- During the stellar evolution, nuclear reactions continued which

produced elements heavier than Lithium. The light elements

combined to form atoms of Carbon, Neon, Oxygen, Silicon and
Iron.
- the region or layer in the star where nuclear
reactions takes place to form new element.
- made up of hydrogen were
fuelled by the energy released from the fusion of hydrogen
nuclei to form helium.

The reactions in the hydrogen fusion shell are shown as follows:

RED STAR - formed when the core reached the temperature

enough for helium fusion to occur and the outer temperature
became colder than the core.

The reactions in the helium fusion shell are shown as follows;

* The carbon nuclei produced more concentrated at the center of

the stars. This produced a carbon core, that when it reached a
certain temperature to allow carbon fusion, it produced neon
within the carbon fusion shell.

* Neon then became concentrated at the core, then underwent

fusion to produce Oxygen.

NEON & GAMMA

* When oxygen became concentrated at the core, nuclear fusion

continued, producing silicon.

- processes in which a nucleus either combines with another OXYGEN & OXYGEN
nucleus (FUSION) or splits into smaller nuclei (FISSION). * The fusion of produced radioactive ,which then
- involve the emission of energetic particles of an atom known decayed to Iron.
as radioactivity.
* The production of elements stopped when iron was formed
1. since iron is the most stable nuclei, it cannot undergo nuclear
- widely accepted explanation on the origin of the universe. fusion.
- Edwin Hubble
- postulates that approximately 14 billion years ago, a hot, dense
mass about 1 cm in diameter experienced an explosion,
spreading its products as a fast moving cloud of gas.
- accompanied by an emission of a huge amount of light
- after the explosion, protons, electrons and neutrons were
formed
- when the universe cooled down, the pro- tons and neutrons
started to fuse to form heavier nuclei of deuterium and some
into helium.
ISOTOPES- are atoms of an element that have the same number
of protons but different numbers of neutrons. -Explosion of the red giant star happened when the red giant
stars exhausted the nuclear fuel of light elements and its core
started to collapse.
SUPERNOVA violent explosion of the red giant stars that
releases huge amount of nuclear energy and produced other
elements heavier than iron.
- Production of other elements heavier than Iron were made
possible through neutron capture and radio-active decay.
astronomers believed that a few minutes after it, the universe NEUTRON CAPTURE processes occurred as nucleus captured
was composed of 75% hydrogen, 25% helium and trace amount neutrons forming a heavier isotope of the element that was
of lithium. (Big Bang Nucleosynthesis) either stable or radioactive.
Radio-active Decay or Beta Decay takes place in an unstable an
- Stars were formed from the cloud of hydro- gen and helium isotope or radioactive isotope producing an isotope of a new
gases that condensed. element.
- The stars are made up of hydrogen which became hotter and * Slow process place in or s-process process that takes place in a
denser. seed nuclei with relatively few neutrons, neutron capture
occurred so slowly that beta decay of the product of the isotope TWO TYPES OF BONDING
happened before it captured another neutron. 1. Ionic Bond - chemical bonds occur between a metal and non-
* Example of this process is the formation of Copper (Cu) and metal.
Zinc (Zn) nuclei from a Nickel (Ni) nucleus. 2. Covalent Bond - chemical bonds occur between non-metals.
TWO TYPES OF COVALENT BOND
1. Non-polar Covalent Bond - is a bond which the electrons
are equally shared by the bonded atoms.

2. Polar Covalent Bond - refers to the bond in which bonded

atoms have unequal sharing of electrons.

ELECTRONEGATIVITY GOOD TYPE

* Rapid Process series or r-process process where some series of 0 - 0.4 Non - polar Covalent Bond
neutron capture occured very fast that the seed nucleus turned 0.5 - 2.0 Polar Covalent Bond
into a relatively heavier nucleus before beta-decay took place. 2.1 (between metals&non-metals Ionic
- example of this is the formation of Cobalt (Co) from Iron ( Fe )

Mole Electronegativity Electronegativity Bond Type

cule Values Difference
So2 S=2.5 O=3.5 3.5 - 2.5 = 1.0 Polar
HCl H=2.1 Cl=3.0 3.0 - 2.1 = 1.9 Polar
HF H=2.1 F=4.0 4.0 - 2.1 = 1.9 Polar
H2 H=2.1 2.1 - 2.1 = 0 Non-Polar
F2 F=4.0 4.0 - 4.0 = 0 Non-Polar
CO C=2.5 O=3.5 3.5 - 2.5 = 1.0 Polar

