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Practical Yield Line Design 1st edition, 24-06-03 Edition
Gerard Kennedy Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Gerard Kennedy, Charles Goodchild
ISBN(s): 9780721015859, 0721015859
Edition: 1st edition, 24-06-03
File Details: PDF, 5.24 MB
Year: 2003
Language: english
PRACTICAL
YIELD LINE
DESIGN

An introduction to the practical use

of Yield Line Theory in the design of
economic reinforced concrete slabs
including examples of design of flat
slabs, raft foundations and
refurbishment

Gerard Kennedy
MSc(Eng), CEng, MICE

Charles Goodchild
BSc, CEng, MCIOB, MIStructE
Foreword
This publication is one of the outcomes from the European Concrete Building Project at Cardington where Yield Line
Design of concrete flat slabs was found to be ‘easily the best opportunity identifiable to the concrete frame industry’.
This publication was commissioned, funded, managed and produced by the Reinforced Concrete Council, which was set
up to promote better knowledge and understanding of reinforced concrete design and building technology. It is intended
for use by those experienced engineers wishing to extend their portfolio of methods of analysis and design for more
efficient and effective designs.

Gerard Kennedy is the main author of this publication. He is a consultant to Powell Tolner & Associates, Consulting Civil and
Structural Engineers, where over a 27-year career of general engineering practice, he became the partner in charge of design.
Gerard has a particular interest in Yield Line Analysis and its practical application to reinforced concrete structures.

Charles Goodchild is Associate Director of the Reinforced Concrete Council where he specialises in promoting efficiency in
concrete design and construction in multi-storey structures. In addition to writing some of the text, he was responsible for the
management of this project and publication.

‘Yield line design is so easy …………

.. once you know what you are doing!’

Acknowledgements
This publication would not have been possible without the enthusiasm and drive of Gerard Kennedy and other partners,
notably John Sestak and staff, at Powell Tolner and Associates. We thank them for instigating this project and their
tenacity in insisting that the commercial potential of Yield Line Design should be recognized and shared. Thanks too for
providing photographs.

Gerard Kennedy would like to acknowledge Trevor Powell, co-founder of Powell Tolner & Associates, for the
encouragement and support given to him over the years in the application of Y.L.D. Without him this publication could
not have been written.

We thank the many individuals who helped to check, review and contribute to this publication; amongst them: Stuart
Alexander, K Baskaran, Sharon Hart, Tony Jones, John Morrison, Bob Povey, Cam Middleton, Dr Chris Morley, Martin
Southcott. The authors would like especially to acknowledge and thank Dr David Johnson for his independent checking
of the examples. Thanks also to Alan Tovey (Tecnicom), Gillian Bond (Words & Pages) and Issy Harvey (Bracknell
Tracing) for editing, design and production.

97.375 Published by the British Cement Association on behalf of the industry

1st edition 24.06.03 sponsors of the Reinforced Concrete Council. www.rcc-info.org.uk
ISBN 0 7210 1585 9 British Cement Association
Price group L Century House, Telford Avenue
© British Cement Association 2003 Crowthorne, Berkshire RG45 6YS
www.bca.org.uk Telephone (01344) 762676 Fax (01344) 761214

All advice or information from the British Cement Association and/or Reinforced Concrete Council is intended for those who will
evaluate the significance and limitations of its contents and take responsibility for its use and application. No liability (including
that for negligence) for any loss resulting from such advice o
r information is accepted by the BCA, RCC or their subcontractors, suppliers or advisors. Readers should note that all BCA
publications are subject to revision from time to time and should therefore ensure that they are in possession of the latest
version.
 Practical Yield Line Design

Contents

Notation…………………………………………………………………………..………………………………………….……… 2
1.0 Introduction
1.1 The essentials …….…..……………………………………………………………………..…………………………….. 3
1.2 Frequently asked questions ………...……………..……………………………………………………………….… 8
2.0 The Work Method of analysis
2.1 General …………………..……………………………..……………………………………………………………….… 22
2.2 The Work Method ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 23
2.3 Orthotropic slabs …………….…………………………………………………………………………………………… 38
3.0 Standard formulae for slabs
3.1 One-way spanning slabs……………….………………………………………………………………………………. 45
3.2 Two-way spanning slabs ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 64
3.3 Two-way slabs - supports on 4 sides…..……………….………..………………………………………………. 66
3.4 Two-way slabs - supports on 3 sides ………..………………….…………….…………………………………. 74
3.5 Two-way slabs - supports on 2 adjacent sides ………………………..……..………………………………. 84
3.6 Flat slabs (on a rectangular grid of columns) ……………….………..…………………………………. 88
4.0 How to tackle . . . . .
4.1 Flat slabs: general .……….……………..…………………………………………………………………………….. 93
4.2 Flat slabs supported by rectangular grids of columns ……….…….……………………………... 98
4.3 Flat slabs on irregular grids of columns …………….….………………………………………..…………… 120
4.4 Slabs with beams……………………………………………………….………………………………………………… 127
4.5 Transfer slabs ……………………….………………………………………………………………………………….… 135
4.6 Raft foundations ………….….…………..…………………………………………………………………..………… 136
4.7 Refurbishments……….…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 143
5.0 Case studies ……….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 148
6.0 Summary……….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 155
7.0 References and further reading
7.1 References .……….……………..…………………………………………………………………………….. 156
7.2 Further reading .……….……………..…………………………………………………………………………….. 158
Appendix….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..….. 160

1
Practical Yield Line Design

Notation
Symbols The symbols used in this publication have the following meaning:

Symbol Description Units

A Area of column cross-section m2
a, b, c Plan dimensions of slab supported on several sides m
D Dissipation of internal energy kNm
E Expenditure of energy by external loads kNm
g Ultimate distributed dead load kN/m2
gk Characteristic distributed dead load kN/m2
H1, H2 … Holding down reaction at slab corner kN
h1, h2 … Yield line pattern defining dimension m
i, i1, i2…. Ratio of negative support moment to positive midspan moment,
i.e i1 = m1’/m
l Length of a yield line (projected onto a region’s axis of rotation) m
L Span (commonly edge to edge), distance, m
m Positive moment, i.e the ultimate moment along the yield line kNm/m
(bottom fibres of slab in tension).
m’, m1’, Negative moment, i.e the ultimate moment along the yield line kNm/m
m2’ (top fibres of slab in tension).
mr Ultimate moment of resistance (based on the steel provided) kNm/m
n Ultimate distributed load p + g kN/m2
p Ultimate distributed live load kN/m2
pa, pb Ultimate line load kN/m
pk Characteristic distributed live load kN/m2
q 1 , q2 … Ultimate support reaction kN/m
S Ultimate column reaction from slab tributary area kN
s1, s2 Distance to point of contraflexure from support m
x1, x2 Distance to section of max. positive moment from support m
∆ δmax Deflection, maximum deflection (usually taken as unity) m
θ Angle of rotation m/m
n h
Adjusted ultimate distributed load (adjusted for light line loads kN/m2
through factors α and β).

ar, br Reduced sides dimensions m

Drawing notation The convention used in drawings and sketches is given below

Supports
Free edge Continuous support
Simple support Column support

Yield lines
m Positive (sagging) yield line, Axis of rotation
kNm/m
m’ Negative (hogging) yield line, Plastic hinge (in sectional
kNm/m elevation or in plan)

Loads
Line load, kN/m + Centre of gravity of load kN
P● Point load, kN

2
 1.0 Introduction

1.0 Introduction
This publication
The aim of this publication is to (re-) introduce practical designers to the use of Yield Line
Design. The intention is to give an overall appreciation of the method and comprehensive
design guidance on its application to the design of some common structural elements. It
assumes that the user has sufficient experience to recognise possible failure patterns and
situations where further investigation is required.

The basic principles of Yield Line theory are explained and its application as a versatile
method for the design and assessment of reinforced concrete slabs is demonstrated. Theory
is followed by practical examples and the accompanying commentary gives insights into the
years of experience brought to bear by the main author, Gerard Kennedy.

The publication is intended as a designer’s aid and not an academic paper. It commits to
paper a practical approach to the use of Yield Line for the design of concrete slabs. It
gives guidance on how to tackle less simple problems, such as the design of flat slabs,
rafts, refurbishment and slab-beam systems. Whilst the publication covers the design of
common elements, it is an introduction, not a comprehensive handbook: in more
exacting circumstances, designers are advised to consult more specialist
literature. The examples are practical ones that may be followed, but should not be
extended too far without reference to more specialist literature.

Yield Line Theory challenges designers to use judgement and not to rely solely on computer
analysis and design. Once grasped, Yield Line Theory is exceedingly easy to put into
practice and everyone in the procurement chain benefits. Simple design leads to simple
details that are fast to detail and fast to fix. Current initiatives such as Egan [4] and
partnering, etc, should challenge designers to revisit and re-evaluate the technique.

1.1 The essentials

1.1.1 What is Yield Line Design?
Yield Line Design is a well-founded method of designing reinforced concrete slabs, and
similar types of elements. It uses Yield Line Theory to investigate failure mechanisms at
the ultimate limit state. The theory is based on the principle that:

work done in yield lines rotating = work done in loads moving

Two of the most popular methods of application are the ‘Work Method’ and the use of
standard formulae. This publication explains these two methods and illustrates how they
may be used in the practical and economic design of reinforced concrete slabs such as flat
slabs, raft foundations and refurbishments

1.1.2 What are the advantages of Yield Line Design?

Yield Line Design has the advantages of:
• Economy
• Simplicity and
• Versatility

Yield Line Design leads to slabs that are quick and easy to design, and are quick and easy
to construct. There is no need to resort to computer for analysis or design. The resulting
slabs are thin and have very low amounts of reinforcement in very regular arrangements.
The reinforcement is therefore easy to detail and easy to fix and the slabs are very quick
to construct. Above all, Yield Line Design generates very economic concrete slabs,
because it considers features at the ultimate limit state.

3
Practical Yield Line Design

Yield Line Design is a robust and proven design technique. It is a versatile tool that
challenges designers to use judgement. Once grasped Yield Line Design is an exceedingly
powerful design tool.

1.1.3 What is the catch?

Yield Line Design demands familiarity with failure patterns, i.e. knowledge of how slabs
might fail. This calls for a certain amount of experience, engineering judgement and
confidence, none of which is easily gained. This publication is aimed at ‘experienced’ engineers,
who will recognise potential failure patterns. At the same time it is hoped that the publication
will impart experience to younger engineers and encourage them to appreciate modes of
failure and this powerful method of design.

Yield Line Design tends to be a hand method. This may be seen as both an advantage and
disadvantage. Each slab has to be judged on its merits and individually assessed. The method
allows complex slabs to be looked at in a simple way, and, in an age of computers, it gives an
independent method of analysis and verification. This is especially important for those who are
becoming disillusioned with the reliance placed on Finite Element Analysis. They see a need to
impart greater understanding and remind designers that reinforced concrete does not
necessarily behave in an elastic manner. Nonetheless it is hoped that the option of suitable and
accessible software for Yield Line Design will become available in the near future.

Yield Line Design concerns itself with the ultimate limit state. It does not purport to deal with
serviceability issues such as deflection per se. Nonetheless, deflection can be dealt with by
simple formulae based on the yield moment. This publication shows how compliance with
span-to-depth criteria may be achieved.

Column moments cannot be derived directly. They must be derived using separate elastic sub-
frame analyses as is the case when using continuous beam analysis (assuming knife edge
support), or by analysing separate yield line failure patterns discussed in section 4.17.

In the past Yield Line Design has been disadvantaged by half-truths and misrepresentations.
Taking reasoned and pragmatic measures to overcome them easily dispels theoretical
problems such as ‘upper bound theory therefore unsafe’. These measures are discussed in this
publication. This is perhaps the first time this practical approach has been set down in writing -
advocates of Yield Line Design have been designing in this way for years.

1.1.4 Economy and simplicity

In slabs, Yield Line Design gives least weight reinforcement solutions coupled with least
complication. These points were illustrated on the in-situ building of the European Concrete
Building Project at Cardington [1] where, uniquely, many different methods of design and

Table 1.1 Configurations of flexural reinforcement in the in-situ building at Cardington [1]

Floor Flexural reinforcement Tonnes Bar marks

no /floor* /floor
1 Traditional loose bar - Elastic Design 16.9 75
2 Traditional loose bar - Elastic Design 17.1 76
3 Rationalised loose bar - Elastic Design 15.3** 54
4 Blanket cover loose bar - ½ Yield Line design 14.5* 22
- ½ Elastic Design 23.2* 33
5 One-way mats - Elastic Design 19.9 42
6 Blanket cover two-way mats - FE Design 25.5 20
7 Not part of the particular research project
* Values given are for a whole floor.
** 1.6T additional reinforcement would have been required to meet normal deflection criteria

4
 1.1 The essentials

detailing were carried out, constructed and compared. Yield Line Design was used on the 4th
floor and required the least amount of reinforcement as shown in Table 1.1. This shows that
for a complete floor, 14.5 tonnes of reinforcement would have been used using Yield Line
Theory compared to 16.9 tonnes using more conventional elastic design methods.

The Yield Line Design at Cardington also led to very few bar marks being required: only
the heavy blanket cover solution required fewer.

The economy of Yield Line Design is further illustrated in Figure 1.1, which shows the 4th
floor at Cardington [1] during construction. The steel fixers are laying out the T12@200 B
(565 mm2/m) reinforcement for the yield line half of the slab adjacent to the T16 @ 175 B
(1148 mm2/m) in the elastically designed half towards the top of the picture. Each half of
the slab performed well.

Figure 1.1 European Concrete Building Project at Cardington - 4th floor during
construction

The half in the foreground was designed using Yield Line Design. The other
elastically designed half was intended to be ‘highly rationalised’. However,
the number of bar marks used in the Yield Line Design was less than even
the most rationalised of the Elastic Designs. It is worth noting that the
deflections measured on the two halves under the same load were virtually
identical.

With Yield Line Theory the designer is in full control of how the moments are distributed
throughout the slab. This leads to the opportunity to use simple reinforcement layouts –
regular spacing of bars and fewer bar marks – that are easier for the designer, detailer,
contractor and fixer. These arrangements are far more regular than with other methods of
analysis such as Elastic or Finite Element Analysis.

These bar arrangements are premeditated and lead to the following advantages:
• For the detailer, regular layouts mean minimum numbers of bar marks. Often stock
lengths can be specified.
• Drawings are quicker to produce, easier to detail and easier to read on site.
• Regular arrangements of reinforcement mean quicker fixing.
• The principles of simple reinforcement layouts are well suited to prefabrication of
steel into welded mats and also to contractor detailing
• There is less chance of errors occurring
• Checking is easier.

5
Practical Yield Line Design

1.1.5 The opportunity

The management consultants who undertook research at Cardington [1] concluded:
“Yield Line Design appears to provide a great opportunity for more competitive concrete
building structures….”

1.1.6 Versatility
Once understood, Yield Line Design is quick and easy to apply. It may be used on all
types of slab and loading configurations that would otherwise be very difficult to analyse
without sophisticated computer programmes. It can deal with openings, holes, irregular
shapes and with any support configuration. The slabs may be solid, voided, ribbed or
coffered, and supported on beams, columns or walls.

The following are typical areas of application:

• An irregularly supported flat slab as shown in Figure 1.2, may, as illustrated by
Figure 1.3 (and Section 4.3), be analysed by considering yield line patterns in the
form of folded plates or worst-case quadrilaterals.

Figure 1.2 An irregular flat slab….

Figure 1.3 …..may be analysed using Yield Line Design – by considering quadrilaterals

• Yield Line Theory can be used very effectively in refurbishment work. It is used in
the assessment of existing slabs and can be especially useful where the support
system is amended and/or new holes have to be incorporated. (New holes are dealt
with by adjusting the length of postulated Yield Lines.) Yield Line Theory can be

6
 1.1 The essentials

used to estimate the ultimate load capacity of such slabs and so optimise and/or
minimise structural works on site.

• The theory can be used to analyse slabs with beams: composite T and L beams may
be incorporated into a combined collapse mechanism. Yield Line Theory is used
effectively in the design and assessment of slabs in bridges.

• Yield Line Theory can also be applied to slabs resting on soil, i.e. industrial
ground floor slabs, foundation rafts etc. The piled raft foundation illustrated in
Figure 1.4 was analysed and designed using Yield Line Theory - simply and by hand
(see Example 4F).

REGION Pattern 2b
C Pattern 2a

REGION REGION
D B
Pattern 2c

REGION
A

Figure 1.4 A piled raft – easily dealt with using Yield Line Theory and Design

7
Practical Yield Line Design

1.2 Frequently asked questions

Yield Line Design is easy to grasp but there are several fundamental principles that need
to be understood. Yield Line Design is a plastic method: it is different from ‘normal’ elastic
methods, and to help with the transition in the thought processes, definitions,
explanations, main rules, limitations, etc have been gathered together here in this section

1.2.1 What is a yield line?

A yield line is a crack in a reinforced concrete slab across which the reinforcing bars have
yielded and along which plastic rotation occurs.

1.2.2 What is Yield Line Theory?

Yield Line Theory is an ultimate load analysis. It establishes either the moments in an
element (e.g. a loaded slab) at the point of failure or the load at which an element will
fail. It may be applied to many types of slab, both with and without beams.

Consider the case of a square slab simply supported on four sides as illustrated by Figure
1.5. This slab is subjected to a uniformly distributed load, which gradually increases until
collapse occurs.

Initially, at service load, the response of the slab is elastic with the maximum steel stress
and deflection occurring at the centre of the slab. At this stage, it is possible that some
hairline cracking will occur on the soffit where the flexural tensile capacity of the concrete
has been exceeded at midspan.

Increasing the load hastens the formation of these hairline cracks, Increasing the load
further will increase the size of the cracks further and induce yielding of the
reinforcement, initiating the formation of large cracks emanating from the point of
maximum deflection.

On increasing the load yet further, these cracks migrate to the free edges of the slab at
which time all the tensile reinforcement passing through a yield line yields.

Square slab simply supported

Hair cracks

Large cracks emanating

from point of maximum
deflection

Cracks shown are on slab soffit

Figure 1.5 Onset of yielding of bottom reinforcement at point of maximum deflection

in a simply supported two-way slab

8
 1.2 Frequently asked questions

At this ultimate limit state, the slab fails. As illustrated by Figure 1.6, the slab is divided
into rigid plane regions A, B, C and D. Yield lines form the boundaries between the rigid
regions, and these regions, in effect, rotate about the yield lines. The regions also pivot
about their axes of rotation, which usually lie along lines of support, causing supported
loads to move. It is at this juncture that the work dissipated by the hinges in the yield
lines rotating is equated to work expended by loads on the regions moving. This is Yield
Line Theory.

Axes of rotation along

supports to rigid
regions A,B,C & D

B D
Yield lines forming
yield line pattern

For a more detailed appraisal of the

situation at corners see Section 1.2.11

Figure 1.6 The formation of a mechanism in a simply supported two-way slab with the
bottom steel having yielded along the yield lines

Under this theory, elastic deformations are ignored; all the deformations are assumed to
be concentrated in the yield lines and, for convenience, the maximum deformation is
given the value of unity.

1.2.3 What is a yield line pattern?

When a slab is loaded to failure, yield lines form in the most highly stressed areas and
these develop into continuous plastic hinges. As described above, these plastic hinges
develop into a mechanism forming a yield line pattern.

Yield lines divide the slab up into individual regions, which pivot about their axes of
rotation. Yield lines and axes of rotation conform to rules given in Table 1.2, which help
with the identification of valid patterns and the Yield Line solution.

Table 1.2 Rules for yield line patterns

• Axes of rotation generally lie along lines of support and pass alongside any
columns.
• Yield lines are straight.
• Yield lines between adjacent rigid regions must pass through the point of
intersection of the axes of rotation of those regions.
• Yield lines must end at a slab boundary.
• Continuous supports repel and simple supports attract positive or sagging yield
lines.

9
Practical Yield Line Design

1.2.4 What is a Yield Line solution?

In theory, there may be several possible valid yield line patterns that could apply to a
particular configuration of a slab and loading. However, there is one yield line pattern that
gives the highest moments or least load at failure. This is known as the yield line solution.

The designer has several ways of determining the critical pattern and ensuring safe
design:
• From first principles, e.g. by using The Work Method
• Using formulae for standard situations.

It will be noted that valid yield line patterns give results that are either correct or
theoretically unsafe. These ‘upper bound solutions’ can deter some designers but, as
discussed later, this theoretical awkwardness is easily overcome by testing different
patterns and by making suitable allowances (see 10% rule later).

