. This
is one of the reasons why C4 plants are more common in tropical and subtropical environments,
where temperatures are often high.
Explain the pattern of the graph obtained for C3 plants under low light intensity.
The graph for C3 plants under low light intensity reveals a similar pattern to that under high
light intensity, but with lower overall photosynthetic rates. As temperature increases, the rate of
photosynthesis initially rises due to increased enzyme activity. However, beyond a certain threshold,
enzyme denaturation becomes a significant factor, causing the rate to plateau or decline. At lower
temperatures, reduced enzyme activity further limits photosynthesis. This combined effect of
temperature on enzyme activity explains the observed pattern: an initial increase followed by a
decline or plateau, reflecting the delicate balance between enzyme activity and denaturation under
varying conditions.

Explain the effect of light intensity on the following.

Leaf colour (ii) Leaf size (iii) Internode length
Effect of Light Intensity on Leaf Color, Leaf Size, and Internode Length
Light intensity plays a crucial role in plant growth and development, influencing various
morphological characteristics. Here's how it affects leaf color, leaf size, and internode length:
Leaf Color:
• Higher Light Intensity: Plants exposed to higher light intensity often develop a darker
green color. This is due to the increased production of chlorophyll, the pigment responsible
for absorbing sunlight for photosynthesis.
• Lower Light Intensity: Plants grown in low light conditions may exhibit a paler green color
or even reddish or purplish hues. This is because they produce less chlorophyll in response
to the reduced light availability.
Leaf Size:
• Higher Light Intensity: Plants grown in high-light environments tend to have smaller
leaves. This adaptation helps to reduce water loss through transpiration, which can be
excessive in bright sunlight.
• Lower Light Intensity: Plants in low-light conditions often develop larger leaves to
maximize light absorption. This increased surface area allows them to capture more sunlight
for photosynthesis.
Internode Length:
• Higher Light Intensity: Plants exposed to high light intensity typically have shorter
internodes, the spaces between leaves on a stem. This compact growth habit helps to reduce
shading of lower leaves and ensures efficient light utilization.
• Lower Light Intensity: Plants grown in low light conditions often exhibit longer
internodes. This allows the plant to reach toward areas with more light, increasing its
chances of survival.
In summary, light intensity is a critical environmental factor that significantly influences the
morphological characteristics of plants. By adapting their leaf color, leaf size, and internode length,
plants can optimize their photosynthetic efficiency and survival in various light conditions.
State three other factors that may limit the rate of photosynthesis.
The rate of photosynthesis is influenced by several key factors, including carbon dioxide
concentration, light intensity, temperature, and chlorophyll content. Other important factors include
water and dissolved nutrients, enzyme inhibitors such as cyanide and dichlorophenyl dimethyl urea
(DCMU), some air pollutants like sulphur dioxide, altitude, and salinity.

6) The table below shows effect of temperature on rate of photosynthesis in two grasses, Agropyron
and Bouteloua

Rate of photosynthesis in arbitrary units

Leaf temperature (0C)
Agropyron Bouteloua
10 23 10
15 26 15
20 30 19
25 31 24
30 30 30
35 27 35
40 20 39
45 10 38

(a) Plot the data on a graph paper

(b) Compare the rate of photosynthesis in the two plants.

(c) Account for the variation of the rate of photosynthesis in the two plants.

Refer to previous answers……..

(d)(i) Describe the photosynthetic mechanism which is likely to occur in the cytoplasm of the
mesophyll of Bouteloua.
Bouteloua, being a C4 plant, likely employs the C4 photosynthetic pathway.
In the mesophyll cells of Bouteloua, CO2 is initially fixed by the enzyme phosphoenolpyruvate
carboxylase (PEP carboxylase) to form oxaloacetate. This reaction occurs in the cytoplasm.
Oxaloacetate is then converted to malate or aspartate, which are transported to the bundle sheath
cells.
Key points about the C4 pathway in Bouteloua:
• Initial CO2 fixation: Occurs in the mesophyll cytoplasm using PEP carboxylase.
• Products: Oxaloacetate, malate, or aspartate.
• Transport: These products are transported to bundle sheath cells.
The C4 pathway is an adaptation that helps to increase photosynthetic efficiency, especially in
environments with high temperatures and low CO2 concentrations. It involves a spatial separation
of the initial CO2 fixation and the Calvin cycle, allowing for a more concentrated supply of CO2 to
the Calvin cycle.

(ii) Explain the physiological significance of the mechanism described in (e) (i) above.

The C4 photosynthetic pathway in Bouteloua has several physiological significances:

1. Increased photosynthetic efficiency: The C4 pathway concentrates CO2 around the
enzyme Rubisco, which is less efficient at fixing CO2 than PEP carboxylase. This increases
the efficiency of CO2 fixation and reduces photorespiration.
2. Adaptation to high temperatures: The C4 pathway is more tolerant of high temperatures
than the C3 pathway. This is because PEP carboxylase is less sensitive to temperature than
Rubisco.
3. Adaptation to low CO2 concentrations: The C4 pathway can operate effectively at lower
CO2 concentrations than the C3 pathway. This is because the C4 pathway creates a more
concentrated CO2 environment around Rubisco.
4. Water conservation: The C4 pathway can help to conserve water by reducing stomatal
opening. This is because the C4 pathway can fix CO2 at a lower CO2 concentration, so
plants can close their stomata more tightly without limiting photosynthesis.
Overall, the C4 photosynthetic pathway is an adaptation that allows plants like Bouteloua to thrive
in environments with high temperatures, low CO2 concentrations, and water scarcity.
7 (a) Explain the effect of light intensity and temperature on the rate of photosynthesis.
Explain photophosphorylation in terms of chemiosmosis.

Photophosphorylation is the process by which light energy is converted into chemical energy in
the form of ATP. This process occurs in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts and involves a
series of electron transport reactions coupled with chemiosmosis.
Chemiosmosis is the process by which energy is stored in the form of a proton gradient across a
membrane. In photophosphorylation, protons are pumped from the stroma into the thylakoid lumen,
creating a proton gradient. This proton gradient drives the synthesis of ATP by the enzyme ATP
synthase.
Here's a breakdown of the process:
1. Light absorption: Light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll molecules in the thylakoid
membranes.
2. Electron transport: The absorbed energy is used to excite electrons, which are then
transported through a series of electron carriers, including photosystem II, cytochrome b6f
complex, and photosystem I.
3. Proton pumping: As electrons move through the electron transport chain, protons are
pumped from the stroma into the thylakoid lumen, creating a proton gradient.
4. ATP synthesis: The proton gradient drives the rotation of the ATP synthase enzyme, which
catalyzes the synthesis of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi).
In essence, photophosphorylation involves the conversion of light energy into electron energy,
the use of this electron energy to pump protons, and the harnessing of the resulting proton
gradient to synthesize ATP. This process is essential for providing the energy needed for
photosynthesis and other cellular processes.

Explain the reactions involving the use of light energy that occur in the thylakoids of the
chloroplast.

The thylakoids of the chloroplast are the site of light-driven reactions in photosynthesis. These
reactions involve the absorption of light energy by chlorophyll pigments and its conversion into
chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH.
Here's a breakdown of the key reactions:
1. Light absorption: Chlorophyll molecules embedded in the thylakoid membranes absorb
light energy. This energy excites electrons in the chlorophyll molecules.
2. Electron transport: The excited electrons are transported through a series of electron
carriers, including photosystem II, cytochrome b6f complex, and photosystem I. As
electrons move through this chain, they lose energy, which is used to pump protons from the
stroma into the thylakoid lumen, creating a proton gradient.
3. Photophosphorylation: The proton gradient drives the synthesis of ATP by ATP synthase, a
process known as chemiosmosis.
 4. NADPH synthesis: In photosystem I, electrons are re-energized by light and are used to
reduce NADP+ to NADPH.
In summary, the light-driven reactions in the thylakoids involve the absorption of light
energy, the transfer of electrons through an electron transport chain, the creation of a proton
gradient, and the synthesis of ATP and NADPH. These products are then used in the light-
independent reactions (Calvin cycle) to convert CO2 into organic molecules.

8 (a) Outline the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis.

The light-independent reactions of photosynthesis, also known as the Calvin cycle, occur in the
stroma of chloroplasts and utilize the ATP and NADPH produced in the light-dependent reactions to
convert carbon dioxide (CO2) into organic molecules, primarily glucose.
Here's a breakdown of the key steps in the Calvin cycle:
1. Carbon fixation: CO2 is incorporated into organic molecules. This step is catalyzed by the
enzyme Rubisco (ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase). The initial product is a
3-carbon compound called 3-phosphoglycerate (3-PG).
2. Reduction: 3-PG is converted into glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) using ATP and
NADPH.
3. Regeneration of RuBP: Most of the G3P molecules are used to regenerate the starting
molecule, ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP), which is essential for continuing the cycle.
4. Synthesis of glucose: Some G3P molecules are combined to form glucose and other organic
compounds.
The Calvin cycle is a cyclical process that requires multiple turns to produce one glucose molecule.
It is a crucial part of photosynthesis, providing the organic molecules that plants use for energy and
growth.

(b) (i) Explain: (i) why the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis can only continue for a
short time in darkness.

The light-independent reactions of photosynthesis, also known as the Calvin cycle, can only
continue for a short time in darkness because they rely on the ATP and NADPH produced in
the light-dependent reactions. These energy-carrying molecules are generated using light energy,
and their levels will gradually deplete in the absence of light.
Without a constant supply of ATP and NADPH, the Calvin cycle cannot efficiently reduce CO2 to
organic molecules. As the levels of these energy molecules decrease, the rate of carbon fixation
slows down, and eventually, the cycle comes to a halt.
In addition, the Calvin cycle also requires a continuous supply of CO2, which is obtained from the
atmosphere. In the dark, the stomata of plants may close to conserve water, limiting the influx of
CO2. This further contributes to the decline of the Calvin cycle in the absence of light.
Therefore, the light-independent reactions are intimately linked to the light-dependent reactions,
and both processes are essential for sustaining photosynthesis in plants.

(ii) how the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis rely on light-dependent reactions.

The light-independent reactions of photosynthesis, also known as the Calvin cycle, rely on the
light-dependent reactions for a continuous supply of ATP and NADPH. These energy-carrying
molecules are essential for the reduction of CO2 to organic molecules in the Calvin cycle.
• ATP: Provides the energy needed to convert 3-phosphoglycerate (3-PG) into
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P), a key step in the Calvin cycle.
• NADPH: Serves as a reducing agent, providing electrons needed to convert 3-PG into G3P.
The light-dependent reactions occur in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts and involve the
absorption of light energy, the transfer of electrons through an electron transport chain, and the
creation of a proton gradient. This proton gradient drives the synthesis of ATP, while the excited
electrons are used to reduce NADP+ to NADPH.
Therefore, the light-independent reactions are intimately linked to the light-dependent reactions.
Without a constant supply of ATP and NADPH from the light-dependent reactions, the Calvin cycle
would be unable to continue, and photosynthesis would cease.

9 (a) Outline the formation of carbohydrate molecules in photosynthesis starting from the
absorption of light energy
The formation of carbohydrate molecules in photosynthesis starts with the absorption of light
energy by chlorophyll pigments in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts. This process, known as
the light-dependent reactions, generates ATP and NADPH, which are then used in the light-
independent reactions (Calvin cycle) to convert carbon dioxide into organic molecules.
Here's a breakdown of the key steps:
Light-Dependent Reactions:
1. Light absorption: Chlorophyll molecules absorb light energy, exciting electrons.
2. Electron transport: Excited electrons are passed through a series of electron carriers,
generating ATP and NADPH.
3. Proton pumping: Protons are pumped into the thylakoid lumen, creating a proton gradient
that drives ATP synthesis.
Light-Independent Reactions (Calvin Cycle):
1. Carbon fixation: CO2 is incorporated into organic molecules (3-phosphoglycerate) using
the enzyme Rubisco.
2. Reduction: 3-phosphoglycerate is reduced to glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) using ATP
and NADPH.
3. Regeneration of RuBP: Most G3P is used to regenerate the starting molecule, ribulose-1,5-
bisphosphate (RuBP).
 4. Glucose synthesis: Some G3P molecules are combined to form glucose and other organic
molecules.
Overall, the process involves the conversion of light energy into chemical energy (ATP and
NADPH) and the subsequent use of this chemical energy to reduce CO2 into organic
molecules.

(b) Compare the structure of a chloroplast and a mitochondrion in relation to function.

Key Similarities and Differences Between Chloroplasts and Mitochondria

Similarities:
• Double membrane: Both chloroplasts and mitochondria are surrounded by a double
membrane, which creates a compartmentalized environment for their specific functions.
• 70S ribosomes: Both organelles contain 70S ribosomes, suggesting their prokaryotic origin.
This similarity is likely related to their shared role in energy production.
• DNA: Both chloroplasts and mitochondria have their own DNA, separate from the cell's
nuclear DNA. This autonomy allows them to produce some of their own proteins, necessary
for their specialized functions.
Differences:
• Primary function: Chloroplasts are involved in photosynthesis, converting light energy into
chemical energy (glucose). Mitochondria, on the other hand, are involved in cellular
respiration, extracting energy from organic molecules (glucose) to produce ATP.
• Energy source: Chloroplasts use light energy as their primary energy source, while
mitochondria rely on organic molecules obtained from the environment or produced by other
cellular processes.
• Location: Chloroplasts are found primarily in plant cells, while mitochondria are found in
most eukaryotic cells.
• Inner membrane structure: The inner membrane of chloroplasts is folded into thylakoids,
which are specialized for light absorption and energy conversion. The inner membrane of
mitochondria is folded into cristae, which increase the surface area for the electron transport
chain and ATP synthesis.
• Pigments: Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll pigments, essential for capturing light energy.
Mitochondria do not contain chlorophyll and rely on organic molecules for energy.
In summary, the similarities and differences between chloroplasts and mitochondria are
closely related to their specific functions in energy production. Their shared features, such as the
double membrane, 70S ribosomes, and DNA, reflect their common origin and their role as essential
organelles within eukaryotic cells. However, their distinct structural adaptations and functions
reflect their unique roles in photosynthesis and cellular respiration.

