CULTURE AND COMPLEX CHANGE

4.1. Culture and Managing Change

Organisational culture plays a critical role in shaping how change is perceived,

implemented, and sustained. However, as Schein (1999) highlights (in Cameron
& Green, 2020: 315), successful culture change cannot begin with the goal of
changing culture itself. Instead, culture must be addressed as part of the
broader strategic and business issues facing the organisation.

In other words, culture change is not an end goal, but a means to achieve
strategic alignment. This perspective is reinforced by Boonstra (2013), who
emphasises that cultural change should serve the strategy of the business,
rather than being pursued for its own sake.

Culture Change as a By-Product of Business Strategy

When organisations set out to change, the starting point must always be the
business challenge—for example, responding to market disruption, improving
customer service, or implementing new technologies. As the strategy evolves,
cultural adjustments emerge as a necessary enabler to achieve those business
goals.

 Example: A company moving towards digital transformation may not

explicitly set out to “change the culture,” but it will inevitably require
shifts in mindset (e.g., from risk-averse to innovative).

This makes cultural change more purposeful and sustainable, because it is tied
directly to real-world needs rather than abstract ideals.
Three Ways Culture Enters the Change Conversation

According to Cameron & Green (2020: 315), culture typically comes into the
conversation about organisational change in three key ways:

1. Senior Managers Call for Culture Change

Often, senior leaders conclude that in order to achieve a strategic shift, the
organisation needs a different culture. For instance, if a company needs to
become more customer-focused, leaders may recognise that a hierarchical,
inward-looking culture must give way to one that is collaborative and service-
driven.

 Impact: This recognition creates urgency for cultural realignment, but

risks oversimplification if leaders view culture change as a quick fix.

2. Existing Culture Helps or Hinders Change

In many cases, organisations recognise that the current culture acts as either a
driver or a barrier to change.

 Helpful Culture: A flexible, innovative culture can accelerate

transformation by encouraging employees to embrace new ideas.
 Hindering Culture: Conversely, a rigid, siloed culture may resist
change, slowing down implementation or undermining success.
 Example: A bank aiming to adopt agile methodologies may find that its
culture of strict hierarchy and bureaucracy prevents fast decision-making.

3. Culture as an Enabler of Strategy

Sometimes, culture is deliberately positioned as a tool to enable strategic goals.

Leaders understand that culture shapes how employees think, feel, and act,
and therefore, aligning cultural values with strategy ensures smoother
execution.

 Example: A healthcare organisation adopting a patient-centred strategy

may consciously nurture a culture of empathy and collaboration across
departments.
Implications for Change Management

 Culture Cannot Be Forced: Leaders cannot simply declare a culture

change. Instead, culture shifts must be embedded in everyday business
practices and behaviours.
 Align with Strategy: Cultural adjustments must support the
organisation’s goals—otherwise, they risk becoming superficial.
 Leadership Role: Leaders play a critical role in modelling the desired
culture through their behaviours, decisions, and priorities.
 Employee Engagement: For culture change to succeed, employees must
understand why it matters for achieving shared business outcomes.

Conclusion

Culture and managing change are deeply interconnected. However, as both

Schein and Boonstra emphasise, culture change should never be treated as
the starting point or end goal. Instead, it should be understood as a strategic
enabler—a way of ensuring that the organisation’s mindset, values, and
behaviours support the execution of business objectives.

4.2. Cultural Frameworks

Organisational culture is a multi-layered concept that goes beyond visible

behaviours or company policies. Scholars such as Edgar Schein (1999) and
Deal & Kennedy (1999) emphasise that culture exists at different depths within
an organisation—ranging from visible structures and rituals to deeply held
assumptions that shape identity and decision-making.

Understanding these frameworks is essential for leaders and change agents, as

culture influences how strategies are implemented, how employees behave, and
how organisations respond to external challenges.
Schein’s Three Levels of Organisational Culture

Schein (1999) proposed a three-level model of organisational culture,

representing culture as layers that range from visible to deeply ingrained.

1. Artifacts

Artifacts are the visible and tangible elements of culture. They include:

 The physical environment (office layout, dress codes, logos, slogans).

 Organisational structures and processes (hierarchies, reporting lines).
 Symbols, ceremonies, and rituals (company events, reward systems).

These elements are easy to observe but difficult to interpret, as they only
represent the surface-level expression of culture.

 Example: An open-plan office may symbolise collaboration, but if

employees rarely communicate, the artifact may not reflect the true
underlying culture.

2. Espoused Values

Espoused values represent the stated principles and strategies of the

organisation—what leadership claims the company believes in. These include
mission statements, corporate values, ethical standards, and business strategies.

 Example: A company may espouse innovation as a core value,

highlighting it in promotional materials and strategies.
 Challenge: There can be a gap between espoused values and actual
behaviours. For instance, employees may be discouraged from taking
risks despite innovation being a stated priority.

Espoused values provide guidance and direction, but they only become part of
true culture if they are consistently reinforced through actions and decision-
making.
3. Shared Basic Assumptions

At the deepest level are the shared assumptions—the unconscious, taken-for-

granted beliefs that truly drive behaviour within the organisation. These are so
ingrained that employees no longer question them.

 Examples:
o “Customers must always come first.”
o “We only promote people who work long hours.”
o “Risk-taking is dangerous.”

These assumptions shape how employees interpret events, make decisions, and
interact with others. Changing them is difficult because they are often invisible
and deeply rooted in organisational history.

Deal and Kennedy’s Multi-Layered View of Culture

Deal and Kennedy (1999) also conceptualised culture as multi-layered, though

with a slightly different emphasis. They suggested that history lies at the core
of culture, influencing the development of values and beliefs. From these
emerge the rituals, ceremonies, and symbols that form the visible infrastructure
of an organisation.

 History: The stories of past successes and failures shape collective

identity.
 Values and Beliefs: These underpin decisions, guiding what is
considered acceptable or unacceptable behaviour.
 Rituals and Ceremonies: Repeated practices (such as annual awards or
team celebrations) reinforce shared values.
 Infrastructure: The formal systems, policies, and organisational
structures that institutionalise culture.
 Example: A company that prides itself on entrepreneurial success may
celebrate “founder stories” (history), emphasise creativity as a core value
(beliefs), hold regular innovation challenges (rituals), and create flat
structures to support risk-taking (infrastructure).
Implications of Cultural Frameworks for Change

Both Schein and Deal & Kennedy highlight that culture is not just surface
behaviour, but something embedded deeply in the assumptions and history of
an organisation.

 Artifacts and rituals are easy to observe but hard to change without
addressing deeper values.
 Espoused values must be aligned with actual behaviours; otherwise, they
become symbolic rather than transformative.
 Shared assumptions and historical narratives often need to be surfaced
and questioned if meaningful cultural change is to occur.

Conclusion

Cultural frameworks help us understand why organisational change is so

complex. Schein’s model emphasises the three levels of culture—from artifacts
to shared assumptions—while Deal and Kennedy stress the role of history,
values, rituals, and infrastructure. For leaders and change agents, the key
challenge is to align visible behaviours with deeper values and assumptions,
ensuring that culture supports rather than hinders strategic objectives.

5. Facilitating Culture Change

Organisational culture does not exist in isolation—it is shaped by the
interactions between different elements of the organisation. McKinsey’s 7S
Framework provides a useful way to examine an organisation’s current
infrastructure and to identify the changes needed for achieving cultural
alignment, competitive advantage, and sustained performance.

The framework suggests that culture is influenced by seven interdependent

factors—Staff, Skills, Systems, Style, Shared Values, Strategy, and
Structure—and that successful culture change requires balance and alignment
across all of them.

5.1. McKinsey’s 7Ss

1. Staff

This refers to the people within the organisation and how they are recruited,
developed, retained, and motivated. Culture is heavily shaped by the
characteristics of staff and the organisation’s approach to talent management.

 Examples: Diversity, inclusion, and staff development initiatives.

 Impact: An organisation with high staff turnover may develop a culture of
instability, whereas one with strong retention and career growth creates
loyalty and engagement.

2. Skills

Skills encompass the distinctive capabilities, expertise, and experience of the

workforce. The cultural tone of an organisation often reflects the skills it values
most.

 Example: A technology company may emphasise innovation and

problem-solving skills, leading to a culture of experimentation.
 Implication: As business environments evolve, organisations may need to
build new skills (e.g., digital, analytical, or sustainability skills) to align
culture with strategic goals.

3. Systems
Systems refer to the processes, procedures, and IT or HR systems that
support daily operations. These systems reflect and reinforce culture, since they
guide how work gets done.

 Examples:
o Performance appraisal systems (do they reward collaboration or
individual competition?).
o Knowledge management systems (do they encourage sharing or
hoarding of information?).
 Impact: Poorly aligned systems can undermine desired cultural
behaviours—for instance, encouraging innovation while punishing
failure.

4. Style

Style relates to leadership and management style, which sets the tone for
organisational culture. Leaders’ behaviours, communication patterns, and
decision-making approaches strongly influence the broader culture.

 Examples:
o An authoritarian leadership style fosters compliance and hierarchy.
o A participative leadership style encourages collaboration and
empowerment.
 Impact: Employees mirror the management style they experience,
reinforcing cultural norms.

5. Shared Values

At the heart of the 7S framework are shared values—the core beliefs and
guiding principles that define the organisation’s identity. Shared values shape
the organisation’s sense of purpose and influence decision-making across all
levels.

 Examples: Integrity, customer-first orientation, sustainability, innovation.

