EMERGENCE OF SOCIOLOGY

The emergence of sociology as a separate academic discipline can be

traced back to a series of historical antecedents and intellectual
developments. While sociology is a relatively modern discipline, its
roots can be found in the Enlightenment period and various social,
political, and economic transformations over the centuries. Here are
some of the key historical antecedents that contributed to the
emergence of sociology:

The Enlightenment- It is the view of many observers that the

Enlightenment constitutes a critical development especially in the
later development of sociology. The Enlightenment was a period of
remarkable intellectual development and change in philosophical
thought.

A number of ideas and beliefs, some of which were related to social

life were overthrown and replaced during the Enlightenment. The
most prominent thinkers associated with Enlightenment were the
French philosophers Charles Montesquieu (1689 – 1755) and Jean
Jacques Rousseau (1712 – 1778).

Influence of Natural Sciences- Herbert Spencer gave the concept

of organismic analogy and drew parallel between social and organic
world applying evolution to the social world.

French Revolution- The French Revolution brought about far

reaching changes in not only French society but in societies
throughout Europe. It changed the ‘political structure’ of European
society and replaced the age of feudalism by heralding the ‘arrival of
democracy’. These significant themes included the transformation of
property, the social disorder, caused by the change in the political
structure and its impact on the economic structure.

Industrial Revolution- Industrial revolution led to change in the

economy of society several social changes followed. As capitalism
became more and more complex, new class of industrial workers,
managers, capitalists emerged.
The industrial cities grew rapidly. In the industrial cities socio-
economic disparities were very wide. City life in the industrial society
became an altogether a different way of life. A new population
earning their livelihood by working in the factories arose. In the early
years this working-class lived- in poverty and squalor and were
socially deprived but at the same time they were indispensable in the
new industrial system.
This made them a powerful social force. The traditional emphasis on
land lost its value while money or capital became important during
the Industrial Revolution.

Conservatism- These profound changes moved both conservative

and radical thinkers. The conservatives feared that such conditions
would lead to ‘chaos and disorder.’ The radicals felt that this would
lead to social transformation. Though the judgement of values
differed, social thinkers of the time were agreed upon the epoch-
making impact of the two Revolutions. Therefore, certain changes
taking place in the eighteenth and nineteenth century in Europe
bothered social thinkers.

Sociology thus grew essentially as a product of the reflections of the

great thinkers reflecting on society.

The emergence of sociology as a distinct discipline can be attributed

to the interplay of intellectual ideas, material developments, and
social changes that characterized the modern era. Key intellectual
ideas, such as the Enlightenment, positivism, and Marxism, provided
the theoretical foundations for the study of society, while material
developments, such as industrialization and urbanization, created the
social context in which sociology could develop. Together, these
factors contributed to the establishment of sociology as a discipline
dedicated to the scientific study of human society and the pursuit of
social progress.

THE NATURE OF SOCIOLOGY

Sociology is scientific. In other words, sociology tries to make a

scientific study regarding social actions or social events. Sociology is
the branch of knowledge, and it has its characteristics. Sociology has
different nature in society. It is different from other sciences in certain
respects. The following are the main characteristics of sociology as
enlisted by Robert Bierstedt in his book “The Social Order,” and
they are as follows: -

1. Sociology is an independent science:

It is not treated and studied as a branch of any other sciences like

philosophy or political philosophy or history.
2. Sociology is a social science and not a physical science:

As a social science, it concentrates its attention on man, social

behaviour, social activities, and social life.
3. Sociology is a categorical and not a normative discipline:

Sociology “Confines itself to statements about what is, not what

should be or ought to be.” As a social science, sociology is
necessarily silent about questions of value, and it is ethically
neutral.
4. Sociology is pure science and not an applied science:

The main aim of pure science is to acquire knowledge, and it is

not bothered whether the acquired knowledge is useful or can be
put to use.
5. Sociology is a relatively abstract science and not a
concrete science:

Sociology does not confine itself to the study of this society of that
particular society or social organization, or marriage, or religion,
or group and so on. It is in this simple sense that sociology is an
abstract nor a concrete science.
6. Sociology is the generalizing and not a particularizing or
individualizing science:

Sociology tries to find out the general laws or principles about

human interaction and association, about nature, from content,
and the structure of social groups and societies. It tries to make
generalizations based on the study of some selected events.
7. Sociology is a general science and not a unique science:

The area of inquiry of sociology in general, not specialized; it is

concerned with human interaction and human life in general. It
only studies human activities in a general way. Anthropology and
 social psychology often claim themselves to be a broad social
science.
8. Sociology is both rational and empirical science:

There are two broad ways of approaches to scientific knowledge.

