CHT 205 Fluid and Particle

Mechanics

Module 1
 syllabus
Definition of fluid, Continuum mechanics, Newton’s law of viscosity.
Physical properties of fluid: Density, specific weight, specific volume,
specific gravity, viscosity, compressibility & elasticity, surface tension &
capillarity. Variation of viscosity and density with temperature and
pressure.
Rheology of fluids, Rheological Classification of fluids.
Pascal’s law, Hydrostatic equilibrium in gravity and centrifugal field.
Barometric equation. Principles of continuous gravity decanter and
centrifugal decanter. Lapse rate. Principles of Manometer- Simple
manometer, inclined tube manometer.
Fluid
• Substance that does not permanently resist distortion
• Application of force on a mass of fluid – results in layers of fluids
sliding over one another until a new shape is attained
• During the process (change in shape) – shear forces exist
• Magnitude of shear force depend on the fluid viscosity & rate of
sliding
• All shear forces will disappear when a new shape is reached
• A fluid in equilibrium is free from shear stresses
Sliding fluid layers
mechanics
• Science that deals with both stationary and moving bodies under the
influences of forces
• Fluid dynamics
• Study of fluids in motion
• Fluid statics
• Study of fluids at rest
• Fluid engineering applications
• Breathing, blood flow, swimming, river flow, wind mill, pipe flow, engine, jets,
missiles, air craft
Consider a rubber block tightly placed between two plates & top plate
is pulled with a force, with lower plate held fixed.
What will happen?
Consider a rubber block tightly placed between two plates & top plate
is pulled with a force, with lower plate held fixed.
What will happen?
Deformation of rubber block results.
Angle of deformation depend on the force
If a fluid is held between two plates with top plate moving (pulled with
a force F) and bottom plate fixed
If a fluid is held between two plates with top plate moving (pulled with
a force F)and bottom plate fixed
Top layer of fluid moves with the plate, no matter how small the force F
Fluid velocity decreases with depth
Reason?
If a fluid is held between two plates with top plate moving (pulled with
a force F)and bottom plate fixed
Top layer of fluid moves with the plate, no matter how small the force F
Fluid velocity decreases with depth
Reason?
Friction between fluid layers
Fluid velocity zero at the bottom plate (fixed plate)
Fluid between two parallel plates
Fluid in a rectangular cavity
If fluid is contained in a rectangular cavity, with top lid moving, what
will happen to the fluid?
Liquid & Gas

Liquid in glass gas in glass

Liquid in a tilted glass

gas in glass
• Liquid forms a free surface in a container under gravitational field
• Gas expands till it reaches walls of the container & occupies the
whole space
Reason ?

Intermolecular forces – strong in solids

weaker in liquids
weakest in gases
Physical properties of fluids
Density
Specific weight
specific volume
Specific gravity
Viscosity
Compressibility & elasticity
Surface tension
capillarity
property
• Any characteristic of a system is called a property
• Familiar properties – temperature, pressure, volume, mass, density,
viscosity, thermal conductivity, electrical resistivity/conductivity etc
• Intensive/extensive properties
• Intensive – independent of mass of system
• Eg: temperature, pressure, density
• Extensive – dependent on the size/extent of the system
• Eg: total mass, volume
• Some properties are independent & some are defined in terms of others
Density
• Mass per unit volume
𝑚
ρ= unit is kg/𝑚3
𝑉
• Reciprocal of density is specific volume, volume per unit mass
• Density of a substance depends on temperature, pressure
1
• For gases, ρ∝ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∝ 𝑃
𝑇
• For liquids & solids, incompressible, variation of density with change
in pressure is negligible
• But density is a strong function of temperature
Specific gravity or relative density
• Ratio of density of a substance to the density of a standard substance
at a specified temperature
• Standard substance is usually water at 4 deg C, with ρ = 1000 kg/𝑚3
• Unit of specific gravity is
• No unit, as it is ratio of densities, dimensionless quantity
• Specific gravity of mercury at 20 deg C is 13.6, what is its density?
• 13600 kg/𝑚3
Question
• Choose the correct statement
a) Substances with specific gravity < 1 will float if they are miscible
b) Substances with specific gravity < 1 will sink if they are miscible
c) Substances with specific gravity < 1 will float if they are immiscible
d) Substances with specific gravity < 1 will float if they are immiscible

• Ans: c
Specific weight/ weight density
• Weight of a unit volume of a substance is called specific weight/
weight density
• Specific weight = ρg, g is gravitational acceleration
• Unit ?

• We move with relative ease in air but not so in water

• Moving in oil even more difficult
• Why????
viscosity
• Property that represents the internal resistance of a fluid or fluidity
• Fluid between 2 parallel plates

• Flow Velocity is not uniform

viscosity
• Dynamic viscosity –denoted by µ
• Unit is kg/m.s, N.s/m2, Pa.s
• Another common unit is poise, g/cm. s
• Centipoise (cP) (1/100 of poise) is also used
• Kinematic viscosity = µ/ρ
• Common units m2/s and cm2/s (stoke)
• Viscosity of a fluid depends on both temperature & pressure,
dependence on pressure is weak
viscosity
• For liquids, both Dynamic viscosity and kinematic viscosity are
independent of pressure
• For gases, dynamic viscosity almost independent of pressure (low to
moderate pressures) but kinematic viscosity depends on pressure
because
• Density depends on pressure
viscosity
• Measure of resistance to deformation
• Caused by cohesive forces
• We have 2 liquids – 1st liquid having half the viscosity as the 2nd one.
We need to transport the fluids. Pumping of which liquids needs
more power?
• More viscous liquid needs more power
• Directly related to pumping power needed to transport a fluid
Dependence on T
• For liquids
• Viscosity decreases with increase in T

• For gases
• Viscosity increases with increase in T

But why ???

Dependence on T
• As T increases, liquid molecules are more energized & move more
freely & they can oppose intermolecular forces
• For gases, intermolecular forces are weak, molecules move at high
velocity as T increases
• No. of collisions also increases & due to this reason viscosity increases
Viscosity of some common fluids
fluid Dynamic viscosity
(kg/m.s)
Water (0 degC) 0.0018
Water (20 degC) 0.001
Water (100 degC)- liquid 0.00028
Water (100 degC)- vapour 0.000012
Blood (37 degC) 0.0004
mercury 0.0015
honey ?
• Volume of a fluid changes with change in T & P
• Density also changes
• When heated or depressurized
• Fluid expands
• When cooled & pressurized
• Fluid contracts

• The amount of volume change is different

• Need of properties that connect volume change with T& P
• Two such properties are
• Bulk modulus of elasticity (κ)
• Coefficient of volume expansion (β)
Bulk modulus of elasticity (κ)
• Fluid contracts on application of pressure & expands when pressure acting
on it is reduced
• Fluid act like elastic solids with respect to pressure
• κis also called bulk modulus of compressibility or bulk modulus of elasticity
∆𝑃
•κ=− ∆𝑉ൗ , T is constant
𝑉
• Same unit as that of pressure
• Coefficient of compressibility of a truly incompressible substance is ---???
• infinity
question
• Pressure of water at normal atmospheric pressure is to be raised to
210 atm to compress it 1%. What is its coefficient of compressibility ?

• Ans: 21000 atm

• Water is assumed to be incompressible in engineering calculations

Bulk modulus of elasticity (κ)
• dρ/ρ = -dV/V
• Fractional changes in the specific volume and density of a fluid are
equal in magnitude but opposite in sign
• Explanation:
• ρ = 1/V & dρ = ?
• dρ = -dV/V2
• Sign of κ is
• positive
𝜕𝑃
• Explanation: is negative as pressure & volume are inversely
𝜕𝑉
proportional
Κ for ideal gas
• HW
Surface tension

• At the interface between a liquid and a gas or two immiscible liquids –

film or special layer formation
• Surface tension is stretching force required to form the film
• Unit is N/m
• For water this value is 0.074 N/m at 0 deg C & 0.059 N/m at 100 deg
C
• Increases pressure within a droplet of liquid
• p = 2σ/r – hemispherical
• p = σ/r – for cylindrical liquid jet
capillarity
• Caused by surface tension & by relative value of adhesion between
liquid & solid to cohesion of the liquid
• Greater adhesion than cohesion – liquid wets solid
• Liquid rises within a small vertical tube that is partially immersed in it
• For liquids that do not wet solid, depression in a small tube
• Both rise & depression occur by the action of surface tension
Capillary rise & depression
Capillary rise & depression

(a)water
(b)merury

• θ is contact angle
Capillary rise

• Does capillary rise depends

on radius of tube?

• As radius increases, what

will happen?
• Sketch
Fluid between 2 parallel plates

𝒅𝒗𝒙
• Shear stress ∝
𝒅𝒚
• Constant of proportionality is viscosity
• No slip condition
Shear stress & normal stress
Shear stress acts parallel
to the applied surface
Shear stress
𝑑𝑣𝑥
•τ=µ
𝑑𝑦
• Newton’s law of viscosity
• Fluids which follow this relation – Newtonian fluids
• Other fluids – non-Newtonian fluids
• Rheology
• Study of flow
• Not all fluids flow in a similar way – rheological classification
• Relationship between shear stress & shear rate in a real fluid is part of
science of rheology
rheological classification

Shear rate or velocity gradient

Non-newtonian fluids
• Fluids that do not follow Newton’s law of viscosity
• Non linear curves in the diagram – slope at any point is apparent
viscosity
• Dilatant:
• Shear thickening
• Concave upward at low shear, approaching linearity at high shear
• Increasing resistance with increasing strain rate
• Strain rate dθ/dt = du/dy
• Eg: suspensions of corn starch in water, sand-filled emulsions
Non-newtonian fluids
• Pseudoplastic:
• Shear thinning fluid
• Concave downward at low shear, approaching linearity at high shear
• Less resistant at higher strain rates
• Very strong thinning is called plastic
• Classic eg. is paint – which is thick when poured but thin when brushed at a
high strain rate
• Other examples: polymer solution, colloidal suspension, paper pulp in water,
blood plasma, syrup, molasses
Non-newtonian fluids
• Bingham plastic
• Needs a finite yield stress before it begins to flow
• Linear behaviour after this yielding (can be non-linear also)
• Other examples: clay suspensions, drilling mud, tooth paste, chocolate
Time dependent flow
• For some non-Newtonian fluids, stress vs shear rate curves depend
on how long the shear was active
• Thixotropic:
• Break down under continued shear
• On mixing gives lower shear stress for a given shear rate
• Apparent viscosity decreases with time
• Rheopectic:
• Show behaviour reverse to that of thixotropic
• Shear stress increases with time, as does apparent viscosity
Thixotropic & Rheopectic fluids
Rheological characteristics
Type Effect on increasing shear Time dependent ?
rate
Pseudoplastic Thins No
Thixotropic Thins Yes
Newtonian None No
Dilatant Thickens No
Rheopectic Thickens Yes
continuum
• Fluids are aggregations of molecules, widely spread for gas & closely
spaced for liquid
• Distance between molecules is very large compared to molecular
diameter
• Large regions of empty space – mass is not continuously distributed
• Molecules are free to move randomly – not fixed
• number of molecules occupying a given volume will vary with time
due to random motion – properties such as density may vary
continuum
• Large volume can be considered – so that number of molecules per
unit volume remains nearly constant
• Limiting volume below which molecular variations may be important
• ~ 10−9 𝑚𝑚3 for all liquids and gases at atmospheric pressure
• Most engineering problems are concerned with physical dimensions
much larger than this limiting volume
• Such a fluid – continuum – variation in properties is so smooth that
differential calculus can be applied for analysis
• There are cases where molecular analysis is to be done dropping the
continuum approximation
pressure
• Compressive force per unit area
• Pressure at any point in a fluid is same in all directions – it has only
magnitude, no direction – scalar quantity
• Pressure of a fluid at rest increases with depth
• Pressure at a depth = h below free surface of a liquid, which is open
to atmosphere is
• 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + ℎ ρ 𝑔
• 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 = ℎ ρ 𝑔
pressure
• What about density ? Constant or vary with depth ?
• Liquids – incompressible – variation in density with depth is negligible
• Applicable for gases also when elevation change is not very large
• However density is strong function of temperature
• Variation in density need to be considered when high accuracy is
needed
• g – value varies from 9.807 m/s2 at sea level
Pressure - horizontally
• Pressure in a fluid remains constant in the horizontal direction
• Pressure applied to a confined fluid increases the pressure
throughout by the same amount – Pascal’s law
• Blaise Pascal (1623-1662):
• Force applied by a force is proportional to surface area
• Connecting 2 hydraulic cylinders of different areas, larger could be used to
exert a proportionally greater force than that applied to the smaller
• Working principle of hydraulic lift and brake
 Application of Pascal’s law

F1 = P1A1 P1 = P 2
𝑭𝟏 𝑭𝟐
=
F2 = P2A2 𝑨𝟏 𝑨𝟐
𝑭𝟐 𝑨𝟐
=
𝑭𝟏 𝑨𝟏
question
Density values
water = 1000 kg/m3
mercury = 13600 kg/m3
oil = 890 kg/m3
If pressure at B is 87 kPa, what is
pressure at A in kPa?
solution
PA + 0.05 x 1000 x 9.81 – 0.07 x 13600 x 9.81 – 0.06 x 890 x 9.81
= PB

PA = 96372 Pa = 96.37 kPa

barometer
• To measure atmospheric
pressure
• Torricelli (1608-1647)
• Inverted mercury tube in
mercury container
• Mercury container open
to atmosphere
• Mercury level rises/falls
depending on
atmospheric pressure
Barometer principle
• Height of mercury column is measured (h)
• Height converted to pressure using equation ∆𝑃 = ℎ ρ 𝑔
• ρ is density of mercury
• What is the height of mercury column when atmospheric pressure is 1 atm?
• Solution:
• 1 atm = 101325 Pa
• ∆𝑷 = 𝒉 𝝆 𝒈
• 101325 = h * 13600 * 9.81
• h = 0.76 m
• Estimate equivalent height of water column.
• Ans: 10 m
 manometer
• Devices that employ liquid columns to determine difference in pressure
• Most elementary manometer – piezometer
• Measures positive gauge pressures
• Glass tube mounted vertically - connected to the container
• Liquid rises in tube till equilibrium is reached
• Height h gives pressure
• Cannot be used for negative gauge pressure
• Air flow into the container through the tube
• Impractical for large pressure
• Vertical tube need to be very long
manometer
• For measuring small positive & negative gauge
pressure
• Gauge pressure at meniscus is zero
• Pressure at A = -h ρ g
manometer
• For greater positive or negative gauge
pressure, a second liquid of greater relative
density is employed
• Second fluid must be immiscible with the
first fluid
• 𝑃𝐴 + ℎ2 ρ1 𝑔 − ℎ1 ρ2 𝑔 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚
• 𝑃𝐴,𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 = − ℎ2 ρ1 𝑔 + ℎ1 ρ2 𝑔
U-tube manometer
• 𝑝 + ℎ + ∆ℎ ρ𝐴 𝑔 − ∆ℎ. ρ𝐵 𝑔 − ℎ ρ𝐶 𝑔
= 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑓

• If fluid C is replaced by fluid A, equation

becomes
• 𝑝 − 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑓 = ∆ℎ ρ𝐴 𝑔 − ∆ℎ. ρ𝐵 𝑔