 Impact: If shared values are not genuinely embedded, they become
“espoused values” only, creating a gap between stated principles and
actual behaviours.

6. Strategy
Strategy refers to the organisation’s long-term goals and plans, including how
resources are allocated to achieve them. A culture must be aligned with strategy
for change to be successful.

 Example: A company pursuing a growth strategy through innovation

must foster a culture of creativity, experimentation, and risk-taking.
 Impact: Misalignment between strategy and culture often results in failed
initiatives (e.g., implementing agile strategy in a rigid, bureaucratic
culture).

7. Structure

Structure relates to the organisation’s hierarchy, roles, responsibilities, and

accountabilities. The way the organisation is designed reflects and shapes its
culture.

 Examples:
o A flat structure encourages open communication and collaboration.
o A rigid hierarchical structure may reinforce control and order but
hinder agility.
 Impact: Cultural change often requires structural adjustments to remove
barriers to desired behaviours.

Interdependence of the 7Ss

The 7Ss are interconnected—a change in one area will affect the others. For
example, adopting a new strategy may require developing new skills,
restructuring teams, or updating systems. Similarly, shared values must
underpin all other elements to ensure alignment and consistency.

 Example: If a company values sustainability (shared value), it may need

to train staff in green practices (skills), create sustainability metrics
(systems), adjust reporting structures (structure), and ensure leaders
model sustainable behaviours (style).

Conclusion

McKinsey’s 7S Framework offers a holistic lens for facilitating cultural change.

By examining staff, skills, systems, style, shared values, strategy, and
structure, organisations can diagnose misalignments and identify the levers
needed for transformation. Importantly, sustainable cultural change emerges
when all seven elements are aligned with both organisational strategy and core
values, ensuring that culture becomes a living force that supports long-term
effectiveness and competitiveness.

5.2. Cultural Web

Johnson and Scholes (1999), as cited in Cameron & Green (2020: 328),
introduced the concept of the Cultural Web to describe the elements that make
up the prevailing culture of an organisation. The framework identifies six
interrelated components that collectively shape the way people behave, interact,
and make decisions.

By analysing these elements, organisations can better understand their current

culture and identify areas that need adjustment to support cultural or strategic
change.

1. Stories

Stories are the narratives told within the organisation about its history,
successes, failures, leaders, and employees. These stories reinforce what is
valued, who is admired, and which behaviours are rewarded or discouraged.

 Example: A story about a founder who worked tirelessly to build the

company may reinforce a culture of hard work and perseverance.
 Impact: Stories highlight the “heroes” of the organisation and influence
how employees see themselves and their roles.

2. Symbols

Symbols represent the visible and tangible aspects of culture that

communicate identity and values. These include logos, branding, office layouts,
dress codes, language, and titles.

 Example: An organisation with open-plan offices and casual dress codes

may symbolise collaboration and informality, while formal dress and
executive offices may signal hierarchy and tradition.
 Impact: Symbols act as powerful signals of what the organisation values,
shaping employee behaviour and external perceptions.

3. Power Structure
The power structure reflects where real influence lies within the organisation.
It may rest with a few individuals, a leadership team, or distributed more widely
across departments.

 Example: In some companies, the finance department holds power

because of budget control, while in others, marketing or R&D may
dominate.
 Impact: The power structure determines who makes key decisions and
how strategies are implemented.

4. Organisational Structure

This element refers to the formal and informal structures of the organisation,
including hierarchies, reporting lines, and communication channels.

 Example: A flat organisational structure encourages collaboration and fast

decision-making, while a tall hierarchical structure reinforces control and
bureaucracy.
 Impact: The structure both reflects and shapes cultural norms—for
example, whether innovation is encouraged or stifled.

5. Control Systems

Control systems are the ways in which the organisation monitors and
evaluates performance. They include financial controls, quality management
systems, performance appraisals, and reward mechanisms.

 Example: A sales-driven culture may use revenue targets as its main

control system, while a customer-focused culture may prioritise
satisfaction scores.
 Impact: What gets measured and rewarded is what gets prioritised,
shaping daily behaviours and decisions.
6. Rituals and Routines

Rituals and routines refer to the daily practices and behaviours that define
“how things are done” in the organisation. These may include meetings,
ceremonies, traditions, or unwritten rules about communication and behaviour.

 Example: A company that celebrates “employee of the month” reinforces

a culture of individual recognition, while daily team huddles may
emphasise collective effort.
 Impact: Rituals and routines normalise cultural values and make them
part of everyday organisational life.

The Cultural Web in Practice

The cultural web is a diagnostic tool: by mapping the six elements,

organisations can visualise their current cultural landscape and identify which
aspects align—or conflict—with desired strategic outcomes.

 For Change: Leaders can deliberately reshape stories, rituals, control

systems, or symbols to shift culture in support of new strategies.
 Example: If an organisation wants to encourage innovation, it might
celebrate success stories of experimentation, redesign office spaces to
promote collaboration, and create control systems that reward creative
risk-taking.

Conclusion

The Cultural Web provides a comprehensive framework for understanding and

analysing organisational culture. By examining stories, symbols, power
structures, organisational structures, control systems, and rituals/routines,
leaders gain insights into the underlying forces shaping behaviours. Most
importantly, by adjusting these elements, organisations can realign culture to
support strategic change, ensuring that cultural transformation is not left to
chance but is actively managed.
5.3. How Leaders Can Stimulate and Reinforce Culture Change
Organisational culture is not static—it can evolve and transform under the
influence of leadership. Leaders have a crucial role in shaping, stimulating, and
reinforcing cultural change. According to Higgs (2006), cited in Cameron &
Green (2020: 333), up to 60% of business performance can be attributed to
culture, and a significant proportion of culture itself can be traced back to
leadership behaviour.

This underscores the importance of leaders as role models and architects of

culture. Their actions, decisions, and priorities set the tone for how culture is
created, sustained, or reshaped.

Leadership as Cultural Role Models

Leaders demonstrate what is acceptable and valued through their daily

behaviours. Employees look to leaders for cues about organisational priorities.

 Example: If leaders consistently reward collaboration rather than

competition, a culture of teamwork will take root. Conversely, if leaders
prioritise short-term results above all else, a culture of pressure and risk-
taking may emerge.
 Implication: Leaders cannot simply announce culture change; they must
embody it in their own behaviour.

Communicating Vision and Purpose

For cultural change to succeed, leaders must articulate a clear vision that links
culture with organisational strategy. Employees need to understand why change
is necessary and how it supports long-term goals.

 Example: A leader driving digital transformation must explain not just the
adoption of new technologies, but how these changes align with customer
needs and future competitiveness.
 Impact: Clear communication reduces uncertainty and builds trust during
periods of change.

Aligning Systems and Structures

Leaders reinforce culture change by ensuring that systems, structures, and
processes are aligned with the desired cultural values.

 Example: If an organisation wants to encourage innovation, leaders must

provide resources for R&D, create rewards for risk-taking, and reduce
bureaucratic barriers.
 Impact: Misalignment between culture and systems undermines
credibility—for instance, encouraging teamwork while rewarding only
individual performance.

Reinforcing Culture Through Recognition and Rewards

Culture is strengthened by what is rewarded and recognised. Leaders must

ensure that recognition systems highlight and celebrate behaviours consistent
with the desired culture.

 Example: Publicly acknowledging teams that successfully collaborate

across departments reinforces a culture of cooperation.
 Impact: Reinforcement creates a feedback loop that encourages others to
model similar behaviours.

Building Trust and Psychological Safety

Cultural change often requires employees to step out of their comfort zones.
Leaders must create an environment of trust and psychological safety, where
individuals feel confident to take risks, share ideas, and challenge the status
quo.

 Example: Leaders who listen actively and respond constructively to new

ideas foster openness rather than fear of failure.
 Impact: A safe environment accelerates cultural adoption and innovation.

Developing Future Leaders

Sustaining culture change requires a pipeline of leaders who will continue to

model and reinforce the desired behaviours. Leaders must therefore invest in
leadership development programmes, mentoring, and succession planning.
  Example: Embedding cultural values into leadership training ensures that
new managers perpetuate the change.
 Impact: Prevents reversion to old cultural patterns once the initial
leadership team departs.

Persistence and Consistency

Cultural change is not a one-time initiative; it requires ongoing reinforcement.

Leaders must consistently model behaviours, communicate values, and align
systems—even when under pressure.

 Example: A CEO who preaches sustainability but flies privately

everywhere undermines credibility. Consistency between message and
action is key.
 Impact: Employees trust culture change efforts only if leaders
demonstrate persistence and integrity.

Conclusion

Leaders are the drivers and custodians of organisational culture. As Higgs

(2006) notes, culture significantly influences business performance, and
leadership behaviour plays a defining role in shaping culture. Leaders stimulate
and reinforce cultural change through role modelling, vision-setting, system
alignment, recognition, trust-building, leadership development, and
consistent reinforcement.

Ultimately, leaders who embody the desired culture are the most powerful
agents of change, ensuring that culture evolves in support of organisational
strategy and long-term performance.
6. Emerging Embedding Processes

Since the beginning of the 21st century, there has been increasing interest in
non-traditional approaches to shaping behaviour and organisational
culture. Instead of relying solely on formal structures, systems, or top-down
directives, scholars and practitioners have turned to insights from behavioural
economics, psychology, and social dynamics.

One influential contribution is Gladwell’s (2000) concept of the “tipping

point”, which describes how small, well-placed actions or individuals can
trigger significant cultural or behavioural change. According to Cameron and
Green (2020: 335), Gladwell identified three key types of people—connectors,
mavens, and salespeople—who play crucial roles in moving a situation towards
its final objective.

6.1. The Role of Connectors

Connectors are individuals with an exceptional ability to build relationships

and form wide-ranging networks. They naturally create links across diverse
groups, enabling the flow of ideas and relationships.

 Characteristics:
o Curiosity about people and the world.
o High energy and self-confidence in building connections.
o Comfort in moving between different social and professional
worlds.
 Impact on Culture Change:
Connectors spread new behaviours and values by bridging silos and
creating channels for collaboration. Their extensive networks allow
cultural ideas to flow faster and more broadly.
 Example: In a large multinational, a manager who has relationships
across multiple departments (finance, HR, operations) can help spread
new cultural initiatives such as digital adoption or sustainability practices.

6.2. The Role of Mavens

Mavens are information specialists and knowledge brokers. They gather,

analyse, and share valuable insights with others, often out of a genuine desire to
help. They are driven by the satisfaction of solving problems and enabling
others to do the same.
  Characteristics:
o Passion for discovering, organising, and sharing knowledge.
o Desire to educate others and empower decision-making.
o Credibility based on expertise and trustworthiness.
 Impact on Culture Change:
Mavens act as cultural educators who explain, contextualise, and
legitimise new behaviours. They help employees understand why change
is necessary and how it benefits them.
 Example: A data analyst who becomes a champion of business
intelligence tools, showing colleagues how to use dashboards to improve
decision-making, plays the role of a maven in digital culture change.

6.3. The Role of Salespeople

Salespeople influence others not just through information or connectivity, but

through their charisma, persuasion, and presence. They inspire enthusiasm
and commitment to change, helping overcome scepticism or resistance.

 Characteristics:
o Strong communication skills.
o Ability to build trust and motivate others.
o Confidence and resilience in persuading others to adopt new
practices.
 Impact on Culture Change:
Salespeople serve as cultural ambassadors, using their influence to
build momentum for transformation. They can turn uncertain or resistant
individuals into active supporters of change.
 Example: A senior leader who speaks passionately about customer-
centricity and models it through personal behaviour may inspire
employees to embrace a culture of service excellence.
6.4. The Tipping Point in Cultural Change

Gladwell’s framework suggests that cultural change often does not occur
through formal mandates alone, but through the cumulative effect of key
individuals influencing networks. When the efforts of connectors, mavens,
and salespeople align, they can bring about a “tipping point”—a moment when
the new cultural behaviours become self-sustaining and widespread.

 Implication for Leaders: Leaders must identify, empower, and support

these individuals in their organisations. By doing so, they can accelerate
cultural change without relying solely on hierarchical directives.

Conclusion

Emerging embedding processes highlight the importance of social dynamics

and informal influence in shaping organisational culture. Gladwell’s model
identifies three roles—connectors, mavens, and salespeople—that are
essential in reaching the tipping point of cultural change. Together, they build
networks, spread knowledge, and inspire commitment, ensuring that new
cultural norms take root and flourish across the organisation.

7. Shifting Sands of Culture

Organisational culture has traditionally been viewed as something rooted in the

values and behaviours of the founding leaders. According to Cameron & Green
(2020: 338), the “founding fathers” of an organisation shape its early values,
norms, and practices, which then influence how the culture develops over time.
However, in today’s global, digital, and diverse business environment, this view
is becoming increasingly complex.

Modern organisations face a variety of questions and challenges that “muddy

the waters” of cultural stability, requiring leaders and change agents to think
more dynamically about how culture is created, sustained, and adapted.
7.1. Global Presence and Sustaining Culture

When organisations expand globally, sustaining a consistent culture becomes

challenging. Different countries bring unique cultural norms, traditions, and
regulatory contexts, which can interact with or even conflict with the
organisation’s original values.

 Example: A US-based company that values direct communication may

find this style clashes with cultures that emphasise indirect or high-
context communication (e.g., Japan).
 Implication: Organisations must strike a balance between global cultural
coherence and local cultural adaptation.

7.2. Multi-Cultural Teams

Diversity within teams enriches organisational culture but also complicates it.
Members from different cultural backgrounds bring varied perspectives,
problem-solving styles, and communication norms.

 Positive Impact: Increases creativity, innovation, and adaptability.

 Challenge: Risk of misunderstandings, misalignment, or conflict if
cultural differences are not acknowledged and managed.

7.3. Gender Equality at Senior Levels

As gender equality improves, leadership styles and organisational values are

also evolving. Research suggests that greater gender balance in senior
leadership can result in more collaborative, empathetic, and inclusive cultures.

 Example: The appointment of women to executive boards has been linked

to stronger corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives.
 Implication: Shifts in leadership demographics influence how values are
prioritised and enacted across organisations.

7.4. Virtual Teamwork and Remote Working

The rise of virtual teamwork and remote working—accelerated by global

events like COVID-19—has transformed how culture is sustained.
  Effect: Less reliance on physical spaces, rituals, and face-to-face
interactions, and greater dependence on digital platforms (Zoom, Teams,
Slack).
 Challenge: Maintaining trust, cohesion, and shared identity in the absence
of physical presence.
 Opportunity: Creates more flexible, inclusive work environments,
especially for global teams.

7.5. Generational Values

Different generations (Baby Boomers, Generation X, Millennials, Generation Z)

bring different priorities and expectations into the workplace.

 Example: Millennials may emphasise work-life balance and purpose-

driven work, while Baby Boomers may value stability and loyalty.
 Impact: Generational diversity can strengthen culture by broadening
perspectives but also requires alignment to avoid fragmentation.

7.6. Outsourcing, Partnerships, and Shared Services

As organisations increasingly outsource processes or collaborate with partners

and multi-agency arrangements, cultural consistency becomes harder to
maintain.

 Challenge: How does an organisation sustain its identity when part of its
functions are carried out externally?
 Example: A hospital that outsources IT services must ensure that the
outsourced partner respects patient confidentiality and ethical standards
consistent with its culture.

7.7. Job Tenure and Workforce Mobility

With shorter job tenures and higher employee mobility, individuals may not
stay long enough to fully adopt or perpetuate the organisation’s culture.

 Impact: Culture may become weaker or more fragmented, with less

loyalty and shared history binding employees together.
 Implication: Leaders must continuously reinforce cultural values and
ensure rapid onboarding of new staff to sustain coherence.
7.8. Social Media and Communication

Social media has created a levelling effect by enabling open communication,

flattening hierarchies, and giving employees (and external stakeholders) a
stronger voice.

 Impact: Culture is increasingly shaped by real-time interactions,

transparency, and reputation management in the public sphere.
 Challenge: Informal digital networks can bypass formal communication
channels, making culture harder to control.

7.9. Three Perspectives on Organisational Culture (Meyerson & Martin,

1987)

Meyerson and Martin (1987), cited in Cameron & Green (2020: 339), provide
three distinct ways of viewing culture:

(a) Integration View

 Suggests that one cohesive culture can exist, shaped by leadership.

 Acts as a unifying force that aligns values, behaviours, and strategy.
 Example: A family-owned business where values of trust and loyalty
permeate the entire organisation.

(b) Differentiation View

 Recognises the presence of multiple sub-cultures within an organisation.

 These sub-cultures may support or conflict with one another depending
on the context.
 Example: A university may have sub-cultures of academic departments,
administrative staff, and students, each with distinct norms.

(c) Ambiguity View

 Emphasises the complexity and contradictions within culture.

 Individuals may share some viewpoints, disagree on others, and remain
indifferent to many.
 Example: In a multinational, employees may align on customer service
values but disagree on decision-making styles due to regional differences.
Conclusion

The “shifting sands of culture” reflect how organisational culture is no longer a

fixed construct derived solely from founding leaders’ values. Globalisation,
diversity, technology, gender equality, mobility, and social media have created
dynamic pressures that continuously reshape culture.

Meyerson and Martin’s three perspectives remind us that culture may be

integrated, differentiated, or ambiguous depending on the organisation and
context. For change agents, this means recognising complexity, embracing
diversity, and finding ways to sustain a cohesive yet adaptive culture in an
ever-changing environment.

3. When is Change Complex?

Change within organisations can vary in scale and complexity. Some changes
are relatively straightforward—for example, installing a new phone system or
reorganising office space. These are technical, procedural, and typically involve
a limited number of stakeholders.

By contrast, complex change occurs when transformation involves many

people, systems, and interdependencies. It often touches on strategy, culture,
and structure, requiring not just technical adjustments but also shifts in
behaviour, values, and relationships.

Cameron & Green (2020) suggest that the following types of initiatives are
examples of complex change:

3.1. Restructuring Programmes

Restructuring involves redesigning organisational structures, roles, reporting
lines, or hierarchies.

 Why it is complex:
o Affects power dynamics, responsibilities, and identities of
employees.
o Requires realignment of systems, processes, and workflows.
o Can create uncertainty and resistance as employees adapt to new
roles.
 Example: A company moving from a functional structure to a matrix
structure faces significant complexity because employees must adjust to
reporting to multiple managers.

3.2. Cultural Change Initiatives

Cultural change involves altering the shared values, behaviours, and

assumptions that shape organisational life.

 Why it is complex:
o Culture is deeply embedded and difficult to observe or change
directly.
o Requires alignment between leadership behaviour, systems, and
employee practices.
o Takes time to embed and sustain.
 Example: A bank trying to move from a risk-averse culture to an
innovative, customer-driven culture may face resistance, mistrust, and
slow adoption of new values.

