CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 An Overview On Energy Management System In Microgrids

Micro Grid (MG) offers the user with more of attractive characteristics, with enhanced quality
of power, stability and with the greater levels of sustainability. These are derived using
environmentally friendly energy forms which are obtained using a prior control and an effective
energy management systems known as EMS. Micro-grids are enabled by the action of
integrating the distributed forms of energies into one utility grid. This is created in the concepts
of self-contained systems which are composed of various energy resources, capable of
operating them in an isolated module during the phase of grid disruptions. These include both
the renewable and non- renewable forms of energy resources [1].

With the development of IoT and their associates systems, such as intelligent microgrids, the
advancements in critical components of the future smart grid aim in developing, controlling
and also in the strategies of protecting the microgrids and their vast applications. These are
used vitally in applications of forming a flexible, self-sufficient and for creating an ecologically
balanced system. A microgrids can operate both AC, DC and a combination of both the sources
of current. These are then connected to the main grid in a parallel form or remains isolated in
a power island [2].

These energy sources are operated under a higher power firms and supplying them with
maximum ranges of electricity.in all forms of operations, the balance amongst power supply
and the demand is the critical factor which is used as a primary governing factor in the micro-
grid. Recently, EMS and operations have transformed the reconstruction and the operations
due to the creation of smart grids, these are used in several beneficiary phases especially in the
electric vehicles known as EV. These are deployed in vehicles for maintaining a balanced air
environment and reducing the operational costs endured in the manufacture of EV. The total
cost of the power generated and the reduction in the battery life are considered to be the crucial
and the influencing factor of the EV. Increased penetration of the Plug-in Hybrid mode of EV
(PHEV) and incensed implantation of energy resources such as photovoltaic cells, fuel cells
and wind turbines as an innovative power systems is named to be smart grid. Despite the power
and use of PHEV, it complicates in cases of energy resource planning, and the integration of
several power units are difficult to disclose [3].
The issue of economic-multi-objective in planning the microgrids are studied for their case of
optimizing the colonial competition. Various aspects such as microgrids operation such as
imbalance amid the generation levels, consumptions and also the micro grid energy
optimization programmers have been studied. For an optimal use of pumped storage units, and
in making a multi-purposed particle aggregation methods are presented in case of EV.

Figure 1.1 Electric Signal transmission from Vehicle to Grid (V2G) [4]

According to statistical reports the thermal power plants have played a crucial role in supplying
the electricity by making use of the fossil fuels, due to higher investments made and higher
operations cost, EV are implemented in cases and in a vital focus of making an enhanced end-
user energy practices. Furthermore, it provides a better case of managing the renewable sources
that are associated with higher levels of uncertainty. Using these features, enhances the
flexibility and the reliability of the vehicle network. This is depicted in figure 1.1 [4]

1.1.1 Fault Detection and Location in Microgrids

The concepts of smart and micro-grid systems require sensors and communications to be in an
order, where in concepts of providing a monitoring to the system condition and in avoiding the
monitoring function outages. But the failure in the particular prediction system detection can
lead to the complete system shutdown. Faster detection and isolation of the faults occurring in
the MG are of particular importance. Some of them include,

 Fast Tripping Protection- enhances he lifetime and the power by inhibiting the high
current fall magnitude
 Enhances the controllability of PE converters
 Under-voltage protection

With increased numbers of DC MG, DC micro grid clusters are also emerging as a cost-
effective solutions. Thus in ensuring the possible long distance among the DC MG, fault occurs
are observed and are cleared, results in superior working of MG [5].

Regardless of the benefits provided by the MG clusters, the protection by the particular fault
detection in these systems still remains as a challenging task. These are due to

 nonexistence of mature MG system standards for protection and in fault location,

 Lack of zero-crossing points, and less research on fault location of MG in current
developments [6].

The MG fault locating strategies are dived to both online and the offline methods, where the
Voltage levels are mastered with the fault time and the tripping time are calculated for making
the fault location [7].

1.2 Importance of Fault Detection and Location in Microgrids

Precise fault detection and location for the MG has been a great disquiet among the researchers
from the conventional diagnosis systems as it can result in increased rates and the chance of
transient response. The MG recurrently procures to increased cases of shunt faults during the
distribution of power from the stages of generation end to user locations, which can result in
affecting the,

 system reliability,
 load damage
 Increased restoration cost. of fault line

The MG encounters the substantial growth of load demand due to increased cases of its
reliability, security and being a sustainable form of green energy supply
Thus, a precise fault diagnostic and location model is obligatory in performing the debauched
recovery of the unhealthy phases related to the deployment of MG in Electric vehicles (EV) as
a primitive approach. Besides, the protection of the fault occurred in MG is not explicitly
comparable to the conventional line protection and the transmission approaches. These are due
to its various modes of operation. The renovation of the issues occurred in the MG phases,
results in enhanced, quality aspects of electrical power and intensifies the transient response,
along with the system stability [8].