1.2.5 How do you select relevant yield line patterns?

A yield line pattern is derived mainly from the position of the axes of rotation, (i.e. the
lines of support) and by ensuring that the yield lines themselves are straight, go through
the intersection of axes of rotation and end at the slab boundary, i.e. conform to the rules
in Table 1.2. Some simple examples are shown in Figure 1.7. Considering a slab to be a
piece of pastry laid over supports may help designers to visualise appropriate yield line
patterns.

The aim of investigating yield line patterns is to find the one pattern that gives the critical
moment (the highest moment or the least load capacity). However, an exhaustive search
is rarely necessary and selecting a few simple and obvious patterns is generally sufficient
as their solutions are within a few percent of the perfectly correct solution. Section 2.1.12
illustrates that absolute dimensional accuracy is unnecessary for engineering purposes.

Column
Axes of
rotation

Figure 1.7 Simple Yield Line patterns

1.2.6 What is a fan mechanism?

Slabs subjected to heavy concentrated loads may fail by a so-called fan mechanism, with
positive Yield Lines radiating from the load and a negative circular Yield Line centred
under the point load. This mechanism is shown in Figure 1.8. It is rare for this form of
failure to be critical but nonetheless a check is advised where large concentrated loads are
present or for instance in flat slabs where the slab is supported on columns.

10
 1.2 Frequently asked questions

m'
m = positive (sagging) moment, kNm/m
m’= negative (hogging) moment, kNm/m

Point load

Figure 1.8 Fan collapse pattern for a heavy concentrated load onto a reinforced slab

The mechanism for a slab supported by a column is the same shape but
with the positive and negative yield lines reversed.

1.2.7 What is the Work Method?

The Work Method (or virtual Work Method) of analysis is the most popular (and most
easy) way of applying Yield Line theory from first principles. Indeed, many experienced
users of Yield Line theory of design choose to use the Work method because it is so very
easy. The fundamental principle is that work done internally and externally must balance.
In other words, at failure, the expenditure of external energy induced by the load on the
slab must be equal to the internal energy dissipated within the yield lines. In other words:

External energy Internal energy

=
expended by loads moving dissipated by rotations about yield lines
Expended = Dissipated
E = D
Σ (Ν x δ) for all regions = Σ (m x l x θ) for all regions

where
N = load(s) acting within a particular region [kN]

δ = the vertical displacement of the load(s) N on each region expressed as a

fraction of unity [m]

m = the moment in or moment of resistance of the slab per metre run [kNm/m]

l = the length of yield line or its projected length onto the axis of rotation for that
region [m]

θ = the rotation of the region about its axis of rotation [m/m]

By way of illustration, consider the slab shown in Figure 1.6. Figure 1.9 shows an
axonometric view of this two-way simply supported slab that has failed due to a uniformly
distributed load. Note that:
• The triangular regions A, B, C and D have all rotated about their lines of support.
• The loads on the regions have moved vertically and rotation has taken place about
the yield lines and supports.
• The uniformly distributed load on each of these regions will have moved on average
1/3 of the maximum deflection.

The rotation of the regions about the yield lines can be resolved into rotation about the
principal axes of rotation, and thereby measured with respect to the location and size of
the maximum deflection.

11
Practical Yield Line Design

Rotation θΑ
A
Rotation θΒ D

B
C Point of maximum
deflection at
centre of slab

Point of maximum deflection

at centre of slab

Figure 1.9 Deformed shape at failure

This, fundamentally, is the ‘Work Method’. Any slab can be analysed by using the principle
of E = D. Some judgement is required to visualise and check likely failure patterns but
absolute accuracy is rarely necessary and allowances are made to cover inaccuracies.
Once a yield line pattern has been selected for investigation, it is only necessary to specify
the deflection as being unity at one point (the point of maximum deflection) from which
all other deflections and rotations can be found.

The Work Method is covered in more detail in Chapter 2.

1.2.8 Formulae
Rather than go through the Work Method, some practitioners prefer the even quicker
method of using standard formulae for standard types of slab. The formulae are
predominantly based on the work method and they are presented in more detail in
Chapter 3.

As an example, the formula for one-way spanning slabs supporting uniformly distributed
loads is as follows [2,6]:

nL2
m= per unit width
( )
2
2 1 + i1 + 1 + i2

where
m = ultimate sagging moment along the yield line [kNm/m]
m’ = ultimate support moment along the yield line [kNm/m]
n = ultimate load [kN/m2]
L = span [m]
i 1 , i2 = ratios of support moments to mid-span moments. (The values of i are chosen
by the designer: i1= m’1/m, i2= m’2/m)

Where slabs are continuous, the designer has the freedom to choose the ratio of hogging
to sagging moments to suit any particular situation. For instance, the designer may
choose to make the bottom span steel equal to the top support steel (i.e. make sagging
moment capacity equal support moment capacity.)

Failure patterns for one-way spanning slabs are easily visualised and the standard
formulae enable the designer to quickly determine the span moment based on any ratio of
hogging moments he or she chooses to stipulate (within a sensible range dictated by
codes of practice). Formulae are also available for the curtailment of top reinforcement.

12
 1.2 Frequently asked questions

Formulae for two-way spanning slabs supported on two, three or four sides are also
available for use. These are a little more complicated due to the two-way nature of the
problem and the fact that slabs do not always have the same reinforcement in both
directions. The nature of the failure patterns is relatively easy to visualise and again the
designer has the freedom to choose fixity ratios.

The formulae are presented and discussed in Chapter 3.

1.2.9 Is Yield Line Theory allowable under design codes of practice?

Yes.

Any design process is governed by the recommendations of a specific code of practice. In

the UK, BS 8110 [7] clause 3.5.2.1 says ‘Alternatively, Johansen’s Yield Line method ….
may be used…. for solid slabs’. The proviso is that to provide against serviceability
requirements, the ratio of support and span moments should be similar to those obtained
by elastic theory. This sub-clause is referred to in clauses 3.6.2 and 3.7.1.2 making the
approach also acceptable for ribbed slabs and flat slabs.

According to Eurocode 2 [3], Yield Line Design is a perfectly valid method of design.
Section 5.6 of Eurocode 2 states that plastic methods of analysis shall only be used to
check the ultimate limit state. Ductility is critical and sufficient rotation capacity may be
assumed provided x/d ≤0.25 for C50/60.A Eurocode 2 goes on to say that the method
may be extended to flat slabs, ribbed, hollow or waffle slabs and that corner tie down
forces and torsion at free edges need to be accounted for.

Section 5.11.1.1 of EC2 includes Yield Line as a valid method of analysis for flat slabs. It is
recommended that a variety of possible mechanisms are examined and the ratios of the
moments at support to the moment in the spans should lie between 0.5 and 2.

1.2.10 Yield Line is an upper bound theory

Yield line theory gives upper bound solutions - results that are either correct or
theoretically unsafe, see Table 1.3. However, once the possible failure patterns that can
form have been recognised, it is difficult to get the yield line analysis critically wrong

Table 1.3 Upper and lower bound ultimate load theories

Ultimate load theories for slabs fall into two categories:

• upper bound (unsafe or correct) or
• lower bound (safe or correct).

Plastic analysis is either based on

• upper bound (kinematic) methods, or on
• lower bound (static) methods.

Upper bound (kinematic) methods include:

• plastic or yield hinges method for beams, frames and one-way slabs;
• Yield Line Theory for slabs.

Lower bound (static) methods include:

• the strip method for slabs,
• the strut and tie approach for deep beams, corbels, anchorages, walls and
plates loaded in their plane.

A
This relates to an ultimate moment, M, ≈ 110 kNm in a 200 mm slab or an M/(bd2fk) ≈ 0.100. For higher concrete
strengths, x/d ≤ 0.15). Class B or C reinforcing steel must be used, i.e. characteristic strain at maximum force, Єuk, ≥
5.0%.

13
Practical Yield Line Design

The mention of ‘unsafe’ can put designers off, and upper bound theories are often
denigrated. However, any result that is out by a small amount can be regarded as
theoretically unsafe. Yet few practising engineers regard any analysis as being absolutely
accurate and make due allowance in their design. The same is true and acknowledged in
practical Yield Line Design.

In the majority of cases encountered, the result of a Yield Line analysis from first
principles will be well within 10%, typically within 5%, of the mathematically correct
solution. The pragmatic approach, therefore, is to increase moments (or reinforcement)
derived from calculations by 10%. This ‘10% rule’ is expanded upon later.
There are other factors that make Yield Line Design safer than it may at first appear, e.g.
compressive membrane action in failing slabs (this alone can quadruple ultimate
capacities), strain hardening of reinforcement, and the practice of rounding up steel areas
when allotting bars to designed areas of steel required.

The practical designer can use Yield Line Theory with confidence, in the knowledge that
he or she is in control of a very useful, powerful and reliable design tool.

1.2.11 Corner levers

‘Corner levers’ describes the phenomenon in two-way slabs on line supports where yield
lines split at internal corners. This splitting is associated with the formation of a negative
yield line across the corner which ‘levers’ against a corner reaction (or holding down force
– see 3.2.2). Corner levers particularly affect simply supported slabs and Figure 1.10
shows the effect corner levers can have on a simply supported square slab. It should also
be noted that the sagging moment m in an isotropic slab increases with decreasing corner
fixity. Table 1.4 illustrates the effects of continuity on both the extent of the corner levers
and on positive moments [13]. At an average fixity ratio of 1.0 the effects are minimal.
Nonetheless, if the corners are left unreinforced, span moments increase.

X
h

m' = 0
m' = 0.25 m'
X m
A
OF

N m
m
IS

m a TIO
AX

T A
RO

m' = m m' = 0.5

DETAIL A : Corner lever

Reinforcement in the form of 'U' bars in the corners

to cater for the negative moment m'

Figure 1.10 The effect of corner levers on a simply supported square slab where
corners are held down and prevented from lifting.

14
Other documents randomly have
different content
 Mathematics - Complete Guide
Third 2021 - University

Prepared by: Dr. Johnson

Date: August 12, 2025

Lesson 1: Research findings and conclusions

Learning Objective 1: Experimental procedures and results
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 1: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 2: Practical applications and examples
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 3: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 4: Research findings and conclusions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 5: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 6: Historical development and evolution
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 8: Historical development and evolution
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Review 2: Practical applications and examples
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 14: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 15: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 15: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 16: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 17: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 17: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 18: Best practices and recommendations
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 19: Experimental procedures and results
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Methodology 3: Comparative analysis and synthesis
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 21: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Study tips and learning strategies
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 23: Historical development and evolution
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 24: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Key terms and definitions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 25: Best practices and recommendations
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Study tips and learning strategies
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 27: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 29: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Quiz 4: Current trends and future directions
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 31: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 32: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Best practices and recommendations
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Practical applications and examples
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Quiz 5: Assessment criteria and rubrics
Remember: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 43: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 45: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 46: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 47: Literature review and discussion
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Module 6: Research findings and conclusions
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Key terms and definitions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 55: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 56: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 60: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Review 7: Key terms and definitions
Key Concept: Research findings and conclusions
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 62: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 62: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Study tips and learning strategies
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 67: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Case studies and real-world applications
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 69: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Review 8: Case studies and real-world applications
Note: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 72: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 75: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 76: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 78: Research findings and conclusions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 79: Key terms and definitions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Appendix 9: Current trends and future directions
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Study tips and learning strategies
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 86: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Practical applications and examples
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 88: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 89: Best practices and recommendations
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
References 10: Statistical analysis and interpretation
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Experimental procedures and results
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 94: Study tips and learning strategies
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Case studies and real-world applications
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 96: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 97: Research findings and conclusions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 98: Research findings and conclusions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 100: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Abstract 11: Research findings and conclusions
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 101: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 101: Experimental procedures and results
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Practical applications and examples
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 108: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Introduction 12: Fundamental concepts and principles
Remember: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Case studies and real-world applications
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 112: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 115: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Practical applications and examples
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 118: Ethical considerations and implications
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Key terms and definitions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Conclusion 13: Interdisciplinary approaches
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 121: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 122: Literature review and discussion
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Experimental procedures and results
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 129: Literature review and discussion
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 130: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Discussion 14: Learning outcomes and objectives
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 131: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 132: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 132: Key terms and definitions
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 133: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 134: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Key terms and definitions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 136: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 138: Research findings and conclusions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 139: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Quiz 15: Ethical considerations and implications
Key Concept: Best practices and recommendations
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Case studies and real-world applications
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 144: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 144: Current trends and future directions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
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