3.3. Outsourcing
Outsourcing involves transferring internal processes or functions to external
service providers.

 Why it is complex:
o Raises concerns about job security among employees.
o Requires alignment of standards, expectations, and compliance
between two organisations.
o Can lead to cultural clashes or breakdowns in communication.
 Example: A hospital outsourcing its IT function must ensure that
external providers maintain data security and confidentiality consistent
with healthcare regulations.

3.4. Mergers and Acquisitions (M&A)

M&As bring together two or more organisations with distinct cultures,

systems, and identities.

 Why it is complex:
o Integration of systems, structures, and policies can be disruptive.
o Cultural clashes often undermine intended synergies.
o Employees may experience identity loss, uncertainty, or
disengagement.
 Example: The merger of Daimler-Benz and Chrysler failed partly
because of cultural incompatibility between German engineering
precision and American entrepreneurial informality.

3.5. Strategic-Led Change

Strategic change involves shifts in organisational direction, such as entering

new markets, adopting new technologies, or redefining business models.

 Why it is complex:
o Requires alignment across multiple functions (marketing,
operations, finance, HR).
o Involves large numbers of employees adapting behaviours to match
the new strategy.
o May demand changes in skills, resources, and culture
simultaneously.
  Example: A traditional retailer moving into e-commerce must change not
just its sales channel but also its supply chain, IT systems, and customer
service approach.

3.6. Large Numbers of People Involved

Change complexity increases proportionally with the number of people

affected. Coordinating communication, addressing resistance, and aligning
behaviours across hundreds or thousands of employees is inherently
challenging.

 Example: Implementing a global ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning)

system requires training, system integration, and buy-in across multiple
regions and departments.

Conclusion

Change becomes complex when it moves beyond simple technical adjustments

and affects the core elements of the organisation—its structure, culture,
strategy, and people. Restructuring programmes, cultural change initiatives,
outsourcing, mergers and acquisitions, and strategic-led change all exemplify
such complexity, particularly when they involve large numbers of people.

For leaders and change agents, recognising the difference between simple
change (technical, limited impact) and complex change (strategic, cultural,
large-scale) is crucial in choosing the right approach, tools, and leadership style
to ensure success.

4. Understanding How Complexity Science Applies to Organisational

Change

Complexity Science and Organisations

Complexity science originated in the scientific world, where it was developed

to explain the behaviour of large, dynamic, and interconnected systems.
According to Cameron and Green (2020: 422), this body of thought has been
applied to organisations as a way of better understanding how they function,
adapt, and respond to change.

Although there is no universally accepted definition of complexity science in an

organisational context, it can be seen as a collection of theories and models
that describe how systems behave, evolve, and self-organise. It challenges the
traditional linear view of organisations as machines, instead portraying them as
complex adaptive systems.

 Examples of Complex Systems in Nature and Society:

o The stock market, where prices emerge from millions of
independent decisions yet display patterns of booms and crashes.
o The human immune system, where countless cells interact
without central control but collectively defend the body.

Organisations, similarly, involve multiple interdependent actors (leaders,

employees, customers, regulators, competitors) whose interactions produce
emergent behaviours not easily predicted or controlled.

Characteristics of a Complex System

To apply complexity science to organisational change, it is useful to understand

the key characteristics of complex systems:

1. Non-Linearity

Complex systems do not follow simple cause-and-effect logic. A small action

can have disproportionately large effects (the “butterfly effect”), while major
interventions may yield little visible impact.

 Example: A minor policy change in customer service can go viral on

social media and transform brand reputation overnight.

2. Interconnectedness and Interdependence

Elements of a complex system are interconnected, meaning that changes in one

part affect others. These interdependencies often create feedback loops, where
outcomes influence the system’s inputs in turn.
  Example: In an organisation, a change in incentive structures influences
employee behaviour, which in turn affects productivity, morale, and
customer satisfaction.

3. Emergence

Complex systems exhibit emergent behaviours—patterns that arise from

interactions among individuals but cannot be explained by analysing individuals
alone.

 Example: Organisational culture emerges not from top-down rules but

from repeated interactions, stories, and shared practices across
employees.

4. Adaptation and Self-Organisation

Complex systems adapt to their environments without central control. They

learn, evolve, and reorganise themselves in response to external pressures or
internal dynamics.

 Example: Teams within a company may spontaneously develop new

ways of working (such as agile practices) without formal direction,
simply to cope with changing project demands.

5. Unpredictability and Uncertainty

Because of their non-linear and emergent nature, complex systems are

inherently unpredictable. It is difficult to anticipate exact outcomes of
interventions, though broad patterns may be recognised over time.

 Example: Mergers and acquisitions often produce unexpected cultural

clashes despite thorough planning, because human dynamics are
unpredictable.