As MG are effective structures and are a primitive form of solutions in attaining a reliable
power factors with higher values of yield using the Distributed Generations (DG) elements,
converters in power electronics, and also acts as a critical energy storage devices

Figure 1.2 MG systems from various power storage sources [9]

Moreover, MG are a vital sections of systems relying to telecommunication modules,

spacecraft and in case of distribution systems, which are primarily used and are incorporated
in a significant quantity of electronic demands. Though, there are prevalent apprehensions
relying in the protection system by detection and in locating the fault that has occurred in the
MG, which procures against the occurrence of faults, predominantly in poly-source distribution
networks [9].
1.3 Conventional Ml and Dl Methods for Fault Detection and Location In Microgrids

Quite a lot of fault diagnostic approaches have been held in cases of detecting the faults
occurring in MG including the ML and the DL as a peculiar forms of approaches.

This suggested used an ANN Artificial form of Neural Network, known as ANN which is
Taguchi-based, along with the DWT as a primitive form of approach used in the fault detection,
classification, and localization. These faults occurring in the MG are analysed using the
differences occurring in the entropies of waves. These are used as the input to the ANN which
are trained using the orthogonal datasets. The ANN is used in the identification of the fault
occurred phase, and also in making the location of the fault. These methods are applied in the
RX62T microcontroller, verified using the chip-in-the-loop simulation along with a base
approach of real-time digital simulator [10].

The Ripple based steering interleaved PFC are used in the suggested study, for the correction
in the power factor. But the additional Zero-Volt Transition known as the ZVT mechanism,
reduces the current input, stress and also enables the soft-switching mechanism. The ZVT
based PFC also ensures in lowering the switching loss when compared to a hard-switching
[11]. The Buck-boost PFC converter being bridgeless is used in the suggested study with a
single magnetic core with a capability of realizing both the positive and the negative output
voltages. These operate under a discontinuous conduction mode, for shaping the input current
[12].

The transient based Capacitance Monitoring for the dc-link capacitor, using a digital controlled
PFC with the elimination of the other additional devices, are used in the suggested study. This
works by analysing the dc-link capacitance and the transient voltage of the large-signal profiles.
The feasibility of the model is evaluated using the boost PFC in both the continuous and in the
discontinuous mode [13]. High gain buck-boost PFC AC-DC converter is utilized for low-volt
Electric Vehicle (EV) along with the design and construction of the on-board battery charger.
The converter operates at a DCM and reaches a minimum control complexity at the stage of
AC-DC [14].

A DOST-based optimized MKELM is used in the suggested study as an approach for fault
classification and location identification in MG. these takes place by extracting the needed
features from the magnitude and using the phase angle from the output of DOST, by taking up
a pre-processing state 1 cycle, of the post-fault signals which are retrieved by passing the end
relays of MG. followed by the normalization of features, used as the input to the MKELM. GA,
is used in the optimization of the parameters of MKELS, the overall viability is tested on the
IEC MG, under varying operating conditions, such as various fault locations, classification of
faults [15].

RNN are used in the suggested study for the location of faults in the MG, especially in DC-
MGs. These are done by measuring the feeder current and the main bus Voltage levels. The
suggested methods are assessed in a grid-connected an in the isolated operation modes of the
MG. both Mat Lab and DIgSILENT are employed in designing the RNN and the DC MG for
the simulation [16] .

This suggested study used [17], PV fault detection method used in classifying various PV
module anomalies by employing thermo graphic images. This is done using the CN, one of a
DL approach used with the three branches using TL strategy. These branches are endured with
the multi-scaled kernel along with a visual perception approach, using a pre-trained knowledge
to enhance the perfoamce associated with the offline augmentation network, 11 types of PV
module are utilized, the average accuracy rates obtained using the method are 97.3% and 93.5%
for 11 various anomaly types.

Islanding detection is one of the major issues in the integration of renewable sources of energy
systems in gird, AI and DL based Islanding detection are used in terms of providing a reliable
quality. DL based islanding technique for the fault detection is used in the recommended study
[18]. This fault occurs due to the unintentional disconnection among the DG systems apart
from the grid. The events of fault occurring in the load side such as motor start up, capacitor
switching, in these grid even in noisy signals.

A real-time UWT based fault detections systems for a PV based MG are considered in this
advocated study [19], which is based in the techniques of Wavelet Transform. This is used in
the detection of the disturbances occurring in the power quality in MGs in real time. This UWT
decreases the rate of oscillations and noises present in the signal and are used in the selection
of the threshold values. This method is employed by the selection go volt signal levels which
are used in the detection of PQD for a PV-based MG. levels of V swell, swag are detected in
the MG using this method.

Bidirectional isolated DC-DC converter are used in the suggested study for the energy storage
system, for both charging and for discharging. The recommended system can achieve the
methods of both the isolation and also the power flow in the bidirectional direction. The
suggested model has a capability in achieving the inductance energy recovery mechanism, for
enhancing the Zero Voltage Switching (ZVS) in energy systems [20]. Wide load range
applications and wide input range applications using the isolated DC-DC converter have been
considered for removing the drawbacks of the conventional current, such as high-volt spikes
transformer leakage and also tripping in case of any faults. The soft-switching mechanism has
provided a better clamping and efficiency over the complete range of load [21].

1.4 Emerging Trends for Fault Detection and Location in Microgrids

Some of the emerging approaches and trends in detecting the fault occluding in the MG are
discussed in this section.

Over last decade, the DC MG have gained a global paradigm in fields of power system. Impact
of choosing the definite threshold levels for the V and in levels of I are used as a primitive
compromise with respect to the speed and accurate rates of the conventional fails detection
approaches. Though many ML and DL approaches have been successful they suffer from the
issues of Overfitting, and are exhaustively a time-consuming process, thus a technique of online
fault detection system is employed in cases of DCMG, using the Transfer Learning (TL) and
CNN, known as TCNN approach, using the transient voltage and Current level values at
various buses the image data for the fault detection are used as a input for the TCNN layer.
First, the Alex-Net layer is used primarily used in initializing the weights and bias for the
suitable target offline CNN. Followed by, TL from offline CNN are used in the initialization
of online CNN for a real-time fault detection and for the fault classifications [22].

In spite of the datum that MGs are employed in enhance the state of consistency and the mode
of resilience associated to various distribution networks (DN), scheming a reliable and a
effective protection measures for AC-MGs are considered to be a challenging task. existence
of numerous modes and types of MG and recurrent levels of changes procuring in the MGs
and their mode of operations such as islanding, unexpected increase the in the node values,
penetration in aspects of rate variation of DGs are some of the vital issues which are to be
considered in design a resilient protection for MG. Phasor Measurement Units is one of the
technique being employed in cases of measuring the (μPMU) located at both ends of the
protected line, of MG. method of new index is also employed in cases of detecting all internal
and external faults which are based on angles differential phase levels of superimposed
complex power known as (DPASCP). The threshold value of the proposed index is adaptively
updated according to variations created in the network. This approach are used in detecting
various types of faults occurring at diverse locations in a faster and at accurate rate of
prediction for both the grid connected and islanded mode of operation [23].

1.5 Problem Identification

The dynamic operation of the MG are complex case for solving them in aspects of delivering
a viable operational mode in to make them work efficiently. Adaptive protection approaches
and robust resolving systems have been proposed in cases of assembling them more viable but
are adhered to significant cost of employing the solutions. Intelligent fault detection systems
are needed in cases MG for an effective defect detection and in location aspects. These can be
viable using the ML and the DL approaches which are easy to deploy and in cases of
computationally effective.

However, MGs always possess a crucial and innovative challenges in cases of effective fault
detection and in locating them because due to their association with bidirectional power flow,
significant alterations in cases of fault currents levels, and in complex cases of power
intermittency resulting in varying quality issues. These are additionally constituted with
possible reconfiguration of networks, due to adaptation of renewable forms of energy sources.
Moreover, the Protection systems inside the DG are predominantly damaged or affected as they
rely based on the principles of unidirectional power flow and sometimes at cases of overcurrent.
Thus, the conventional forms of approaches in resolving the overcurrent resolving approaches
do not sufficiently protect MG from any complex or a simple forms of faults occurring in them.

Furthermore, typical characteristics associated with MG such as imbalance and topology

changes occurring in them are more complex to understand and takes more of complex
procedures in resolving them. A number of approaches have been used in the state-of-art-
approaches in resolving and in aiming to deal with MG protection by effective FD and location
methods. Where the FD approaches are classified to three different classes such as external
protection, adaptive protection, and FD.

The External Protection (EP) is one of a approaches which are used in cased of making the
features of additional equipment such as reactances, super-capacitors, or limiters of fault
current simply known as (FCL) in cases of inhibiting the misfiring and in aiming the enhanced
protection of the MG devices. However, these approaches lack in cases of flexibility, thus, are
less suitable for FD in MGs. Whereas the changes in topology and DER connection and the
cases of disconnection are conceivable The Adaptive Protection (AP) is also one of a approach
which takes place online for a dynamic modification and in the protection settings of MGs in
view of addressing the changes or the faults occurring in the MG operating conditions.