a very simplified representation of the

450 BC- Empedocles asserted that all things are composed of valence shell electrons in a molecule.
four primal elements: earth, air, fire, and water. - placing dots representing electrons in the outer energy around
400 BC- Democritus proposed that all matter is made up of very the symbol for the element.
small particles called atoms, which cannot be divided into - the atom with the lowest subscript in the molecular formula
smaller units. and the atom that can form the most bonds.
380-320 BC -Aristotle proposed that all matter was continuous - lone pair are the pairs of valence electrons that are not shared
and can be further divided infinitely into smaller pieces. with any other atom.
1799- Joseph Praust proposed the law of definite proportions. They do not participate in covalent bond formulation.
1808- John Dalton formulated the atomic theory and proposed TYPE OF MOLECULE
the law of multiple proportions. 1. Non-polar Molecule I-VII (valence electrons)
1869- Dmitry Mendeleev arranged the known elements in a 2. Polar Molecule octet rule (8)
periodic table based on their atomic mass. I - 1 valence electron
1890s- Antoine Becquerel and Marie Curie observed that II - 2 valence electrons
radioactivity causes some atoms to break down spontaneously.
1895- Wilhelm Rontgen discovered X-rays.
1897- Joseph John Thomson dis- e covered electrons.
1904- Joseph John Thomson suggested the plum pudding model
of the atom (negative electrons dispersed in a positive structure).
1908-1917- Robert Millikan found that the charge of an electron
is equal to -1.6022 x 10-19 C.
1910-1911- Ernest Rutherford observed that atoms are mostly
empty space.
1913- Neils Bohr proposed an atomic model that shows
electrons move in concentric orbits around the nucleus.
- Henry Gwyn Jeffreys Mosely used X-ray spectra to study
atomic structure.
1919- Ernest Rutherford discovered protons.
1932- James Chadwick discovered neutrons.

Also known as nuclear transmutation

- Process that involves of an atom
A. Artificial bombardment of an atom to fundamental particle.
B. Natural process that happens to unstable radioactive
elements.

TRANSURANIUM ( ABOVE 92 )

NUCLEONS Z=P

Is a measure of tendency of an atom to attract electrons towards

itself.
* Atoms of elements with high electronegativity have a greater
tendency to attract electrons compared to those with low
electronegativity.
 NON-POLAR MOLECULE POLAR MOLECULE
A has no lone pair Has a lone pair
X - same symmetrical asymmetrical

* is one of the most important

consequences of molecular geometry. It influences physical,
chemical, and biological behaviour of substances.
* The approach in predicting molecular geometry is called the
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory (VSEPR).
Non-polar molecule.
* is the three-dimensional
arrangement of atoms in a molecule.
* - consist of the symbol of an element
surrounded by one or more dots, each dot corresponds to every
valence.

• A molecule is non-polar if the shape of the molecule is

symmetrical. This is due to the equal sharing of electrons hence,
no dipole moment is produced thus, the valence electrons are
shared equally on both sides of an atom.
* The central atom does not have lone pairs, thus all its electrons
were equally shared to another atom of the same element.

• A molecule is polar, if the shape of the molecule is

asymmetrical. This is due to the unequal sharing of electrons
between atoms creating a dipole moment.

* As a rule, non-polar compound dissolves in non-polar solvents,

and polar compound dissolves in non-polar solvents. In short,
like dissolves like.
* Polar molecules will mix to form solutions and non-polar
molecules will also mix to form solutions, but a polar and non-
polar combination will not form a solution.
* Polar molecules are molecules are molecules in which the
overall dipole moment in a molecule does not cancel out.
* Generally, molecules with oxygen atoms, nitrogen atoms and
Ionizable group ( - CO2H AND SO2H ) tend to be polar.

Polarity of Molecules and Its Properties

1. SO2 S = 2.5 O = 3.5
2. NH3 N=3 H=1

Polar + Polar = Misible

Non-Polar + Non-Polar = Misible
Polar + Non-Polar = Immisible ( Insoluble )
NON - POLAR POLAR
oil sugar
kerosene vinegar
gasoline water

refers to the ability of a substance to dissolve in a given amount

of solvent at a specified temperature.

is the temperature at which the substance changes from solid to

liquid.

