SECTION #1 – URBANIZATION (KEY ISSUE #1)

●​ Urbanization – The process by which the population of urban settlements grows. It

involves an increase in both the number and percentage of people living in cities.​

●​ How is a country’s level of development measured?​

A country’s level of development is often measured by its Gross Domestic Product
(GDP) per capita, literacy rates, life expectancy, and access to services. Higher
urbanization rates are generally associated with more developed countries (MDCs).​

●​ Two Causes of High Percentages of Urban Residents –​

○​ Industrialization – As economies shift from agriculture to industry, jobs become

concentrated in urban areas.
○​ Better Services and Infrastructure – Cities offer improved healthcare,
education, transportation, and employment opportunities.
●​ What caused people to be pushed to the cities?​

○​ Push Factors: Rural areas often face declining job opportunities due to
mechanized farming, poor living conditions, and lack of services.
○​ Pull Factors: Cities offer economic opportunities, better living standards, and
access to education and healthcare.
●​ Urbanization in MDCs has –​
Already reached high levels, with most of the population living in urban areas. Growth
is slower compared to LDCs because urbanization has already occurred over centuries.​

●​ Percentage of People in LDCs has –​

Increased significantly in recent decades, with rapid urbanization due to population
growth and rural-to-urban migration.​

●​ Percentage of Urban Residents – LDC vs. MDC​

○​ MDCs: More than 75% of the population lives in urban areas.

○​ LDCs: Less than 50%, though increasing rapidly.
●​ Rapid growth of cities is not –​
Evenly distributed or well-planned. Many LDC cities experience unplanned expansion,
leading to slums, inadequate infrastructure, and environmental challenges.​

●​ What has caused the increases in LDCs?​

○​ High natural increase rates (NIR) – Birth rates are higher in LDCs, contributing
to urban population growth.
 ○​ Migration from rural areas – Economic opportunities and modernization attract
people to cities.

SECTION #2-SOCIAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN URBAN/RURAL

●​ Louis Wirth Definition of City –​
Louis Wirth, an urban sociologist, defined a city based on three characteristics: large
size, high population density, and socially heterogeneous people. He argued that
urban life shapes social behavior and interactions differently from rural life.​

●​ Large Population –​
Cities have large populations, which means that relationships are often impersonal.
Unlike in rural areas, where people know each other personally, urban residents often
interact with strangers daily.​

●​ High Density –​
Urban areas are densely populated, leading to greater competition for space,
specialized jobs, and economic interdependence. High density also contributes to
increased land value and vertical expansion (skyscrapers).​

●​ Socially Heterogeneous Population –​

Cities attract people of diverse backgrounds, cultures, and lifestyles. Urban areas
are more likely to have people from different ethnicities, religions, and economic classes
compared to rural areas.​

●​ Urban Residents Tend to Be More –​

○​ Individualistic – Due to the impersonal nature of cities, people focus more on

personal goals rather than community traditions.
○​ Tolerant of Diversity – Exposure to different people and cultures in urban areas
leads to greater social acceptance.
○​ Socially Mobile – Cities provide more opportunities for career growth and social
advancement.
○​ Less Tied to Family and Local Traditions – Unlike rural areas where traditions
and family ties are strong, urban residents tend to have more fluid lifestyles.

SECTION #3

Walls –

Historically, cities were often enclosed by walls for protection against invasions and to define
the urban area. As cities expanded, walls became less practical, and modern urban boundaries
are now defined through administrative and statistical measures.
3 Ways to Define an Urban Settlement –

1.​ Legal Definition – Based on political boundaries and government control.

2.​ Urbanized Area – The continuously built-up area with high population density.
3.​ Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) – A region with a central city and surrounding
communities linked by economic and social ties.

Legal Definition –

A city is an incorporated area with defined legal boundaries, its own government, and the
power to provide services, enforce laws, and collect taxes.

Boundaries Can Define –

●​ The extent of the city’s authority (legal limits).

●​ Taxation and public services coverage.
●​ Voting districts and zoning regulations.

Urbanized Area –

A densely developed core with at least 50,000 residents, including the city and surrounding
suburbs. It extends beyond the legal boundaries of a city.

Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) –

An MSA is a large functional area centered around an urban core with strong economic and
social ties to surrounding communities.

MSA Includes (3 Things) –

1.​ A city with at least 50,000 people.

2.​ The county in which the city is located.
3.​ Adjacent counties with a high degree of social and economic integration with the
core city.

Why Are MSAs Used?

●​ They provide a more accurate measure of urban influence beyond city limits.
●​ Help in regional planning, infrastructure development, and funding allocation.
●​ Show economic connections between cities and surrounding areas.

Problems with MSA –

●​ Too broad – Includes rural areas that may not be truly urban.
●​ Political Conflicts – Different local governments may have conflicting policies.
 ●​ Suburban and rural areas may not identify as part of the city but are still included in the
MSA.

Micropolitan Statistical Area –

●​ A smaller urban area with a population between 10,000 and 50,000.

●​ Includes the central city and surrounding counties with economic ties.
●​ Often serves as a regional hub for surrounding rural areas.

Megalopolis –

A massive urban region formed when multiple MSAs grow and merge together.

●​ Example: The "BosWash" corridor (Boston to Washington, D.C.) in the U.S.

●​ Includes multiple cities, towns, and suburbs with overlapping economic and
transportation networks.

SECTION #4 – CONCENTRIC ZONE MODEL (KEY ISSUE #2)

●​ Concentric Zone Model – Developed by E.W. Burgess, this model explains urban
growth as a series of concentric rings expanding outward from the city center.
●​ Size and Width of the Zones – Each zone grows outward as a city expands. The width
of each zone varies based on factors like transportation and population density.
●​ Five Zones –
1.​ CBD (Central Business District) – Downtown, business, and commercial
center.
2.​ Zone of Transition – Industry, warehouses, and low-income housing.
3.​ Zone of Working-Class Homes – Modest, older homes for blue-collar workers.
4.​ Zone of Better Residences – Middle-class, single-family homes.
5.​ Commuter Zone – Suburbs and exurbs with the highest-income residents.

SECTION #5 – SECTOR MODEL

●​ Sector Model – Developed by Homer Hoyt, this model suggests cities develop in
sectors, not rings, due to transportation and economic activity.
●​ Some areas of cities are more – Desirable because of access to transportation
routes and amenities.
●​ Best Housing – Found in a wedge-shaped sector extending from the CBD outward,
usually along major roads or water bodies.
●​ Industrial and Retailing Activities – Often develop along transportation corridors,
such as highways, railroads, or rivers.
 ●​ Is a refinement – Of the Concentric Zone Model, allowing for growth along
transportation routes rather than in uniform circles.

SECTION #6 – MULTIPLE NUCLEI MODEL

●​ Multiple Nuclei Model – Developed by Harris and Ullman, it suggests cities have
more than one center of activity rather than a single CBD.
●​ Theory – Cities develop multiple nodes or centers, such as a university, airport, or
business hub, which attract different land uses.
●​ Incompatible Land Use – Certain activities avoid being near each other, such as
high-income housing avoiding industrial zones due to pollution and noise.

SECTION #7 – APPLICATION OF MODELS

●​ 3 Models Demonstrate – How cities are structured and where different types of people
and businesses are located.
●​ Census Tracts – Geographic regions used for statistical purposes, often covering about
5,000 residents in a neighborhood.
●​ Examples of Types of Information – Income levels, education, ethnicity, and housing
types.
●​ Social Scientists Compare – Census data with urban models to analyze patterns of
settlement and social structure.
●​ Combination of Models Help Explain – No single model fully explains a city, but
combining them helps understand how different factors shape urban areas.
●​ What Does the Model Suggest About People? That income, ethnicity, and lifestyle
choices influence where people live.

SECTION #8 – MODELS IN EUROPEAN CITIES

●​ In Europe – Wealthier People Live in or near the city center in historic districts.
●​ Major Differences Between U.S. and European Cities –
○​ European cities have narrower streets and historic architecture.
○​ Public transportation is more developed in Europe.
○​ Less suburban sprawl compared to U.S. cities.
●​ Why Live in a Central Location?
○​ Proximity to cultural, business, and government institutions.
○​ Avoid long commutes; public transport is efficient.
●​ Poor People Are Less Likely to Live Where in Europe – Why?
 ○​ Poor people are less likely to live in city centers because housing there is
expensive and historic.
●​ Poor Have Been Regulated To –
○​ High-density apartment complexes in suburban areas (public housing
projects).
●​ Problems With Suburbs –
○​ Lack of employment opportunities.
○​ Social isolation and crime.

SECTION #9 – LESS DEVELOPED COUNTRIES

●​ LDC – Europe Influence – Many LDC cities reflect European colonial planning and
architecture.
●​ European Colonial Policies – Established cities with wide streets, public squares,
and administrative centers.
●​ LDC Stages of Development –
○​ Pre-colonial cities: Based on local cultures and trade.
○​ Colonial cities: Redesigned to serve European needs.
○​ Post-independence: Rapid urban growth and the rise of informal housing
(slums).
●​ Before European Colonies – Cities were structured around markets, religious
centers, and trade routes.
●​ Cities – Rapid growth leads to informal settlements (shantytowns) around urban
areas.
●​ Commercial Activities – Often concentrated in the CBD, but informal markets are
widespread in slums.

SECTION #10 – COLONIAL CITIES SINCE INDEPENDENCE

●​ What Did Europeans Expand in the Cities?

○​ Infrastructure like roads, ports, and government buildings to serve colonial
economies.
●​ Standard Plans – Example (Mexico)
○​ Spanish colonies were designed with a central plaza, a church, and
administrative buildings (e.g., Mexico City).
●​ Following Independence –
○​ Many cities continued to grow based on colonial layouts but expanded with
unplanned slums due to rapid migration.
●​ Latin American Cities – Where Did the Wealthy Live and Why?
○​ Wealthy residents live in elite sectors near the CBD and along well-maintained
avenues.
○​ These areas offer better services, security, and proximity to business
districts.