1.6 Motivation of the Study

Over past decades, substantial levels and cases of attention are delivered in aspects of adapting
to the renewable energy systems under various advantages and applications. A MG is
considered to be a group of interconnected loads along with DER, having clearly defined
electrical boundaries. This acts as a single entity of controllable unit in aspects of grid
functionality, and can be operated in both grid-connected and islanded mode for detecting the
faults occurring in them. These MG implications can be more operational, in terms of serving
the benefits associated to the environment, and aims in bringing high levels of economic
benefits. Such as,

 amended reliability
 integration of renewable energies sources at higher levels
 reduction of network losses,
 Better profiles of voltage.

The implementation of these renewable power sources and power systems are castoff for only
for their advantages renowned to their minimal scales and ranges of power loss and their lower
cost-efficiency. The dynamic features associated with these MG operation and adaptation,
such as advanced on-grid/off-grid mode of operations, their ability of intermittency among
DGs, and their active topology with its ability in cases of self-reconfiguration. These are some
of the cases which cannot be solved using the conventional forms of fault detection approaches.
This leads to cause a misfiring among the conventional protection schemes. The enhanced
levels and cases of efficiency and the high density in aspects of power supplies, deeds the
sensitive applications and the micro-grid systems to perform with high levels of ease and
reliability.

These systems can result in an enhanced conversion of the electrical energy to another type
with advantageous characteristics, and can derive the power of device with enhanced
manipulation and conversional mechanism. The PFC (sepic) converter which are used, aims in
enhancing and in boosting up the ranges of volt of the current provided as the input which can
result in bringing a stable and efficient working forms of systems. The sepic converter is used
in the proposed study which combines both the process of buck and the boost converter. The
sepic converter has a main advantage of either increase or in decrease the levels of input voltage
by maintaining the control over the duty cycle of the pulse to the MOSFET. These enhanced
efficient system can be used in many of micro-grid systems with less failure rates and with
allied advantageous characteristics.

These controlled systems can enhance the precise control of both the DC and AC systems by
maintaining a synchronous connectivity among the systems. Followed by, the Maximum
PowerPoint Training method, known as MPPT employed in cases of checking the input level
ranges to the system. Existing methods have used only the fault detection methods, by adapting
only algorithms, but the proposed study uses the Deep Learning (DL) method in case of fault
detection by using ANN. Followed by the deployment of hybrid battery and the super capacitor
used in the proposed study are due to the cases of storing the output ranges of current which
are obtained finally. These current DC form of current obtained are transferred to the AC form
of current using the 3-phase inverter employed in this projected approach. Finally, the aim of
employing the BLDC motor in this study is used in operating the EV vehicle which is the main
aspect of carrying out the entire study. On the other hand, Fault Detection (FD) approaches
can aid in bringing smart mode of operations under miscellaneous fault and normal operating
conditions.

1.7 Aim and Objective

The main of the study lies in adapting the effective forms of FD approaches in cases of MG
with a vital aspect of procuring them in cases of EV as an effective substitute of automated and
high fuel consuming vehicles. These are done relying the appropriate objectives as,

 To obtain input sources of current from the Wind and the PV as a primitive source, in
forms of DC currents and enhance them in Voltage levels of the current using the
SEPIC convertor.
 To monitor the overall flow of current in the grid system using the MPPT algorithm
with the ALCO-PSO algorithm.
 To implement the ANN algorithm, in view of fault detection and fault location to
identify the fault occurred in circuit.
 To store the overall current obtained in the hybrid battery and passing them to the 3-
phase inverter to convert them to AC to DC source of current.
 To transit the current obtained to the BLDC motor for the EV vehicles to operate, and
measuring their overall viability using the performance metrics comprising, measure
of load rates, V levels , power quality , sag, interruption, swell and the THD levels.
1.8 Significance of the Study
The power electronics and their applications which plays a significant role and section in
supporting various demands and needs and solicitations with higher rates of efficiency and
beneficiary terms. These operate with higher demands in fulfilling the desired conditions and
the specifications of the required application. The crucial and the vital characteristics of the
power systems are their dependability and the efficiency rates. It is always a vital point of view
in having an intense control over the supply of power to a desired application without any
hindrances irrespective of the size and adaptability levels. The adequate levels of boost when
voltage are required which can aid in the sufficient and effective levels of the supply in the
input current source to the target device by integrating and manipulating and enhancing their
efficiency rates. This results in effective and procedural operation of the application
irrespective of their design and maneuver.

The appropriate and adequate maintenance over the scaled ranges and levels of volt input
source which are considered can aid in augmenting the preciseness and the durability of the
target system. This in turn results in making the desired application to operate more competent
and in a smoother manner with valuable scopes of outputs. The sufficient control over the
transmission and also in cases of distribution of power scale results in the satisfactory and
enhanced working of micro-grid applications especially in cases of EV.

These proficiencies paves a way in controlled flow of power, only in designated routes, by a
keen control over the load capacity over the transmission lines and also thwarts the cases of
blackouts. Signified by all these features the proposed study aims in adapting the input source
from the two conventional form of inputs from PV and the Wind. These DC source of current
are maintained at high V levels using the sepic converter. Where the vital characteristic nature
of the SEPIC converter lies in making a viable levels of overall functional range. The overall
flow of the current is investigated using the MPPT-ALCO-PSO algorithm in the MG systems.
This can aid in keeping a keen control over the flow of the V levels throughout the systems
with no variability in operation and in functioning. Followed by the approaches carried in
making the FD for monitoring any cases of fault occurring in the MG is defined precisely and
are located using the ANN approach which is one of the vital significance of the projected
study. The overall current is finally converted in making the AC to the DC source using BLDC
motor for testing the operative levels of EV.

1.9 Scope of the Study

Distribution Systems (DS) have been offering numerous variations and enduring themselves
under huge applications over few decades. Over these, the integration of DER are one of the
significant scopes among the power electronics which have increased in their attention levels
and in the aspects of vast applications with more of future development. These are uses under
various in real time applications and aspects such as such as defence, aero-space, transformers,
and are also used under the scales of generating renewable source ad forms of energy. These
can be applied in generating the applications which are high-powered, can be used as a storage
and acts as a conversion and a conventional form of systems implicated for MGs.

This can be used as a stable form of the practical electronic systems being more significant in
terms of operations. The defined and prompt FD serves in building a suitable strategy for the
balanced behaviour of the overall MG system by enhancing their speed by increases prompt
restoration of the unhealthy and faulty phases from the MG model. The core scope of the
proposed study lies in the supply of the supply and in the distribution of the levelled volt supply,
which are prominent for the efficient working of the micro-grid systems and applications.
These can be used in developing highly reliable and a long-life micro-grid applied EV. These
EV are of consuming less power and reduces the chances of loss in power over the converters,
providing and recommending a quick phase of response. These can assist in the process of
designing the affirmed role and the value of the power systems in all such aspects from the
generation to the end use of the applications. Similarly, these can maintain a rate of delivery,
with the required grade of power, which are needed to the respective MG-EV applications
providing a vast use.

1.10 Thesis Organization

The entire study composes of 5 different chapters establishing various aspects in wrapping the
entire study

Chapter 1- This chapter pacts with the complete and a brief introduction comprising entire
study, with some illustrative depictions and their prioritized explanations are provided for a
clear understanding.

Chapter 2- This chapter entirely deals with the State-of-art procedures and approaches used in
the fault and abnormality detection in Micro-Grids which are accomplished using various
domains such as ML, DL based on various approaches and datasets. This chapter aids in
providing a clear understanding about the proposed study using the existing study concepts.
Chapter 3- This chapter handles the entire proposed technique and the methodology part which
is projected in the particular study. This chapter also provides a complete overview on the
proposed technique comprising the use and a complete view of sepic converters, MPPT
algorithm embedded with the ALCO-PSO algorithm, ANN as a primitive approach in fault
locations and with a summary.

Chapter 4- This chapter deals with the overall results obtained using the proposed approach.
Also the results are emphasized in each of the section, peculiarating them with the suitable
simulation configuration, overall analysis of perfoamce, and the appropriate comparative
analysis if the study are also presented.

Chapter 5- This chapter deals with the overall proposed conclusion and the appropriate future
aspects in case of suitable recommendations in fault detection and location of MGs.

1.11 Summary

The hasty progress in the utilization of the distributed energy resources DERs in MG have
resulted in bringing various aspects of innovative challenges in faults and their detection
systems. Timely detection of these faults in the MG can aim in bringing efficient working and
in crucial in preventing serious and various working complications. Thus the entire chapter
provides a complete and an elaborated introduction for a better understanding of the concepts
including various sections such as the background, significance, scope, and the chapter also
presents the main attribute, aim and objective to carry out the study in making the descriptive
understanding to be more precise. The rest of the chapters will cover the entire study under
various aspects and with their detailed explanations for a better understanding in cases.
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