Empiricism is the approach that emphasis experience and the
facts that result from observation and experimentation.
Rationalism is stresses reason and the theories that result from
logical inference.

The empiricist collects facts; the rationalist coordinates and

arranges them. Theories and attributes are required in the
construction of knowledge. In the sociological inquiry, both are
significant. All modern sciences, therefore, avail themselves of
both empirical and rational resources. Sociology is not an
exception.
BRANCHES OF SOCIOLOGY

Historical sociology is a branch of sociology that studies how

societies develop over time. It uses historical data and methods to
understand social structures, institutions, and events in their
historical context. It explores how past events shape present social
realities and patterns.

Religion Sociology (Sociology of Religion) - Studies religious

beliefs, practices, and institutions from a social perspective. It
analyzes how religion affects society and vice versa.

Environmental Sociology - Examines the interaction between

society and the environment. It explores issues like climate change,
sustainability, environmental justice, and the social causes of
environmental degradation.

Cultural Sociology - Studies the cultural aspects of society,

including beliefs, values, norms, symbols, and traditions. It explores
how culture shapes social life and individual behavior.

Criminology (Sociology of Crime and Deviance) - Investigates

the causes, consequences, and prevention of criminal behavior. It
also examines societal reactions to crime and the functioning of the
criminal justice system.
Political Sociology - Analyzes the relationship between society and
politics. It studies power dynamics, political institutions, government
systems, and how social forces influence political behavior.

Economic Sociology - Examines how economic activities are

influenced by social processes. It studies topics like labor markets,
capitalism, consumption, and economic inequality from a sociological
perspective.

Educational Sociology (Sociology of Education) - Focuses on

how education affects and is affected by society. It looks at the role of
schools, the education system, and how education relates to social
mobility and inequality.

Urban Sociology - Studies life in urban areas and the effects of

urbanization. It examines city structures, migration, urban problems
(like housing and poverty), and community life.

Rural Sociology - Examines rural life, agricultural practices, village

communities, and the social structures in non-urban areas. It often
focuses on development and modernization in rural societies.

Industrial Sociology (Sociology of Work) - Studies work, labor

relations, and industrial organizations. It looks at the impact of
industrialization on society and the social dynamics within
workplaces.

Medical Sociology - Investigates the social aspects of health,

illness, and healthcare. It explores how society influences health
outcomes, access to care, and medical practices.
Family Sociology (Sociology of the Family) - Focuses on family
structures, roles, relationships, and dynamics. It explores how family
life is shaped by social, cultural, and economic factors.

METHODS OF SOCIOLOGY
Sociology faces challenges in developing a satisfactory method
due to the complexity of human social life. Sociologists seek various
methods to collect, analyze, synthesize, and generalize vast and
complex social data, making it a challenging field. Some of the
methods are given below:
The Scientific or Experimental Method:

Every science employs scientific or experimental method for the

study of its material. This method consists of observation, recording,
classification, hypothesis, verification and prediction. Observation
means “looking at” things.

It is of two kinds:

(a) Spontaneous and (b) controlled. The former is conducted when

the phenomenon in question is spontaneously happening as when an
astronomer is observing the course of star or a sociologist is
witnessing a riot. Controlled observation which is also called
experimentation takes place when the phenomenon can be observed
in the circumstances devised by the observer himself.

Experimentation can be defined as investigation in which the

situation or subjects are systematically manipulated by the
investigator and controlled observation made so that a definite
hypothesis about the relation of variables can be tested.

Experimentation is possible only in natural sciences like Physics and

Chemistry but it is not possible in social sciences like Sociology. Some
people still have doubts as to whether social behaviour is really
capable of being treated scientifically.

In Sociology, as we have discussed earlier it is not possible to have

the laboratory method because the raw material of sociological
investigation is human being for whom it is not possible to live within
certain fixed conditions.

It has been said that when the experimental method is adopted,

investigations tend to become ‘artificial and trivial’. However, this
method has been used with great success over a very wide range of
situation and types of behaviour.

