SECTION III $

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Turbine Engine Design and construction F

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RTOUCED VELOCITY
IXCREASED STATIC
PSISSURE

Fig 34 Diuergent subsontc inlet duct. B _

- Dtvergent nozzle.

A. Turbine Engine Entrance Ducts

2. Subsonic inlets
1. Pinciples of operations
The subsonic aircraft singie entrance irilet
duct,
such as found on business and commercial jet
The entranc e or inlet duct is noimaily air-
considered
-part craft, ha.s a diuergent shcpe. A d_iverging
to be part of lhe airframe _ not of the progressively increases in diameler
ciucr
engiire. Nevertheiess, it is usually ld"rrtiii"d frori front to
u, back, as can be seen in Figure ga. This
engine station one. Understanding-the
function
duct is
of someLimes referred to as an jnle t diffuser
the inlet and ibs importance to engine perfor- because
mance makes it a necessary part
of its effect on pressure. Air enters the aerodv-
of any discus- namically contoured low drag inlet
sion on gas turbine desiga urri at ambient
pressure and starts to diffuse, arriving
"o.rrt*.iior.. at the
compressor at a slightly tncreased static pres-
The turbine engine inlet musl furnish
a uniform sure. This pressure increase adds significantl-v
supply of air to the compressor if the
engine is to mass airflow as the aircraft reachJs its
b
enj oy eo mp r e s s o r s tall- r e e pe.fo.marrc"]-rn" desired
f in- cruising speed. It is in thjs condition that the
iel duct must also cause as iitci" arug
us possible. compressor reaches its aerodynamic desiga point
It has been discovered that, even a il;li discon-
tinuity of airflow can cause significant and produces optimum compression ratio.
efficiency
l::t *"l.ur many unexptain"able p.rfo.-
"r
mance problems. Therefore, "r,g.irr"
The turbofan inlet is similar in design to the tur-
iL folloq,s Lhat if the bojet excepl that it discharg"" onfy u po.tion of
inleL ducL is to reLain its function
a"fi""'rirg .i, its air. into the engine. Th1 remlinde.
wiLh minimum tubrulence,
it must"iU" -uintuin"a through ihe fan.
passe,
in as close ro new condition
p"..iUf".'ii ."p.ir.
". expertly installed
to Lhis inlel become necessary,
flush patches are mandabr!
M.oreover. Lhe use of an inlet
to'f."J"nt Arug. Figure 35 shows two common airflow arrange-
covef, is recommend_ ments. One !s the
ed Lo promole cleanliness, prevent siort ducr design of a high by-
corrosion, and pass turbofan, and the other, a ling duct
abrasion. d,esigtt
utilized on low by-pass and mediui-r by-pass en-
 t,
tines. 'l'he long ducLing corrfil;trrat,iorr re(lu(j(ts 4.
sirrface clrag of the fan disclrat 11r.r air rrrrrl cnlrnlrr:rls 'Srzpersonic in[ets
LlntsL. 'fhe high by-Jlass enirirrc <:irrrrro(. Liikc arl- A variable-geometry inlet, duct, is required on
vantage of Lhis drag reduct"irrrr r-'otrr:eJrt, lrr:carrst: rrl' sul)ersonic aircrafu. The SST, for exampie, is con-
Lhe rveighL penalby involverl irr Llrc wirlr: rliirrrrelt:r figured wit.h an inlet that slows Lhe airflow lo sub-
of a lorrg duct. sorric speed al Lhe face of lhe engine. regardless of
oircrafb speed. Subsonic airflow into lhe com-
l)ressor is rerluired if the rotabing airfoils are bo
renrain free oI shock wave accumulaLion, which
rvould be deL,rimental bo the compression process.

ln order to vary lhe geomeLry, or shape, of lhe in-

It:t, a movable restrictor is usuaily employed lo
fornr a convergent-divergenb shaoe of vanable
proportion. The C-il shaped ducc becoraes neces-
sa.ry for reduciag supersonic airflow !o subsonjc.
At, Llds poiat it is imporianl to remernber lhab aL
sul:sonic flow rales, air acts as an incompressible
li<irrid, bub al supersonic flow ra[es, air can be
cornpressed crealing ihe familiar shock wave
Fig.35 A Turbofarl low uttJ metliurn lrirenornenom. Figure 3? depicts a flred C-D duct
rotio. B - -turboiary high b1,-pass rotio.
l-1,.1:r(rss
in rvhich supersonic airflow is slow.ed by air corn-
l.rression and shock forr:ration at, ils waste. Once
3. Ram recovery reduced bo mach one, ihe airflow enteis ihe sub-
sonic diffuser seciion, where velocity is further
As previousiy mentioned irr Lhe lheory sec{,ion, a reduced and its pressure increased before enber-
gas turbine when operated on t,he grourrd tras ing the comDressor- There are several reasons
tregabive pressure in the inle0 because of Llre [righ concerning operational flexibilicy. why this fixed
velocity airflow. As the airr:rafl, nioves jj.rrn arrl i.n design is nob feasible, and the serious studenL
flight a condition known as rcnl recouer;i lilllsg should consult. textbooks containing the stagna-
place. 'fhis is the poinU at *'irjch prossuj"e jnside Lion pressure effect of supersonic inlels for a ftrr-
Lhe inleb returns to ambient,. Note Llrr: pressrrre ther explanation.
gauge indications in Figure 06 going lrom a ne-
gative to a positive conclilir:ri. ltan rrcovery is
said bo occur above 160 rrph r:rr mosl, air-cra{t.
I'rom this point to cruising speed, lhe r:rrlJine con-
tinues to take advanLage of t.llrj irrcreirr_iing pres- 0rvE8G€xl
sure ratio in the inleb, crea[ing llurrsb nit,h less suEsorirc
and less fuel expenditure. sEclro{ orFFusER

Irig. 37 Sunersonic conuersent-diuergent (C-D)

inlet-

An inlet shock wave is very .simiiar lo shock

Fig. 36 Rarn recouert,. w{lves comnron to aircraft rvings and other air-
25
 foiis. A shock q'ave is defined as an accumulation found on helicopiers and other slox,er moving air-
of sound wave energ-y, or pressure, developed craft which generally fly below rrim recovery_
when a sound *.ave, trying to move away from an speed. This type of inlet produces a large drai
object, is heid in a stationary position by the on- factor, but drag is outweighed b1, the t igf, aegrei
coming flou' of air. One useful aspect of a shock of aerodynamic efficiency i*t p.ovides.
wave is that airfloiv passing through the high
pressure shock region slows dor+rr. Engines being cnlibrated on ground test stancis
also utilize a bellmouth fitted w-ith an anti-
The supersonic diffuser iype of in_let provides a ingestion screen. Duct loss is so slight in this
means of creating both a shock wave formalion to design that it is considereC to be
reduce air velocity and a variable convergent-
Ergine pe.-
""ro.
formance data, such as engine trimming for rated
divergen! shape to meet the various flighi con- thrust are obtained while using a beilmouth com-
ditions from takeoff to cruise. Figure 3gA shou,s pressor iniet.
a variable-geometry inlet in its high cruise oosi-
tion and it ajso shows a movable spike which acts
Lo creabe more or less C-D effect.