• = ∆ℎ 𝑔 (ρ𝐴 − ρ𝐵 )
U tube manometer connected to pipe
 Inclined tube manometer

For measuring small differences in pressure

 Inclined tube manometer
• For small values of ∆ℎ, the
meniscus moves a considerable
distance along the tube
• Distance d = ∆ℎ / sin θ
• θ – angle of inclination
• Here ∆ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 ′𝑦′

• Smaller θ – longer distance –easier to record the reading (length or

distance) accurately

• 𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = d sin θ (ρ𝐴 − ρ𝐵 ) g
• Enlargement in vertical leg – movement of meniscus in vertical leg
Forces acting
 Hydrostatic equilibrium
• Fluid element of thickness dz
• Area of cross section A
• P top and Pbottom are pressures at top (z+dz) and bottom
(z)
• Forces acting on fluid element:
• pressure at top
• pressure at bottom
• gravitational force
• Force balance:
• 𝑃𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝐴 − 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝐴 − 𝐴. 𝑑𝑧. ρ g = 0
• 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝐴 − 𝑃𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝐴 + 𝐴. 𝑑𝑧. ρ g = 0
z • 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑝 − 𝑃𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 + 𝑑𝑧. ρ g = 0
• 𝑑𝑃 + 𝑑𝑧. ρ g = 0
𝑑𝑃
• + g. dz = 0
ρ
 Hydrostatic equilibrium
𝑑𝑃
• + g. dz = 0
Ptop ρ
• Integrate to get force balance for the entire fluid
• Between 2 points 1 and 2 (1 at bottom & 2 at top)
𝑃2 − 𝑃1
• + g 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 = 0
ρ

𝑃2 − 𝑃1
• = g 𝑧1 − 𝑧2
ρ

z Pbottom
Ideal gas
• PV = nRT
• n – no. of moles = m/M, M – molecular weight
• V = mRT/ MP
• PM/RT = m/V = ρ
𝑑𝑃
• Substituting for ρ in eqn. + g. dz = 0
ρ
𝑑𝑃
• + (g M/RT). dz = 0
𝑃
• Integrate between 1 & 2 to get
𝑷𝟐 𝒈𝑴
• = exp − 𝒛𝟐 − 𝒛𝟏
𝑷𝟏 𝑹𝑻
• Barometric equation
 Hydrostatic equilibrium – centrifugal field

• Angular velocity – ω
• Rotating centrifuge – liquid thrown outward from the axis of rotation & held against
wall of bowl by centrifugal force – shape of paraboloid of revolution
• Industrial centrifuge – rotational speed is very high – liquid surface almost vertical
or coaxial with axis of rotation
Hydrostatic equilibrium – centrifugal field
• Radius r1 and bowl radius r2
• Entire mass rotating like a rigid body
• No sliding of one layer over another r1

• Pressure distribution can be found out from r2

fluid statics
Taking a ring of radius dr within the liquid
Volume of the ring:
Area of ring * height = 𝝅 𝑟 + 𝑑𝑟 2 − 𝝅 𝑟 2
= 2 𝝅 r dr (neglecting dr2 as dr is very small)
Hydrostatic equilibrium – centrifugal field

• dp = dF/dA
• = dF/2𝝅 r h (lateral surface area = 2𝝅 r h)
Hydrostatic equilibrium – centrifugal field
• 𝑑𝑃 = ρω2 𝑟 𝑑𝑟
• Pressure drop over entire ring – obtained by integration
𝑟2
• = ‫ 𝑟׬‬ρω2 𝑟 𝑑𝑟
1