10 (a) Explain how a photosystem increases the light harvesting ability of a chloroplast?
Photosystems are protein complexes embedded in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts
that increase the light-harvesting ability of these organelles. They consist of two main
components:
1. Light-harvesting complexes: These complexes contain chlorophyll and accessory pigments
that absorb light energy. The pigments are arranged in a way that allows them to capture
light of different wavelengths, increasing the overall efficiency of light absorption.
2. Reaction center: The reaction center is a protein complex that contains chlorophyll
molecules capable of undergoing photochemical reactions. When a chlorophyll molecule in
the reaction center absorbs light energy, it becomes excited and donates an electron.
The process of light harvesting by photosystems can be summarized as follows:
1. Light absorption: Light energy is absorbed by the chlorophyll and accessory pigments in
the light-harvesting complexes.
2. Energy transfer: The absorbed energy is transferred from one pigment molecule to another
until it reaches the reaction center.
3. Electron excitation: The chlorophyll molecule in the reaction center becomes excited and
donates an electron.
By working together, multiple photosystems can capture a wide range of light wavelengths
and efficiently transfer the absorbed energy to the reaction center, maximizing the light-
harvesting ability of the chloroplast. This is essential for photosynthesis, as it ensures that plants
can utilize the full spectrum of sunlight available to them.

Explain the relationship between the action spectrum and the absorption spectrum of photosynthetic
pigments in green plants.
The action spectrum and the absorption spectrum of photosynthetic pigments in green plants
are closely related.
• Absorption spectrum: This is a graph that shows the wavelengths of light that a pigment
absorbs. Chlorophyll, the primary photosynthetic pigment in green plants, absorbs light most
strongly in the blue and red regions of the spectrum and less strongly in the green region.
• Action spectrum: This is a graph that shows the wavelengths of light that are most effective
in driving photosynthesis. The action spectrum of photosynthesis closely matches the
absorption spectrum of chlorophyll, indicating that chlorophyll is the primary pigment
responsible for photosynthesis.
The relationship between the action spectrum and the absorption spectrum can be explained
as follows:
• Chlorophyll absorbs light most strongly in the blue and red regions of the spectrum.
This means that these wavelengths of light are most likely to excite the electrons in
chlorophyll, leading to the initiation of photosynthesis.
• The action spectrum shows that blue and red light are indeed the most effective
wavelengths for driving photosynthesis. This confirms that chlorophyll is the primary
pigment responsible for photosynthesis.
In conclusion, the close relationship between the action spectrum and the absorption spectrum of
photosynthetic pigments in green plants demonstrates that chlorophyll is the primary pigment
involved in photosynthesis and that it absorbs light most efficiently in the blue and red regions of
the spectrum.

Explain the concept of limiting factors in photosynthesis, with reference to light intensity,
temperature and concentration of carbon dioxide.

Limiting factors in photosynthesis are environmental conditions that restrict the rate of
photosynthesis, even if other factors are present in optimal amounts. These factors can include light
intensity, temperature, and carbon dioxide concentration.
1. Light Intensity:
• Low light intensity: Photosynthesis is directly dependent on light energy. If light
intensity is too low, the rate of photosynthesis will be limited, even if other factors
are optimal.
• High light intensity: While higher light intensity generally increases photosynthesis,
there is a point at which further increases become saturated. Beyond this point, other
factors, such as temperature or CO2 availability, may become limiting.
2. Temperature:
• Low temperature: Enzymes involved in photosynthesis are temperature-sensitive. If
the temperature is too low, enzyme activity will be reduced, limiting the rate of
photosynthesis.
• High temperature: Excessive heat can denature enzymes, rendering them inactive.
This can severely limit photosynthesis. There is also a temperature optimum for
photosynthesis, beyond which further increases can decrease the rate.
3. Carbon Dioxide Concentration:
• Low CO2 concentration: Carbon dioxide is a key reactant in photosynthesis. If
CO2 levels are too low, the rate of photosynthesis will be limited, even if other
factors are optimal.
• High CO2 concentration: While increasing CO2 levels can initially boost
photosynthesis, there is a point at which further increases become saturated. Other
factors, such as light intensity or temperature, may then become limiting.
In summary, the rate of photosynthesis is influenced by multiple factors, and any one of these
factors can become limiting if it is present in suboptimal amounts. Understanding limiting
factors is crucial for optimizing plant growth and productivity in agricultural and horticultural
settings.