Figure 388 is descriplive of a movable wedge

rvhich provides a similar function of convergence-
divergence and shock wave formation. It also has
a spili valve to dump ulwanted ram air overboard
at high speed.

:%ryil, -----> A|RFLOW

I
I
r,.10vA8u sPu(E

WEDGE LOWEREO _ THflOAT AR€A R€IUCFO

lig. 39 BelLmouth compressor inlet (with

icreen).
Aerodynamic efficiency and duct loss are ii-
-lustrated in Figure 40:- tt can be seen that a
DUMp VALyE 0pE1 SPILI VALVE Op€N
rounded leading edge allows the airstream to
make use of the total inlet cross section where the
effective diameter of ihe sharp-ecige orifice is
WEOG€ RETRACTED _ 1HROAT AREA IIICREASED greatly reduced.

DUiIP VATVE USED AS SPIII VALVE OPEI

sc00P T0 lllc8EAS€ TO PNEVETT
AIRFL(M TUREULEt+C€

Fig. 38 A Vaiable-geometry conuergent-

diuergent supersonic inleL (Mouobte spihe inlet.)
B - Vaiable throat area intahe. (Mouabh wedge
inIet.)

5. Bellmouth compressor inlets. Fig-40 A-Low uelocity flow through round'

'edge
oifice. A - Low uelocity flou .through
Bellmouth iniets are converging in shape and are sharp-edge aifice.
26
 ll{lgl 5CREEXS

'-=:===''=---

CLLAI{ AIII

frLTtS scRr€{ \\
--5--::J
.
t$ ./
(!t-
+---='-
t7.r' \
,,,
--=)).
, - -;"" t

,-it' a/ilP
t,
rl
t\
//'
/1

/./ I
h
, I
---.
il
rl
Jl
,l
tt
ri
lr
t\
i _--'"
IHTEI AIR

Fig. 41 A - Ittodel Sl1-J,,1 helicopter. B Sand and dust separator.

'Compressor
-
6. inlet screens for debris such as nuts, bolts, s0ones, etc. Screens
lrave been LrieC.n high subsoruc fighi eng:aes of
The use of compressor inlel screens is usrrally the past, but icing and screen fatigue failure caus-
limited fo rotorcraft and groultl burtrirre inslalla. r:d so many maintenance problems bhat the use of
tions. This may appear peculiar f.o the casuirl irrleb scr.'ens has been mostly avoided. I\lany heli-
observer n'ho realizes the appetiie rrf g:rs t,url,rines copLers are fitted with inlet screens as proLecLion
L'
 ageinst foreiga object ingestion. These screens The gearbox is usuall-v driven try a radial s[3g
are locared eiLher externallS- or internally at the rvhich meshes with a bevel gear driven by the
inlet ducb. main rolorshaft. On some instaliations an inter_
mediate gearbox is employed to drive the main
QilEST/O.n/S; gearbox. Each individual accessory shaft
is
designed lo provide a gear reduction from corn-
21. Is the shape of a subsonic inlel duct con- pressor speed, as per fhe need of the accessory.
vergenl or divergenL?
A seconda-ry function of the main gearbox is to
22. VhaL is the prirciple ilvolved in inlet ducL provide a collection point for scavenged oil before
desiga; to increase static pressure or to in- being pumped back to the oil tank. ihis u..ange-
crease velocity of the mass airflow? ment allows for a splnsh-type lubrication i*or
many of rhe interna_l gears and bearings.
B. Accessory Section
Today it is not common to house ihe main oil sup-
The engine driven gearbox is the main unit of the ply in the accessory gearbox, rather a separate oil
accessory section. Accessories such as the fuel tank is urriized.
pump, oil pump, fuel control, hydrauiic pump,
starler, and generator, are mounted on the main C. Cornpressor Section
gearbox.
The compressor section houses the compressor
roior and works to suppiy air in sufficient quant!
ty to saiisfy the needs of the combustor. The
primar-v purpose of the compressor is to increase
the pressure of the mass of air entering the engine
inlet to discharge it to the diffuser and the burner
section at the correct velocity, temperature, and
pressure-

The secondai-y purpose of ihe compressor section

is to suppiy engine bieed air to cool the internal
hot sectio4 and to supply heated air for inlet anti
icing. Air is often extracted for aircraft uses and
is usually referred to as cusfomer bleed. air ar
eustomet seruice air. Cotnmon uses for this air in-
clude airsaft edbin pressurization, air conriition-
irrg systems, fuel system heat for de-icing, pneu-
matic starting, and various other incidental func-
tions that require ciean pressurized air.

1. Centifugd compressor

The centrifugal compressor, sometimes referred

to as a radial out-flow compressor, is the oldest
desiga a-nd is still in use today. A few recent tur-
boshaft engines, as well as the majority of aux-
iliary gas turbine powerplants, are uiing this
desiga.

In a centrifugirl flow engine, the compressor per-

forms its duties by receiving ils air at the cenler
and accelerating it outward by centrifugBl reac-
Fig. 42 A tion to its rotational speed. Cbntrifugal com-
- Accessory gearbox location_
IrIain and auxiliary gearbox.
B
pressor assemblies consist basically of an im-
28
 COHPR€SSOR TAHIFOLO

l;'ig. 43 C'err trifugtLl c()nlpressor. components.

peller rotor, a diffuser, and a n.ranifultl. 'l ,lre

iur- tl) Large frontal area for a given airflow.
peller is
_usually made frour forgecl irlurnjnuur
allo-v, and can be eibher sir:gle o. j,-ral sirlerl. ,f,ho
Ivlore than lwo stages not practical because
diffuser provides a clirr".geril ciuct in rvhiclr t,lrc air
of energy loss beLween sbages. (Fig. aa")
spreads out, slows down, anrl ilcrea:;es in .sLabic
D_ressure. The compressor urrrrrifoid
clisl,t.il.rut;es
lhe a-ir in a burbulence free conriit,ion l;o Lhe
corrr"
buslion sect,ion. (Fig. a3.)

Advantages of the centrifrrgai cotrpressor are

several:

(1) liigh pressure riie per stage

- up bo B:1.
(2) Good efficiency over a w.itle rr:rLational Flg. 44 Single-entry two-stage centrifugal turbo-
speerl propeller.
range.

(3) SimpliciLv of manufacLurr: ar:d

lclrv cnst. 2.' Axial flow compressors

(4) Low weight. l'here are tlrree tlpes of axial flow compressors:
sin-gle-spccL d.ual-spco!, a::d tnple-spac!. The
(5) Lon' starting power reqr.rirernenl.s. single- and dual-spool are used in tuibojet and
Lurboshaft, engines wh.ile the dual- and triple-
spool are more corunon to tu-rboprop and iur-
Disadvantages are as follos.s:
bofan engines.
1)O

-\-
Fig' 45 A - Single-spool gas turbine engine. B - Dual-rotor turbine for split-spool compressor. C
Three-spoo\ high b1'-pass turbofan. D * Compression -
ratio, dischorgn pinrrure di.uided by tnlet pres-
sure.

COMPRESSOR REAR CASING

COMPRESSOP FRONT CASING

EXIT GUIDE VANES

OIFFUSER CASE

VARIABLE IHLET
STATI() NARY
GUIt)E VANES STATOR VANES

COM PHESSOR
FRONT FRAME

COMPRESSOR BOTOR
(stNGLE)

Fig. 46 Compressor Rotor ond. Stator

. Fig. 46
30
 I ,r

i
Because axial flow compressors lrirvt-' fir:r:d r:olrr- firsL six stages- as variable and the remaining
Dressor blade arrangement, t.lre dual" ,rnil l,ril,l,:- sLages st,alionary.
co.t."pt was devised Lo inr:rease rtpelal;iotr:rl
.;trrool
flcxibility. 'fhe low pressure rol.or's trrnrl Lo r;pet:rl li'igure 46 also shows the localion of lhe inlet
up as the engine gains all"iLurle. 'l'lris lrt:l;ls r:orrr- guide vanes rvirich preceed the first stage robor
pression ancl partia-ily maices rrp lbr [he r-ron- blades. These vanes can also be of stationary or
controllable or fixed angle of inciclence ol l.lre variable design. Their funclion is to direct airflow
biaries. This conceob of using (:ompiesscll' roLors inlo Lhe robor ab the most ciesirable angle. Sirnilar
llrat robaLe at, difierenf speecls also t.errtls to vanes are piaced al the compressor exif bo remove
reduce stail tendencies common l-o higher com- tire rotational momen0 imparbed to the air during
pression engfu:es. (Fig. a5l compression.

A gas burbine eng-ine in a business jet has a c{)rn- xr. x2 c0ttPsEss0i

pression rabio on Lhe order of 6:i il older mr:rlels,
and up to 1B:1 in newer desiprs. By cornlarison,
the engine of a Ride-bodied jurubo jei '*rll corn-
press the air up to 30 at,mospheres.

Compression ralio is determined l:1' measuring

the iast slage ciischarg€ pressure ancl dividing it
by ambient pressure. For e-xarnple, i[ arnbienL
pressure is a Standa-rd Day i,1.'i p:;ia arrrl conr-
pressor discharge slatic pressure is 14? psia, t;he
ccnpression racio is exoressed as 10:1 as il-
iustrabed in Fig. 45D.

A:r a-rial flow conpressor has lwo rna:n elernen[s,

fhe rofor and the stator. T'he rortlr has biades fit-
ted into its disk which impel air rearwarrl through
each stage. (A stage consist.s of a sel. of rot.()r
blades and the following set of stator vanes.) 'l'lrr:
speed of the rotor determi:res tlre velocit,y presenI itig. 47 A - Location of the compressor. B -
'in each stage. Wirh increasecl velociti, kinetic Blade attachment and retentiort
energ:y is lransferred lo lhe ai.r,'fire slatr.rr vanes
are olaced to bhe rear of the roLor blacles {.o rr:ceive
'lhere are several advantages of the axial flqs/
the air ab high veiocity and act as cliffusers. 'fhis c0mpressor. They are:
changes the kinetic energy t.o potential energy
(pressure). The stators also have a secondary (1) High peak efficiencies fiom ram, creaied by
function of directing airflow Lo the next, stage o.f its straight through design.
compression. {FiS. a6.l
(21 liigh peak pressures aiiainabie by addition
The axial compressor will nornrally have fron 1{) of cornpression stages.
Lo 18 sLages of cornpression. 'Ihe blacles of each
stage are usually dovetail fitt.eci into tbe tlisk altl (31 Srnall fronlal area aird resuliing lpw drag.
secured with a pin, locktab, or lcckn,ire as showlr
in Fig.47B. 'l'he clisadva-nfages of the axial flow cgrnpressor
iue:
Compressor blades are often reducecl in llrichne:;s
at the tips. This design is referred to as a profile {l). Difficulty of manufacture and high cost.
or squeeler tip. This cut-out ar-ea rerluces the
possibiiity of serious rio'nnse ii a irlarir: Icosens QI RelaLively high weight.
and allorvs the tip to contacL Llre conrpressot: case.
{3} High starting po\rier requirementt.
Stator vanes can be either of trvo l;1-pe.s sl.a- (41 Low pressure rise per stage, apppoximately
- the
tionarv or rariable angle. Iiigrrre 4G shorvs l.2i:L.
3t
 'l'o (ake advancase of the several good points of
botir tire cencritugai and the a;iial flow corrr-
throrrgh Llre blades of the compressor. The
I)Bssngervs.l', formed by the top {camtered side}of
pressor lnd elimina[e some of their dis;.rtJvan- orre blntle and the bottonr side of the blade nexL to
tages, rhe combinacion a-tial-centrifugul coul- it is divelging. 'I'his diverging shape causes a
l)ressor rvas designed. This application is crrr.renl._ sriiglrt rise iir t,he static pru"r,ri" of ihe air as it
l_r' being used in many smail turbine enginr:s in-
l)asr;(ls t.lrrou65h. At the same time, the blades are
stalled in business je[s and helicopters. {i;.ig" 4B} rvclrkirrg on l,he air to increase its velocity.
\\'hen Lhe air leaves Lhe compressor blades it
AXrAt C0MPi:SS0i
flows inlo a row of stator *rurr".. Th" stator vanes
also foiin diverg-ing ducts, which decrease the
velociLy of the air and increase the staric
pre:iliure. 1'he cbmpressor blade and stator vane
aclion coutinues through all the stages of the
conrl)ressor. When the air leaves the comrressor
it. r.r,ill approxirnaLeiy the same velocity it
-lrave
started rvith, but a much greater static pressure.

LiS.4B Combtnatian otial centrifugal conl_

p re s sor.

'fhe prirricpie of rolating airfoil compression car)

be
_undersrood b1" anaiyzing the foUou.ing nar_
rative ald Figtrre 4g.

L Interstage airflow

Ilocation of the compressor blades causes an in- t0;0t sP€Eo €FtEii

0tl vEL0clat Al{0 DtiEcltoll
itial increase in air velocity near the engine en-
trance in the i-nler duct. Airflow is drawn btrrougJh cur0€ vlNt 0tscHAfi6E
the inlet guicie vanes, which impart un urrguio., ntsutIANt Ati lr8 YE[oclTt Ar,t0 0tBEcTtolt
vtt0qrY 0tREcTtol
change, buc no velocity o. p..sr*" change tt tlre ^lto
(4.0.4.1
air.
Fig. 49 Vector diagram of interstage compressor
There are tEo uector forces acting on airllow. One air{low.
veclor is sucrion, creating air velociLl, into the
compressor. it is depicted by the arrow labeled b. Cascade effect
"guide vane discharge". The other vector is :
created b1. che airfoil (blade). By rotaLing in one
The ability of air to flow rearward against an ever
direction, air is caused to flow over the airfoil in increasing pressure is explained in the folloning
t,he direction opposite of rohtion. This vecLor is
narrative and drawings. The drawing reveals thal
labeled rotur speed effect.
if.a.slight positive angle of attack exists,4
rela.tively high pressure is present on the bottorq
The resultant. veclor, if the two combined veclor
of the airfoil in relation to tire pressure on the tog
fo1ce3 are irr the proper proportion, will provide
a
suitable angle of aitack of incoming air ii relaLion
to the blade chord line. Airflow *ill th"u proceed
tluough each stage in this manner. lL is irr-
teresting 0o note that if a particular molecule
air were followed through the compressor, of iL
wouid proba-bil.rcigte nc mcre than lgtt degrees.

Nou' thaL che angular direction'of airflow has la.Cl h/lr'

been discussed, le['s look at the air's
J)assslTe Airflow and lift-ouer an
 q
0r8ECIr0!{ 0f
^tlrt0w
"-*-.*__****,.Jrp__

fi0 T0n sTAl0i R010fi sTrT0t

il l0F v^11E El.A0€ Y IIE

l;'ig. .51 'I'he casctrde effecL

of ihe arrfoil. These irigh and I,,rr' l-,,res_=rrre zoncs

appll' to the roialirg airfoils (iriades) and Lo lhe
sLationary a-irfoils (sLabors). ,i'he hi5;h arrri lcrrv rxtfi olsil(AiiE
pressrre zones forned on the airfoiis allovi air irr v€Locrrl v€LotiiY
one slage to come under the in{luence of tlre nexL
('uhe cascode efiectl. APPi0:tr{liE stz!
lF 0t{LY l0:t
Fi3.ue 51 depicts irigh pressur.r) zone air, o[ tlre lHa
I
slxE uxri 0F ltt
lust stage blade, being pumperl inLo t,lre Iorv I
t
Ut{rl 0F An 8E 08E
rFi:R cu{pf,€Jstox lr A
tAito oF 115 io I
pressu,re zone of the shfor. J.lotice lhaL lhe tT ts c0r{PRlssE-0
slaior's iearii.g edge faces :n the opnr_rsiie rl_irec-
tion of the blade's leading eclge, Llrcreby ac- Fig. 52 Ccr,presscr taper desigtz-
comllishing the pnmping aclion. T'he higlr pr.es-
su.re zole of ihe fiisb stage sla.tor varre therr C AngIe of otrcck erui compressor sicJI
prlmps into the low pressure zone of the serconrl
stage robor blade, and so on to i.he lasL sl;nge of As Figure 53 shows, the angle of aciack of the
compression
compressor blade is che resuLb of inlet air velocity
ancl Lhe compressor rlom effect on a,rflow. The
t,wo forces combine io form a vector which is the
c Compressor taper desigtt actual angie of attack for bhe airfoil. A com-
pressor sral{ which is a cond_ibion ail gas turbine
prinr:iple, ns
$cgorciing to Bernoulli's Irressure en6;ines exoerience frorn iime [o time, cal be
buiids in lhe rear stages of the.o.np.usuui., veloci. described as an i-nbala;rce belween lhe bwo vecLcr
ty liil drop. This is not desi-ral.rle because tlie gas quaabities, inleb veiocity, a::d conrpressor rpm.
turbiae engine operaLes on a pr.inciple of r,elocit;y
increase to create lhrust. In order tn stabilize l_hr: Stall conditions can be caused by man1. thiags.
velocity, lhe shape of the cornpressor. gas paLh Some of bhe causes are:
converges. The tapered shapr: also irrovir_ies Lhe
prooer arnouat of space for the compressecl air Lrr (1) T\rrbulent or disnrpte<i airflorr io the easlae
occup]'. iniei.
Figure 52 illustrates this concept anrl alscr (21 Excessive fuel flow caused b-v abmpt engine
reiteraLes the one-iry oneout iclea developecl il acceleration.
S.ection II. That is, if ideal corrrpression is ccnr-
sidered to be 12.6:1, a unit of air will have tr cer- {3} Excessively lean fuel mixture caused by
tain physical size. If airflow discontinuities in t.he abrupt engine deceleration.
compressor cause compression Lo be l0:1, Lhe
!'-;i ._ ho
={i! vv hi--.-
v.66_a i- J.-=
ra ^:-^ ^-.r.-.:rr
cr:i: rt g --^^.! r.^ -^ .\.. -- c-oml- ;;--.-+^j :^ -L^ ;-i--
llc;u Lv (:L- v4uvrs ur
^t uJ^uvu=u ^:-ji^--
4iluw LU Luc
celeraLe in order Lo exit as the nexl unit enters. leb's consirler a business jet with C*o
^sgur
'I'iris acceleration creates an angle of al.tar:k ".rgirr"s
mounted on the rear fuselage. If thLis airplaree
chaage. the consequences of wlLich will be ex. goes inlo a sharp turn, airflorv to the oubboard
plained next. engine may be partidly blocked by the aircrafL
33
 fuselage. This condition will cause a low inlet air
veiocity which, if rpm doesn't change, will cause
an increase in the effective angle of attack. The
pilot will know that an engine is experiencing
compressor stall either b1, an audible noise iike an
explosion, by fluctuation in rpm, b-v an increase in
EGT, or by a combination of these three. His
reaction wiU probbbll. be to reduce power so the
inlet air velocity and rpm will get baiti in the pro- Fig. & Locqtion of diffuser section_
per relationship.
QttESTION:
TIOSMAT PSESSURE ZONE
LARGE PRESSURE zOHE 27. AL what location in the turbine engine would
one find the point of highest presiure?

E. Combustion Section

N',MAL /"lrrn =,rooo ?he combustion section consists basically of an

*recnur ,/ ./ | oufer casing, an inner perforateci liner, a fuel in-
o .o .o-r,/t-r' I jection system, arrd a starting ignition
VEL - 100 system.
The furction of this section ;s io uaa heat energy
+&Dh 'pr
to, ihe flowing gases, thereby expanding
and ac-
celerating them- In turbojet and -turbofan
Ftg- fr Vector o.nal1'sis of compressor stall engines, the major part of the energy present,
aproximately G0 to B0 percent, is absoited by the
turbine wheel(s). In the turboprop and turboshaft
QUESTIONS: .up
to 100 percent of the energy may be ab-
""qro:,
sorbed by the turbines. The energy iemaining
in
23" The centrifugal compressor is more common the tailpipe, if any, returns to thJltmosphere in
to which type of turbine engine instal,lation the form of a high velocity jet, thus creating
today? fhrust.
The various types of combustion chambers
24. The primary function of an axial flow com- are as
follows:
pressor stator vane is to act as a diffuser.
(1) Multipie-can.
What is its seconda4v function?
(2) Annular.
25. What is the name given to the cut-out at
the
tip of some compressor blades? (3) Can-annular.

26. Name another advantage of an axial (4) Reverse flow annular-

flow
turbine engine besides asmall frontal area.
To function efficiently, the combustion chamber
must provide a means for proper mixing of air
D. Diffuser Section
and fuel. It must also cool th" tot
products to a temperature which the "o-iuslion
turbine sec_
This engine section is known as the diffuser
tion components can withstand. To accomplish
because it provides additionJ
lp;;";;; ,i, this, airflow through the combustor is divided in_
\lS t gm the compresssor to spread out. It "o*-
is a to primary and secondary air paths. The primary
duct, usually a separate section, and it air, approximately 2b percent, is routed to the
:Yu.,Tng
rs bolted to the compressor case. The
diffuser is fuel nozzle area for combustion. Secondar5r air,
as the point of highest pressure in
Ilo*n
olne englne. The high
the tur- the remaining ?5 percent, provides a cooling air
wall of pressure it provides blanket on either side of the liner and centers the
g:ves the combustion products
push agains!, similar
something to flames so that it doesn't contact lhe metal.
fo tie balloo.n urrfosy oi:"t Secondaiy air also dilutes the mixture to a tem_
propulsion discussed
in che *,*.y .""ifi"- tS"" perabure acceptabie for the service life of the
Fis. bal tur_
bine components.
ot
 I .r

Developments in recent years lrave k:arl l.cl rvhaL

is cailed the smoheless corn6rsf or. Early enllines
suffered from incomplebe cornl:ruslion *l,i,,ti loff t-)-YX
ooo)
unbunred fuel in the Lailgtipe t.o carbonjze and ooo
ooc
enter bhe a[mosphere as srnohe. L]y slrorlening
,
lhe flame paLtern'and using new rnaLerials [hat sxoxt occuis lr€B€ FROH UXSUf,N€0

can wiLhstand higher operaLing Lernpr:ral-ures, . FutL 0n ntcl{ zo,tEs

manufacturers have been able io alnost corn-

pletely do away with the smbke ernissions frorn
turbine enghes. Needless Lo say, Lhjs has greatly
pleaseci i,he environmenLalisbs.
{Fig. 5b)
rE0r8€cI€0 at8Ftow 6tv€ s H0ntrR. xoITEn
A very inleresting facet of corubusLion charntrer FtrHES rx0 n0i€ C0|{pL5It tURx[{6
operation is the velocity o[ l;lre air in the llaile
;o"a. Ai'rhough secondary airfic*. in the chanber I'ig. fi Deuelccment oi the smohe1ess corn-
.ay b-e ab_a veiociby of sever;ri hunclred feeL per bustor.
second, primary airflow is slowed bo an al,most
slegralt 5 or 6 feet per seconri in prepa-r.ation for L Multiple-can combustor
conbustion. Because of ihe slow haroe propaga- This older type of combustion chamsss is nol
ticn rabe for kerosene base fuels, if -p.i"rrry corainon-ly used today. Ii consists of muitiple
aii{ow velocity were arty greater iL woulci literai- ouber housings, each with its o*n perforated in.
11'blow the flrme oub of the engine. Com[usLor ef- nss lins;. The iadividual combustori are i:rtercon-
ficienry of modem engines is in tlru range of nected with snall fleme propagation uubes so
-o5--o9%, thab is, Btu's of heah acLual.ly avaiiable lhat as combusiion occurs i-o the fws gans with ig.
for the potential BEu value s6ng:insd t the fuel- niter nlugs, the fl.p'.''e can move fo all of the re.
msining grnr.
ulATEl Low l0i0u€ I0i0t,t t{€l€n PR€t5U[€
l^l swlIilt socxgl TiaIsxrnEf, s0cxEr
Ati lr{l^x€ txL{T
(ilsnc tAtRtc c0YEil !RTAIH€ft OUIIfI

FrRE txItfi cutslttt ccHl{EcIt0fi

IGXITEi PTU6

Fln€ErTtrcutsl.t€8
c0Nri€cIl0lt
0RArH C0HX€CTt0il
fu€t ilrLtT
0,'',^** rHT€f,C0fi x€cloi
^^*{;;}*g1x^;;l-,} #:,'j,*
o
80uitr{E
swlSL YAr{ES \ I
FU€r. ri0IztI t
c0rxEcIr0S
{l}

?rsT0tl TYP! S€,ALtH0 80{cs

Ftg. 56 A
assembly.
- Can'type contbustion chamber orrangemenL B - Can-tt,pe combustion.chomber

35
 The RoUs Royce Darr, Figure 56, is a good exam-
utilized to connect the liners and provision is
ple of ar engine using this design. Tte cans
are made for t*'o igrritcr plugs in the lowei cans.
mounted on a slight angle to ieduce the boral
engine length. The cularvay view shows the posi
In Figtre 58 eight liners are used. Each liner has
tion of a can combuslor's various components.
its orl'n fuel nozzle cluster supporting the can on
one end and a device with eight aperfures,
2. ,Annular combustor an outlet duct, supporting ihe liner on the
ca_iled
other
end- An advantage of the combustor is that
The annular combustor consists of an outer it is
hous- desigaed for ease of on-the-n ing maintenance.
ing and one inner liner, both encircling the
encire
engine. The perforared (see Mateiji Lner
is
often referred to as a bashet. Multiple fuel
spray
nozzles protrude into the basket anj primary
and o_o o c o C=
seconda:y air prov-ide for combustion and
cooling
as in all combustors. ooooot::--
oQaoo{:-
The annu1ar combuscor is commonjy used ooooo-
today
in smaLl and large engines. It is said to be rhe t-o c o o
most efficjent design from the standpoint -
cf ther_ ooooo-
mal efficiency versus weighl, and for its shorter ooooo-
length rhan the other t1pes. Its minimal OOooo-
surface
area requires less cooling air. It appears
to ma_}<e o o o o
the best use of the availablu
fo, -
"pu"",'"rpu.iuly
Iarge engines where other comlustor t'1pes would
oooooCl

be much heavier for the mass oocooC::f

airflow. ooooO-

Fig. 58 Can-annular combustor.

4. Eeuerse-flow annular
m!.
r rus oeslgn rs common to the pratt
& Whibney
FT-6, the Avco-Lycoming T-53/b5, and several
otner eng-ines installed in general avialion
air_
craft. The reverse-flow combustor has the
same
function as aU of the others. Where it diifers js
in
the flow of air'through ihe combustor.l;il;;;
air entering the combustor from the front, it
flows around the chamber and enters from
the
rear, with the combustion gas flow
being opposite
in direction to the normal airflow t#ough the
engr.ne. After combustion takes place,
the gases
flow into a deflector which turns thern 1g0
degrees, to exib the eirgine in the no.-a
c0M8USTr0{ LTHER ai..._
tion.
Fig. 57 A Location of combusticn section_
- B
- Annltlar combustor. In Figure 59 notice that the turbine wheeis are in_
side the combustor area rather than in tandem
3. Canannulnrcombustor
with it as in the other previously mentioned
iypgs. This arrangement provides for shorter
The can-annuiar combustor is more cornmon
to engine length and weight reduction and
commercial aircrafl powered by pratt also
& Whitney
engines" This design_consists of an outer
t]lo*" for pre-heating of the compressor d-is-
case and charge air. These two factors make
multiple inner bneri locited radiaUy about for the loss ui
the of efficiency which occurs when the gases make
axis of the engine. Flame propagatiJn tut"s
are the turns during combustion.
36
 :i1

QUES?YOftSj r) ()
lVhai is bhe main purpose oi combustion
scclio n secondarl' air2

28. lVhat approximaLe percent.:r1ge oI irir i:; rrsetl 30. What makes bhe reverse-flow annular corn-
for corrrbust,ion?
busbor an efficient design?

CAS GENERATOfi CASE

OMsUSTION CHAft18ER SUPPORi ERACKETS

)=ij"'+)
'Wn^,=---2
(
=l
-= ft!:: s-i;?
COMPRESSOR t]ISCHARGE AIR _-*_)*

TUP,EINE SHROUt) HOUSING

_. PROPELLEfl I]RIVE sHAFI LOCAII(IH

__J
HICH PR'SSUfiE IURBIHE

COMPRESSOS I)ISCHASGE AIR

HiGH PRESSURE TURBINE
NOZZLE ANO EAFFIE ASSEMELY

OV!88OARO FUEL ORAIH

Fig. 59 Reuerse-flotu $nnular contbuslor, uirflow Pratt & V/hitney PT6 turboshaft"
,Jl
 F. Turbine Sectrlon length by keeping the exil pressure and veiocity
uniform from the base to ihe rip. Tiris is ac_
1. Tirbine rotor and staior complished by exlracting different amounts of
kinebic energl'at various blade stations.
The turbine section is bolted to the combustor
and contains the turbine wheels and turbine The graph in Figure 61 can be used to show that
staiors. The rurbine functions to transform a por_
inlet pressure is lowest at the base. This oc_
bla<ie
tion of the kinetic energ'y in the exhausi gases in- curs in reaction to turbine stator erit velocirl,.
to mechanicaL u'ork, thereby enabling the turbine Pressure is highest at the tip in reaction to a
to ciive the compressor and u..urro.i,.". lower burbine stator exit veioiity. The resultant
blade exit pressure and veiocicy are uniform
As previously mentioned, the turbine absorbs along the blade length.
most of the energy created ia combustion. Conse-
quentiy, this unit is the most highiy stressed. LOW PHESSUiE }iIGH PBESSUBE
component in the engine. The turbine disks and Hr0fi vfl-0ctn LCW VEt0ctTY

blades, sometimes referred to as buckets, are

l- 8Ll0E lxLgt
macie of super a-lloys, usually of a nickle_base TZELAOE ilIT PiESSURE

variety (see Mateials). The properties of these

alloys are: high thermal strength, resistance to
corrosion, and a low coefficient of expansion.
REACTIO H
The furbine disk has blades installed similsr gs
the compresssor, but, un_like the compressor, its Fig. 61 The combinrztion impulse-reaction tur_
stator vanes are located in front. Whereas the bine.
compressor stators act as diffusers, decreasing
velocity and increasing pressure, the turbine An explanation of the occurance described i_n the
staLors act as nozzies, increasing velocity and preceeding paragraph can be found in the follow_
decreasing pressure. A secondary pu.po.u of the ing narrative and drawings. (Fig. 62)
turbine starors is to direct the gases-at the op_
timum angle into the turbine blades so that the The reaction posibion is at the blade tip, this por_
wheei wil-l tum with the maximum efficiency. The tion of the blade exerts the greatest iorque arm
turbine sLaror is known as the point of highesr force by rotating nith greaber speed fhan rhe
velociiy in the turbine engine. The shrouJring b.ase. The tip area is therefore designed Lo
absorb
the least kinetic energy from the flowing gases.
shown
T Fig 60 is present to minimize gas loss The straight duct design of the stator at tLs posi_
over the blade tips.
tion keeps pressure relatively high until the blade
tips receive-the gas ab area A. The converging
duct formed at, area B accelerates the gas to
counteract the tendency of high tip rotational
to reduce the gas's axial veiocity. The bur_
-sgeed
bine wheel's roLation from the blade tips is said to
be in reaction to the axial acceieraiion of the
gases. This is a situation of action and reaccion
as
described in Newton's third law. The relacively

Fig. 60 To minimizegas /oss ouer the blade tops,

a sh.roud ring is present.

2. Impulse-reactionblades

The turbine disk is fitted with blades of com-

pound curvature referred to as an impulse-
reocton design- The twist in the'blade is used
distribute the workload evenly along the blade
to Fig.62 Reoction turbine system (Newton,s third
Iaw).
38
 high pressure available ut l.hil t.iil al.r:it !ras a coiii;ling ciei'ice-wliich slips over matching com-
srtcondary purpose of courrLeracUinil t.hc Lende rr<-:y pressor and t-ur bine shaf L spl i.
gf centrifugal react,ion tr1,in;1 Lo t.irrr.,w rrrore air "*3-
outlvard than rvould be clesir.a blc.

Irigure 63 illusLrates the ir-nlrrrlsc po:;iLir-rrr aL t.he

blade base. The base exert,s t.hr le:lst. f.,:rr<rue arrn
force by roialing irii.h lessl sp:eii, rr:lat,ive fcr t.ire
tip. The bendencl'of the l.rase t_o tlo le-s:; r,.,,trk is
counleracled by supplying; iL with a largr.rr :;lrar.e
of llie available kinetic en,Jrl{},.

Recalling Lhai u'orh equal.s fitrce tintt,.s distun,ce,

ii
caie be s*n ii.ai nore folce nru_cl br: anlii,.:tl al
bhe base of the blacie wliere the clistar,,:" fo li,e
axis is less. This allows l,he base l"o accorrrplish
the same arnounb of work as is clrtne aL l,!re Lip.

The cup-shaped base area receives the grea{,esL Ftg. & A - Turbine section[ocattort B
- Tur-
emount, of king;ig energy fioui a coirvergenb btr,e wheel assembly.
sLator nozzle a;:d the gas{ls ilrrslr t.he biarles
aroi:ld i:: a circuiar patir- 'I'iris is a siLuation of un- Tiiere are various *'ays of aLtaching i'uoine
bala:rced forces as described iLt lrieq,ton's ser:crncl blades, cr SucAets as they are sometimes cajled.,
ia;-. Lo the osk. The inost co=monly seen reeihoci for
posiiive erg:agement uncier irigh heai arld loaciing
The axial velociiy and pl-esslr.re d.rol_r across lhe is the 5r-tree design. (Fig. 65)
turbrne blades at lhe base is nuriuuzecl b1, t.ire
straight ducb forioed by tire trrrbiue blarle pairs 'ii're biacies are reuaired in their grooves by a
and bhe slower rotaLional speed. variety of rnelhods. Sorne of ihe more corrnon
are rivets, Iocktabs, lockwires, and roll pins.
With the cornbination impulse-reacl,ion rlesi11n,
the workioad is now sairi to lre evenly clistr:ibut.erl
aiong the length of the biade, and axial velocity
and pressure drop across t,he blade, frorn basei Lo
Lio, is considered uliform.