ρω2 𝑟2 2 −𝑟1 2
• 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 =
2
Continuous gravity decanter
• Continuous separation of 2 immiscible liquids of differing densities
Continuous gravity decanter
Continuous gravity decanter
• 𝑧𝐵 ρ𝐵 + 𝑧𝐴1 ρ𝐴 = 𝑧𝐴2 ρ𝐴
• 𝑧𝐴1 = 𝑧𝐴2 −𝑧𝐵 ρ𝐵 /ρ𝐴
• = 𝑧𝐴2 −(𝑧𝑇 −𝑧𝐴1 )ρ𝐵 /ρ𝐴 , 𝑧𝑇 is total depth of liquid
𝒛𝑨𝟐 −𝒛𝑻 (𝝆𝑩 /𝝆𝑨)
• 𝒛𝑨𝟏 =
𝟏− (𝝆𝑩 /𝝆𝑨)
• Position of liquid- liquid interface depends on
• The ratio of densities
• Elevation of overflow lines
• Independent of rate of flow of liquids
Continuous gravity decanter
• As ρ𝐴 approaches ρ𝐵 - position of interface is very much sensitive to
changes in 𝑧𝐴2 , height of heavy liquid leg
• For liquids of nearly same density, 𝑧𝐴2 must be set with care
• Often top of leg is movable – adjustment during operation for best
separation
• Size:
• Established by time needed for separation
• Time depends on density difference & continuous phase viscosity
𝟏𝟎𝟎 µ
𝒕=
𝝆𝑨 −𝝆𝑩
Time in hours, density in kg/m3 & viscosity in cP
 feed
Centrifugal decanter

Bowl at rest

Bowl rotating
Centrifugal decanter
• Feed – continuous near the bottom of the bowl
• Light liquid discharge at point 2 – through ports near axis of the bowl
• Heavy liquid discharge at point 1
• Position of liquid – liquid interface
• By hydrostatic balance (assuming negligible frictional resistance in the flow of
liquids as they leave bowl)
• ∆P in the light liquid between rB and ri should be equal to ∆P in the heavy
liquid between rA and ri ( heavy liquid overflows at rA and light liquid
overflows at rB)
Centrifugal decanter
• 𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝐵 = 𝑃𝑖 - 𝑃𝐴
• 𝑃𝑖 is pressure at interface
• 𝑃𝐵 is pressure at free surface of light liquid at 𝑟𝐵
• 𝑃𝐴 is pressure at free surface of heavy liquid at 𝑟𝐴
ω2 ρ𝐵 𝑟𝑖2 −𝑟𝐵 2
• 𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝐵 =
2
ω2 ρ𝐴 𝑟𝑖2 −𝑟𝐴 2
• 𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝐴 =
2
2 ρ𝐴 𝑟𝐴 2 −ρ𝐵 𝑟𝐵 2
• Equating, 𝑟𝑖 =
ρ𝐴 −ρ𝐵
Centrifugal decanter
𝟐 𝝆𝑩 𝟐
ρ𝐴 𝑟𝐴 2 −ρ𝐵 𝑟𝐵 2 𝒓𝑨 −𝝆 𝒓𝑩
𝑟𝑖 2 = or 𝒓𝒊 = 𝑨
𝝆
ρ𝐴 −ρ𝐵 𝟏−𝝆𝑩
𝑨

• 𝑟𝑖 depends on density ratio

𝝆𝑩
• If ≈ 1, 𝑟𝑖 may be unstable, in spite of high rotational speed
𝝆𝑨
• Density difference should not be less than 3% for stable operation
Lapse rate
• Rate of decrease of temperature with altitude – lapse rate
• temperature change of ambient air with height – ambient lapse rate
• Temperature change against height under adiabatic conditions –
adiabatic lapse rate
• Consider an air parcel moving up in the atmosphere
• Pressure decreases with height
• Air parcel expands due to decrease in pressure
• It gets cooled on expansion
• Ambient & adiabatic lapse rate – measure of atmospheric stability
Lapse rate
• atmospheric stability – related to dispersion rate of pollutants
• Different plume behaviour seen due to variation in atmospheric
stability
• Plume – path & extent in the atmosphere of gaseous effluents
released from a source, usually a stack
• Atmospheric pollution depends on plume behaviour
Plume behaviour