6. Diversity and Variation

Complex systems thrive on diversity, with variation allowing for innovation,
resilience, and adaptability. Homogeneity, by contrast, can make systems
fragile.

 Example: A diverse workforce brings multiple perspectives that help the

organisation respond creatively to new challenges.

7. Feedback Loops

Complex systems are regulated through positive and negative feedback loops.
Positive loops amplify change (growth, innovation, crises), while negative loops
stabilise the system (regulation, control).

 Example: A company experiencing rapid growth may see positive

feedback through media attention and investor confidence, but also
negative feedback through resource constraints that slow expansion.

Implications for Organisational Change

Applying complexity science to organisational change shifts the perspective:

 Change is not a linear project with predictable milestones, but an

adaptive process shaped by multiple interacting factors.
 Leaders cannot fully “control” change; they must instead influence
conditions, encourage learning, and enable self-organisation.
 Success depends on recognising interdependencies, fostering diversity,
and being flexible in strategy and execution.

Conclusion

Complexity science provides a valuable lens for understanding organisational

change. By recognising organisations as complex adaptive systems, leaders
can move away from rigid, linear models of change and embrace adaptive,
flexible approaches. Characteristics such as non-linearity, emergence,
adaptation, unpredictability, and interdependence remind us that successful
change requires not command and control, but the creation of conditions in
which new patterns can emerge and thrive.
5.1. Storytelling

Storytelling involves people sharing experiences, lessons, and wisdom through

narratives. Stories can be used to communicate values, inspire behaviour
change, and make complex issues easier to understand.

 Why it works: Humans connect emotionally with stories more than

abstract data. Stories build trust, create empathy, and make cultural shifts
relatable.
 Example: A CEO telling the story of how a company overcame a crisis
can motivate employees to embrace resilience during a new phase of
change.
 Impact: Reinforces organisational values, spreads best practices, and
makes abstract goals meaningful.

5.2. Dialogue

Dialogue refers to meaningful conversations between two or more people where

participants think, share, and reflect together. Unlike debates or instructions,
dialogue encourages mutual understanding and collective sense-making.

 Why it works: Dialogue allows employees to voice concerns, ask

questions, and explore perspectives, reducing resistance and increasing
buy-in.
 Example: Leaders hosting town-hall style discussions where staff openly
share views on a cultural change initiative.
 Impact: Builds trust, transparency, and inclusivity, which are essential
for navigating complex change.

5.3. Whole-System Work

Whole-system work involves large-group interventions such as seminars,

summits, or conferences that bring together stakeholders across the
organisation (and sometimes beyond).

 Why it works: Allows multiple voices to be heard at once, breaking

down silos and ensuring that all stakeholders contribute to shaping the
future.
  Example: A global manufacturing company holding a three-day summit
with employees, suppliers, and customers to co-create sustainability
strategies.
 Impact: Encourages alignment, collaboration, and collective ownership
of change.

5.4. Open-Space Technology

Open-space technology is a method for convening large groups around a

single, central theme. The agenda is not pre-set; instead, participants create the
topics and discussions themselves, often in parallel breakout sessions.

 Why it works: It empowers participants, fosters creativity, and allows the

most relevant and urgent issues to be addressed organically.
 Example: An international AIDS conference using open-space sessions
to let doctors, NGOs, and patients identify critical challenges and
solutions.
 Impact: Generates energy, engagement, and practical solutions that come
directly from stakeholders.

5.5. Future Search

Future search involves large-scale meetings where diverse stakeholders come

together to develop a shared vision for the future and create actionable plans.

 Why it works: It brings people with different perspectives (employees,

customers, community members, regulators) into the same space to plan
collectively.
 Example: A city council using future search workshops with residents,
businesses, and service providers to co-create long-term urban
development strategies.
 Impact: Builds shared commitment, reduces conflict, and increases the
likelihood of long-term success.

5.6. World Café

World Café is a structured conversational process where small groups of people

engage in rounds of dialogue about key issues, moving between tables to
exchange ideas, share insights, and build on others’ perspectives.
  Why it works: It mimics informal café-style conversations, creating a
relaxed environment that stimulates creativity and open communication.
 Example: A university using World Café sessions with students, faculty,
and administrators to brainstorm strategies for digital learning.
 Impact: Encourages creativity, collaboration, and synthesis of diverse
perspectives into collective solutions.

Conclusion

The six tools—storytelling, dialogue, whole-system work, open-space

technology, future search, and world café—are powerful enablers of complex
change. They work by fostering engagement, trust, and collaboration,
allowing organisations to harness the collective intelligence of their members
and stakeholders.

In environments where uncertainty and complexity dominate, these approaches

shift change from being a top-down directive to a shared journey, increasing
ownership, innovation, and sustainability of outcomes.