H['-N,KNI
'',*=ffi6
Fig. ffi Impulse turbine s)tstem.
3. Axial turbine constntction

Construction fealures of Lhe turbine are shorvn in

Ficarre A.i rJr:.- , = i'"hoi :ite t::"ft !:; 'lCilei i0 i.i.r3
! :. i)hc--,-
Lurbine disk. The burbine shafl musl, have sonre
Ineans for attachmenl Lo the cornpr:essor.ancl th.is
is accomplished b-v means of n splinc crrL orr Llre
forq'ard end of the shaft,. 'llrr: sprline l'iLs inlo a Fig. 65 Turbtne disk and bkdA"
39
 Blades are either open at the tip, or shrouded, as t'antages of lorv cost and simplicity of design. Its
seenin Fig. 66. The silroucieci method is very com- primary application is in auxiliary gas turbine
mon today because ir ailows for a lighter con- engines. It derives its name from the fact that,
struction. Horvever, rip loading at high speeds gases flow through a stabor at the radius of
prevents their use in all instailaLions. The shroud- the
turbine, then inward to exit af the tailpipe. This
ed tip often has rhin knife-edge shaped seals desiga is used because it extracts ,rpruu.d, of 100
which run close to che shroud ring ani prevent percent of the kinetic energ-y from the flowing
theloss ofgases across the tip. gases.

Many modern eng.l.nes roday are.utilizing air cool-

ed stator vanes anci rurbine blades, allowing them
to operate at higher rurbine iniet temperatures.
The air for cooling rhese vanes and blades is
taken from the compressor. Because of these
higher operation remperatures, the engines are
operating in a more chermaliy efficienienviron-
ment and the conpressor can be sized do*rr to
provide less seccnda-:1- air.

flRsT siAct
SLADE

FACE SHROUD

<0
KIIIFE.Et)GE
I
S€AL
I
I
SHROUO
I -
I TIP

STATOI YAIIE
c00LII0 Atn
OISPELLEOII{'O
6A5 FLOW

Fig. 67 A
-Eadiat inftow turbine rotor. B-
iUSBIHE SLADE

Radial inflow turbine statot.

lt.P- coollxc An tILFr

QyES?TON&
Fig:66 A - Open peimeter turbine blqde. B
Sltrouded air-cooled. turbine blade and air
31. Is the most common turbine blade design
- cool_ the open-tip type or the shrouded type?
ed turbine stator uane.
eo At what location
4. Radialinflow turbine on an impulse-reaction tur:
bine blade is the impulse design seen?
Another t_vpe of turbine design is the
rad.ial in- o.l. From what material are the turbine com-
flow. Like the cencrifugal co..,p.er"o.,
it fru, ua_ ponents usually made?
40
 $

G. Exlnust See tiorr

Llrnrst. The gases can never [ravel faster Lhan the
speed of sound rvibh this shape of norzle- This
I. Exhaust cone, tailcone, atrtl tai[1tIpe cr.rnvergent, tailpipe is for use on subsonic aircraf l.

The exhaust sectiou is local.et[ rlirr:cl_ly l.rr:hinr:l t.lre 2. Co nu e-rg ertt^diu e rgent totlp ipe
t.urbine secbicn and consists of fl coirrerflcnt, cx_
iraust cone and al inler t.ailr:one. 'l.he erharrsL lluoersonic aircrafb utilize the C-D type of
ccne, somelimes referred bn x5 Lirg e::Aousf cttllec- L:rilpipe. The advanfage of the convergeni-
for. collecls the exhaust, gases c{i.sc}rargetl fronr d.ivergenb nozzle is greatesl aL high mach nurn-
lhe burbine wheel and graduallr. converls t,lrern in_ bers because of ifie high pressu.".itio across lhe
lo.a solid jet. This process is acr:orrrplisiier:i b.y t.hc Lailpipe resulling from supersonic in_let ram
t-ailcone and its radial supp<_rrt sciuf;s. 'fhe Lril- pressufe.
cone kqpps bhe air frorn b.:<:rlni ug l.url;ulerrL irr
back oi tirE iurbine ivireel anii ihe si;;,;[s retur:l Tc easuia ihaL a consiani weishb or vclune of a
tbe a-i-rilow to an axial direcLion. .I.he exhaus{" cone ga-s will ilow pasL any given-'poinL after sonic
is the terminating componenL oI mosf engines. velociLy is reached, t,he rear po.iio., of the ducL is
enlargeci. This divergent section handles Lhe
T'he tailpipe is an airframe part, userl fo aciapl, an gases, further increasing lheir velccity after bhey
engine Lo a parLicular aircraf t insl,allaLior.. 'l-'lre ei'lleige from i.he throal and becorne supersoaic.
t:iilipe is a convergent cluct and is also referr.ed
ta as ihe jeipipe or exhausl, drrcL. Its conver[enL Gas, ti'aveling aL supersonic speeds, expanCs oui-
.6ep? causes the ga.ses to accclr:raLe {.o t,he clesig,,, rvaid fasler than if acceleraies ."u.o,*d. The C-D
sps:d necessary for produr:ing Lhe recluirerl nozzle Lales advanLage of lhis principle to creaie
riie ihnisi necessaij/ to propel ihe aircraft aU
supersonir: speeds. The C-D tailpipe is in facl an
aiierburaer such as one *'ould see on the Coa-
corcie-SST. The balloon anajogy in Fig. 6g ciernon.
s{-rales tiris principle, showing that the expansion
outrvald creates thrust vectors forward.

trHlusl t0zzr t
{Jit r{ozll€l

su a s 0xrc
c0riv!E!€xI
SECTIOH

EXHAUST.CONE

Fiq.59 A - Canue;-gent-tiiuerEent taiipios. E

- Supersonic exhaust nozzle.
Fig. 68 A B_
Conuentiottal- Locatior, o{ exlutrrst st.,ctian- H. ThrustReuersers,
conuergent exhsust dtrct. C:_
Tailpip e ins tallation in aircra
ft. An increasing number of business jeLs are being
4t
 equipped with engine thrust reversers to aid in jet aircraft. Newer aircraft today have inlets and
braking and to also reduce the expense of main_ tailpipes lined with noise attenuating materials
tenance on the braking system. Some thrust re- to keep sound ernission rvithin the established e/_
verse systems can also be used in flight as speed
fectiue perceiued noise decibel (epndb). However,
brakes to increase Lhe aircraft's rate of descent. one can see the old style noise suppressor being
refitted bo some newer engines to meet the new
The trvo types of thrust reversers in use are the noise standards.
aerodlrramic and mechanical biockage. The aero-
d_r'narnic reverser usually consisl- of a set of Noise generated as the exhaust gases leave the
cascade I'anes placed in a pre-exit position in the engine is at a low frequency level, such as from a
tailpipe to turn the hot exhaust gases forwar:d,
causing a thrust reaction rearward. The mechan_ ,.hp'r fog horn, and in the same way carries for
long distances. It is this low frequency noise that
ical biockage reverser is a post-exit type which tends to bother people s,ho live close to airports.
provides reverse thrust in the same
-urrrru. as the
aerodtinamic t1pe. The noise generated by a turbofan engine is much
less than that generated by a turbJjet. This is
T\-rrbofan engines, as illustrated in Figure ?0, principally because the turbofan wiii generally
often have both hot and cold stream..,ru.i".r. employ more turbine wheeis to drive ih"
pressor and the fan. This, in turn, causes the"o--
ex-
haust velocity and noise Level to be lessened..