is the temperature at which the substance changes from liquid to

*IF THE LINEAR HAS A LONE PAIR IT IS BERT gas.
is the tendency of a fluid to acquire the least possible surface 1. Keratin. It is a structural protein found in hair, skin, and
area. Molecules with stronger inter-molecular forces will exert nails. It is a highly cross-linked protein containing α-helix and
greater cohesive forces and acquire less surface area (higher β-pleated sheets. Sheep’s wool is made largely of keratin.
surface tension) than those with weaker IMFA. 2. Fibroin. It is found in silk. Silk has a smooth and soft texture.
It is one of the strongest natural fibers that have high resistance
Is the measure of a fluid's resistance to flow. to deformation. It is also a good insulation. Silk is primarily
composed of β-pleated sheets. The long polypeptide chain
is the pressure exerted by a vapor in equilibrium with its liquid doubles back on its own running parallel connected together by
phase In a closed system. H-bonds.
3. Collagen. It is a major insoluble fibrous protein found in
connective tissues such as tendons, ligaments, skin, cartilage
- are large cellular components abundantly obtained naturally and the cornea of the eye.
and are responsible for varieties of essential functions for the 4. Enzymes. It functions to catalyze chemical reactions. They
growth and survival of living organisms. either speed up a reaction, lower the needed energy for a
 The macromolecules in three of the four classes of life’s reaction to take place, or bind substances to their specific
organic compounds--carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic partners. Enzymes themselves are very specific as can be seen in
acids- are chain-like molecules called polymers (from the their shape.
Greek polys, many and meros, part). Examples of enzymes are: (1) Lipase - help in digestion of fats;
 A polymer is a long molecule consisting of many similar or (2) Pepsin - help in breaking down proteins into peptides
identical building blocks linked by covalent bonds, much (smaller units); (3) Sucrase - also called invertase, help in the
as a train consists of chain cars. The repeating units that digestion of sugars and starches.
serve as the building blocks of a polymer are smaller 5. Myoglobin. It is a polypeptide that stores oxygen in muscles.
molecules called monomers (from the Greek monos, It is a globular protein comprised of 153 amino acids in a single
single). polypeptide chain. It contains a heme group which has an iron
(II) ion at its center. This is where the oxygen is stored.
 The word carbohydrate may be broken down to 6. Hemoglobin. It is a globular protein that carries oxygen from
carbon and hydrate. the lungs to the bloodstream. It is composed of four subunits,
 Another term for carbohydrate is saccharide. each containing a heme group that enables it to transport four
This term is derived from the Latin word oxygen molecules at a time.
saccharum referring to sugar--a common
carbohydrate. The word lipid comes from the Greek word “lipos” which
 Classified either as simple or complex. Simple sugars are means fat. Lipids are a family of biomolecules having varied
monosaccharides and disaccharides. Complex sugars are structures. They are grouped together simply because of their
polysaccharides. hydrophilic property (waterfearing). They are soluble in non-
 Carbohydrates are the primary energy source of polar solvents such as ether, acetone, and benzene. Lipids can be
the human body. classified into four categories: a. Wax; b. Triglycerides;
Examples of monosaccharide (one saccharide) are: c. Phospholipids; and d. Steroids.
1. Glucose -used in dextrose, blood sugar; the form utilized by Examples of Lipids are
the human body. 1. Fatty acids. It is essential to understanding lipids. Fatty
2. Galactose -found in milk and milk products acids are long- chain carboxylic acids that are insoluble in water.
3. Fructose -found in fruits and honey Fatty acids can be saturated or unsaturated.
Examples of Disaccharide (two saccharides) are: 2. Triglyceride Fat and oil are the most common examples of
1. Maltose - Glucose + Glucose Found in malt lipids. They are under triglycerides because they are composed
2. Sucrose - Glucose + Fructose Found in regular of glycerol and three fatty acids.
table sugar,sugarcane, and sugar beet 3. Fat refers to solid triglyceride usually from animal sources
3. Lactose - Glucose + Galactose Found in milk such as meat, milk, butter, margarine, eggs, and cheese.
and milk products 4. Phospholipids contain glycerol, two fatty acids, and a
The examples of Polysaccharide (many saccharides) are: phosphate group. Unlike other lipids, phospholipids have a polar
1. Starch / Amylose - Composed of 250 - 400 glucose and non-polar end. This property allows it to transport
molecules connected via α-1-4- glycosidic bond. It is a storage molecules in the bloodstream. It is also a major component in
form of glucose in plants. the cell membrane. The two parts of a phospholipid can be
2. Amylopectin - Like amylose but has more termed as the hydrophilic head (phosphate group) and
branches attached via α-1-6 glycosidic bond. It is a storage hydrophobic tail (fatty acid group).
form of glucose in plants.
3. Glycogen -Composed of more glucose, more highly  Nucleic acids play an essential role in the storage, transfer,
branched (same type of bond as amylopectin) . It is storage form and expression of genetic information.
of glucose in animals, stored in the liver and muscles  The most common examples of nucleic acids are DNA
4. Cellulose -Composed of glucose units connected via β-1-4 (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA(ribonucleic acid).
glycosidic bond, linear chain arranged in a parallel manner . It  DNA is a nucleic acid that carries the genetic code of
is a structural material in plants--cell wall in wood, wood fiber organisms. It is fondly termed as the blueprint of life. RNA,
cannot be digested by humans. on another hand, carries the information from the DNA to
the cellular factories for the synthesis of proteins.
 The word protein came from the Greek term “proteios”  If carbohydrates are composed of saccharide units, proteins
meaning first. of amino acids, and lipids of fatty acids, nucleic acids are
 Proteins are composed of four elements, namely, carbon, composed of nucleotides. Nucleic acids are also known as
hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. polynucleotides.
 If carbohydrates are made up of saccharides, proteins are  A nucleotide has three parts: a. Nitrogenous base; b. Five-
made up of amino acids. An amino acid is a molecule that carbon carbohydrate or sugar; and c. Phosphate group
has an amine and a carboxyl group  The nitrogenous bases of DNA and RNA are: DNA’s :
 There are 20 amino acids. The combination of many Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C), and Thymine (T)
amino acids creates protein. Amino acids are joined RNA’s : Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C), and
together with a peptide bond. Proteins are also called Uracil (U). DNA has a different sugar group than RNA.
polypeptides. DNA has deoxyribose while RNA has ribose.
 There are different examples of proteins. These are: