B.Tech.
BT-2025
Applied Physics (BBS00004)
Class 2025-26 ODD
Study Material
(Applied Physics, BBS00004)
Module – 3
Part - 1
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Table of Contents
Contents
Elasticity ....................................................................................................................................................................... 1
Stress and strain ........................................................................................................................................................... 2
Hooke’s law .................................................................................................................................................................. 3
Stress-strain curve........................................................................................................................................................ 4
Elastic moduli ............................................................................................................................................................... 5
Young’s Modulus...................................................................................................................................................... 5
Shear Modulus or Modulus of rigidity ..................................................................................................................... 5
Bulk Modulus ........................................................................................................................................................... 5
Poisson’s ratio .............................................................................................................................................................. 6
Elasticity
A solid has definite shape and size. In order to change (or deform) the shape or size of a body, a force is
required. If we stretch a helical spring by gently pulling its ends, the length of the spring increases slightly.
When we leave the ends of the spring, it regains its original size and shape. The property of a body, by virtue
of which it tends to regain its original size and shape when the applied force is removed, is known as
elasticity and the deformation caused is known as elastic deformation. However, if we apply force to a lump
of putty or mud, they have no gross tendency to regain their previous shape, and they get permanently
deformed. Such substances are called plastic and this property is called plasticity. Putty and mud are close to
ideal plastics. The elastic behaviour of materials plays an important role in engineering design. For example,
while designing a building, knowledge of elastic properties of materials like steel, concrete etc. is essential.
The same is true in the design of bridges, automobiles, ropeways etc.
We know that in a solid, each atom or molecule is surrounded by neighbouring atoms or molecules. These are
bonded together by interatomic or intermolecular forces and stay in a stable equilibrium position. When a
solid is deformed, the atoms or molecules are displaced from their equilibrium positions causing a change in
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the interatomic (or intermolecular) distances. When the deforming force is removed, the interatomic forces
tend to drive them back to their original positions. Thus, the body regains its original shape and size.
Stress and strain
When forces are applied on a body in such a manner that the body is still in static equilibrium, it is deformed
to a small or large extent depending upon the nature of the material of the body and the magnitude of the
deforming force. The deformation may not be noticeable visually in many materials but it is there.
When a body is subjected to a deforming force, a restoring force is developed in the body. This restoring
force is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the applied force. The restoring force per unit
area is known as stress.
If 𝐹 is the force applied normal to the cross–section and 𝐴 is the area of cross section of the body,
𝐹
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = (1)
𝐴
The SI unit of stress is 𝑁𝑚−2 or pascal (Pa) and its dimensional formula is [ 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −2 ].
There are three ways in which a solid may change its dimensions when an external force acts on it. These are
shown in Fig. 1 below. In fig. 1(a), a cylinder is stretched by two equal forces applied normal to its cross-
sectional area. The restoring force per unit area in this case is called tensile stress. If the cylinder is compressed
under the action of applied forces, the restoring force per unit area is known as compressive stress. Tensile or
compressive stress can also be termed as longitudinal stress. In both the cases, there is a change in the length
of the cylinder. The change in the length ∆𝐿 to the original length 𝐿 of the body (cylinder in this case) is
known as longitudinal strain.
∆𝐿
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝐿
(2)
Fig.1 (a) A cylindrical body under tensile stress elongates by , (b) Shearing stress on a cylinder deforming
it by an angle , (c) A body subjected to shearing stress, (d) A solid body under a stress normal to the
surface at every point (hydraulic stress). The volumetric strain is , but there is no change in shape.
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However, if two equal and opposite deforming forces are applied parallel to the cross-sectional area of the
cylinder, as shown in Fig. 1(b), there is relative displacement between the opposite faces of the cylinder. The
restoring force per unit area developed due to the applied tangential force is known as tangential or
shearing stress.
As a result of applied tangential force, there is a relative displacement ∆𝑥 between opposite faces of the
cylinder as shown in the fig. 1(b). The strain so produced is known as shearing strain and it is defined as the
ratio of relative displacement of the faces ∆𝑥 to the length of the cylinder 𝐿.
∆𝑥
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 (3)
𝐿
where 𝜃 is the angular displacement of the cylinder from the vertical (original position of the cylinder).
Usually θ is very small, tan 𝜃 is nearly equal to angle 𝜃, (if 𝜃 = 10°, for example, there is only 1% difference
between θ and tan θ). It can also be visualised, when a book is pressed with the hand and pushed horizontally,
as shown in Fig. 1 (c). Thus,
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃 (4)
In fig. 1(d), a solid sphere placed in the fluid under high pressure is compressed uniformly on all sides. The
force applied by the fluid acts in perpendicular direction at each point of the surface and the body is said to be
under hydraulic compression. This leads to decrease in its volume without any change of its geometrical shape.
The body develops internal restoring forces that are equal and opposite to the forces applied by the fluid (the
body restores its original shape and size when taken out from the fluid). The internal restoring force per unit
area in this case is known as hydraulic stress and in magnitude is equal to the hydraulic pressure (applied force
per unit area). The strain produced by a hydraulic pressure is called volume strain and is defined as the ratio
of change in volume (∆𝑉) to the original volume (𝑉).
∆𝑉
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = (5)
𝑉
Since the strain is a ratio of change in dimension to the original dimension, it has no units or dimensional
formula.
Hooke’s law
For small deformations the stress and strain are proportional to each other. This is known as Hooke’s law.
Thus, 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 ∝ 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑘 × 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 (6)
where k is the proportionality constant and is known as modulus of elasticity.
Hooke’s law is an empirical law and is found to be valid for most materials. However, there are some materials
which do not exhibit this linear relationship.
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Stress-strain curve
The relation between the stress and the strain for a given material under tensile stress can be found
experimentally. In a standard test of tensile properties, a test cylinder or a wire is stretched by an applied force.
The fractional change in length (the strain) and the applied force needed to cause the strain are recorded. The
applied force is gradually increased in steps and the change in length is noted. A graph is plotted between the
stress (which is equal in magnitude to the applied force per unit area) and the strain produced. A typical graph
for a metal is shown in Fig. 2. Analogous graphs for compression and shear stress may also be obtained. The
stress-strain curves vary from material to material. These curves help us to understand how a given material
deforms with increasing loads. From the graph, we can see that in the region between O to A, the curve is
linear. In this region, Hooke’s law is obeyed. The body regains its original dimensions when the applied
force is removed. In this region, the solid behaves as an elastic body.
Fig. 2: A typical stress-strain curve for a metal
In the region from A to B, stress and strain are not proportional. Nevertheless, the body still returns to its
original dimension when the load is removed. The point B in the curve is known as yield point (also known
as elastic limit) and the corresponding stress is known as yield strength (𝜎𝑦 ) of the material. If the load is
increased further, the stress developed exceeds the yield strength and strain increases rapidly even for a small
change in the stress. The portion of the curve between B and D shows this. When the load is removed, say at
some point C between B and D, the body does not regain its original dimension. In this case, even when the
stress is zero, the strain is not zero. The material is said to have a permanent set. The deformation is said to be
plastic deformation. The point D on the graph is the ultimate tensile strength (𝜎𝑢 ) of the material. Beyond this
point, additional strain is produced even by a reduced applied force and fracture occurs at point E. If the
ultimate strength and fracture points D and E are close, the material is said to be brittle. If they are far apart,
the material is said to be ductile.
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Elastic moduli
The proportional region within the elastic limit of the stress-strain curve (region OA in Fig. 2) is of great
importance for structural and manufacturing engineering designs. The ratio of stress and strain, called modulus
of elasticity, is found to be a characteristic of the material.
Young’s Modulus
Experimental observation shows that for a given material, the magnitude of the strain produced is same
whether the stress is tensile or compressive.
The ratio of tensile (or compressive) stress (𝜎) to the longitudinal strain (𝜀) is defined as Young’s modulus
and is denoted by the symbol 𝑌.
𝑌 = 𝜎/𝜀 (7)
From eqs. (1) and (2), we have
(𝐹/𝐴) 𝐹𝐿
𝑌 = = (8)
(∆𝐿/𝐿) 𝐴 ∆𝐿
Since strain is a dimensionless quantity, the unit of Young’s modulus is the same as that of stress i.e., 𝑁𝑚−2
or Pascal (Pa).
Shear Modulus or Modulus of rigidity
The ratio of shearing stress to the corresponding shearing strain is called the shear modulus of the material
and is represented by 𝑛. It is also called the modulus of rigidity.
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝜎𝑠 )
𝑛 = (9)
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
(𝐹/𝐴) 𝐹𝐿
𝑛 = = (10)
(∆𝑥/𝐿) 𝐴 ∆𝑥
Similarly, from Eq. (4)
(𝐹/𝐴) 𝐹
𝑛 = = (11)
𝜃 𝐴𝜃
The shearing stress (𝜎𝑠 ) can also be expressed as
𝜎𝑠 = 𝑛 × 𝜃 (12)
SI unit of shear modulus is 𝑁𝑚−2 or Pa. It can be seen that shear modulus (or modulus of rigidity) is generally
less than Young’s modulus. For most materials 𝑛 ≈ 𝑌/3
Bulk Modulus
The ratio of hydraulic stress (or hydraulic pressure) to the corresponding hydraulic strain is called bulk
modulus. It is denoted by symbol
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𝑝 𝑝𝑉
𝐾 =– =− (13)
∆𝑉 ∆𝑉
(𝑉)
The negative sign indicates the fact that with an increase in pressure, a decrease in volume occurs. That is, if
𝑝 is positive, ∆𝑉 is negative. Thus for a system in equilibrium, the value of bulk modulus 𝐾 is always positive.
SI unit of bulk modulus is the same as that of pressure i.e., 𝑁𝑚−2 or Pa.
The reciprocal of the bulk modulus is called compressibility and is denoted by 𝑘. It is defined as the fractional
change in volume per unit increase in pressure.
∆𝑉
𝑘 = (1/𝐾) = – (14)
𝑝𝑉
Solids are the least compressible, whereas, gases are the most compressible. Gases are about a million times
more compressible than solids! Gases have large compressibilities, which vary with pressure and temperature.
The incompressibility of the solids is primarily due to the tight coupling between the neighbouring atoms. The
molecules in liquids are also bound with their neighbours but not as strong as in solids. Molecules in gases are
very poorly coupled to their neighbours.
Poisson’s ratio
The strain perpendicular to the applied force is called lateral strain. Simon Poisson pointed out that within the
elastic limit, lateral strain is directly proportional to the longitudinal strain.
The ratio of the lateral strain to the longitudinal strain in a stretched wire is called Poisson’s ratio.
If the original diameter of the wire is 𝑑 and the contraction of the diameter under stress is ∆𝑑, the lateral strain
is ∆𝑑/𝑑. If the original length of the wire is 𝐿 and the elongation under stress is ∆𝐿, the longitudinal strain is
∆𝐿/𝐿.
∆𝑑
∆𝑑 𝐿
Poisson’s ratio is then given as 𝜎= 𝑑
∆𝐿 = (15).
∆𝐿 𝑑
𝐿
Poisson’s ratio is a ratio of two strains; it is a pure number and has no dimensions or units. Its value depends
only on the nature of material. For steels the value is between 0.28 and 0.30, and for aluminum alloys it is
about 0.33.
Poisson’s ratio has no unit or dimension. It is a pure number. Theoretically it can be shown that the maximum
1
value of Poisson’s ratio is + 2 and minimum value is −1. The practical values of Poisson’s ratio is in the
1
range 0 𝑡𝑜 + 2 .
Relation between Young’s modulus (𝑌), bulk modulus (𝐾), modulus of rigidity(𝑛) and Poisson’s ratio (𝜎)
is
𝑌 3𝐾 − 2𝑛 3𝐾 − 𝑌
𝜎= −1= = (16)
2𝑛 2(3𝐾 + 𝑛) 6𝐾
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