Because of the characteristic of low frequency

noise to linger at reiatively high volume, noise
reduction is achieved by raising the frequency.
f^ni.s is accomplished by increasing the perimeter
STOCXAGE
'itECHAXICAt
CL,AMSHELI II{ REVEBSE of the exhaust stream, allowing m&e cold and hot
IHRUST POSIIIOT
air mixing. This reduces the tendency of hot and
coid air moiecules to shear against each other.

Figure ?1 (page 43) shows a hot stream sound

suppressor rvith an increased perimeter design
t
F^II AIR CIRCULAIIOII ./
FtxED
and one with a,cold air pre-mixing capability.
AEROOYNAMIC CASCAt}E
TuRHrNc vAf€s {oPE!{}
SUESTTOffSj
Fig- 70 A - Operation of ,the thrust renerser,
post-exit tyoe" 34. What is th6 nhme which refers tb the open-
B - Aerodynamic blochage type,
pre-eriL ing in the end of the tailpipe?

35. What are the two common tlpes of thrust

Turboprop aircraft may also have a form of
reversers?
thrust reversing, namely a full reversing pio-
peller. This syslem works so well that it *uy
be 36. Why would a turbofan produce less noise
used to back the aircraft up into grounci pu.kirrg
than a turbojet of the same thrust?
spols.

The iatest design in thrust reversing for turbofan

J. ConstructionMateiais
engines involves reversing the pitih of the
fan 1. CoId section
lll{*, Presenily ir is in limired use, but will pro-
bably be seen in many.aircraft in the near future. Alumi^num and magnesium allo-vs are extensively
used for construction of compressor cases, inlet
I. Noise Suppression
cases, and accessory cases where low heat and
moderate strength is the primary consideration.
Noise suppressor.units are nol generally utilized
on business jels or airliners'Lodqv, but FaR part
Titanium alloys are used in the manufacture of
36 requires Lheir use on manv older commerical
fan blades, fan cases, compressor blades, and
to
 COOL AItI MIXING

iA)
rI

HOI€: THE FAH IS

L D:ilNlo As iii:
OUTiS POAT|ON OF
TH€ ltiCEEAS€0
0rAM.T!fi. L0w.
CO M PR€S SOR
(B) siA0e:. As sH0wN
3Y TH! 00riE0
LIHES IH IHE
SKEICH€S AT
Tir! uFT.
t-
go l=
€ts
l-a
:>o =
=,6
zl+o
l--
l*= lrJ;
-l;
ExHAUST
il(lzzLE
o< lE*
l= 13
5 5l

tct

IHLET
OIFFUS:R
AHO OUCI c0t1PflEss0n BUflNER
I

o,
I
.XIIAUST
OU CT
l:_ln0zLE
1,, '*tl I I
AH
{ 5 6t
Fig. 71 A - Pre-mixture-type noise.suppressor. I) Engine stattons, dual compressar engine. C
'
E n gine s tatio n s, s in g I en, p, r, o, e g t rii.
- -
"o " ".

compressor disks, where lower weight ra[her Lhan and nickie-base aUoys are empioyed. Nickle-base
steel strenEth is reouired. 'filanirrr.l i:j a:r e:rl:.- allc:i's gre also i:::l- e=.sa:ive a::d :.-e :i=-l;,-
sive macerial and it is not as resistant, to foreign used in the hot section.
object darnage as sleel.
In Che compressor high pressure slages. nickle- Bpoxy-resin materialS, called 'composibe ma-
chromiurn alloys, refered lo as -stainiess steels, Lerials. have been developed for cold section con-
43
strucrion q'here lori- strength is perm.issable and As mentioned preriiousl,r'in the Theory Section,
Iight n.eight is che urajor consideralion. the gas turbirre engine couid have unlimited
pol\'er if there weren'b any limits imposed by ma-
2- Hot section terial sbrength. But. material strength still re-
For hot secrions, a variety of materials har.,e been mains the most limiting facfor in the po*,er-to-
der,eioped, ofren rines referreci to as super alloysl weieht raLio of lhe burbine engine.
These are alloys developed for use in high
or
temperature areas u'here oxidation resistance is J. rlnglne stattons
needed and u'here high thermal, tensile, and
r'tbratorl' srresses are present.
For ease of identification, engine manufacturers
The allof iiseif in conjunction u'ith the processes number iocations along the fengttr of the engine.
involved usually cletermines the location of the Station numbers start at either the cowling inlet
malerial in the engine hot section. The combus- or che eng-ine injet. \pical of this sbat_on num-
tion liner is consrructed of material as thin as berirg concept is lhe Pratt & Whitney, single-
0.040 inch arrd musr be easily weldabie. For this spool and dual-spool ,qtaiion numbering system.
reason, nick-le-base al_loys are generally used to-
dav rather rha-n the stainless steel alloys useci a Engine symbols such as p6, and. TX- are used. in
few 1'ears ago. Nickie-base allo1's contain lirtle or conjunction *ith stacion mrmbers. For example:
no iron and are no.magnetic. to describe Pressure Total at station-2, the engine
inlel, Pg, is used; and to describe Temperature
Turbine biades are eirher forged from nickie-base Total at station-?, the turbine outiet on a dual-
aliol's, often refered to as Inconel (a tradename), spool engile, Tg, is used. (Fig. ?18-C)
or are investmenr cast from cobait-base alloys.
These. materia-ls have very irigh temperature
q- Directionalreferences
strength under cenrrifugal loads and are highly
corrosion resisLant.
For purposes of identifying engine construction
Turbine vanes and disks are almost exlusively in- points, or component and accessory placement,
vestment cast from cobalt-base alloys for high direclional references are used along with sLation
thermal srrength. Temperatures as high as numbers. These references are described as for-
2;000F are expenenced in the first s,r,age vane ward at the engine irriet and aft at the engine tail-
area of large engines. Cobalt, representing the pipe, with a standard 12 hour clock orientation.
cuhent stace-of-the-art in meterlurgical develop- The terms right. and lefl-hand, ciockwise and
metrt for turbiae engines, is used to combat chese counterclockwise appiy as viewed from the rear of
high cemperarures. the engine lookingforward toward ihe inlet.

44