Sociology does observe the behaviour of the people under conditions

in which they live. However, every possible precaution need be taken
to conceal from the subjects that observation is in progress and that
measurements are being made.
The second stage in the scientific method is recording of all the data
obtained in the observation. Recording must be accurate and
objective. The sociologist records a situation as observed by him.

The third stage in the scientific method is the classification. Once the
facts are observed and recorded we must classify them in a certain
order. By classification we arrange our material in such a way that
those facts which possess common characteristics are grouped
together. Classification thus enables us to correlate the facts that we
have collected and established some relationships between them.

Next comes the stage of hypothesis which means giving some sort of
possible explanation for the correlation between the acts classified.
Classification has enabled us to sift the relevant from the irrelevant.
The correlation found between certain events and the study of their
nature and mutual inter-action leads us to formulate a provisional
explanation of the fact.

But it is not necessary that our hypothesis should be correct. It is to

be purified, testing it on similar facts and if it is found to be incorrect
it has to be discarded and a new one is to be formulated in its place.
This process goes on till its truth is verified.

Then comes the last stage of prediction which means that the
generalisation established on the basis of observation of facts would
be valid in future also if the conditions specified in our principle will,
prevail. The physical science can make true prediction but Sociology
can give only rough prediction as its subject-matter is so varied and
complex.

Sociology thus cannot make direct use of Experimental Method as the

human behaviour is too complex and difficult to be brought under
controlled condition for observation, comparison and
experimentation.

The comparative method

The comparative method is a basic research methodology in social

science that examines similarities and contrasts across various
examples or contexts in order to find trends, connections, and causal
mechanisms. By using this approach, scholars can learn more about
the social, political, economic, and cultural forces that influence
societal outcomes and individual behaviour. This method involves
comparisons of various kinds or groups of people in order to find out
the differences as well as similarities in their ways of life and thus to
find out clues to man’s social behaviour.

This method has been used by many sociologists to find out what
elements in social life are functionally со-related. Taylor used this
method in the study of the institutions connected with the family
among primitive people and was able to show that the practice of
mother-in-law avoidance was со-related with the custom of matrilocal
residence.

He showed that in all those families where the husband goes to live
with his wife’s people, the practice of the mother-in-law avoiding her
son-in-law is found. Similarly, Weber also finds direct relation between
the practical ethics of a community and character of its economic
system.

The Historical method

This method refers to a study of events, processes and
institutions of past civilizations for the purpose of finding the origins
of contemporary social life and thus understanding the nature and
working. It is based on the idea that our present forms of social life,
our customs and traditions, beliefs and values and our values and
ways of living as such have their roots in this past and that one can
best explain them by tracing them back to their origin. All types of
sociological researches are historical for the sociologists make use of
the records relating to the things that have happened or have been
observed.

The Statistical method

Statistics refers to the application of statistical methods to social
or non-social problems, and numerical data collected to understand
social phenomena. Case studies, derived from legal studies, provide a
holistic treatment of a subject, focusing on in-depth analysis of
individuals, situations, organizations, or communities. Techniques like
interviews, questionnaires, and participant observation are used to
collect information, providing insight into issues like alcoholics, drug
addicts, criminals, juvenile delinquents, social deviants, and
immigrants.

The Ideal Type Method:

The Ideal Type Method of investigating social phenomenon has been

expounded by Max Weber, Simmel and Durkheim. According to this
method an ideal is constructed from concrete cases and then a
particular case is evaluated according to the degree of its
approximation to the ideal.

For example, if a sociologist is interested in a problem, say, of

“friendship” or “democracy” he will create an ideal conception of
friendship or democracy on the basis of concrete cases and then, he
will measure the particular case of friendship or the working of
democracy in a particular country to that ideal and ascertain its value
accordingly.

Sociometry:

A new method of sociometry has been recently evolved by some

sociologists for the measurement of such nonstatistical relations as
envy, class conflicts, social adjustments etc. Sociometry is a set of
techniques to measure in quantitative and diagrammatic terms
attractions and repulsions in interpersonal relations.

The approach has been very useful in the study of small group
structures, personality trait and social status. It discloses the feelings
people have for one another and provides various indexes or
measures of interaction.

The Social Survey Method:

The social survey method consists in the collection of data concerning

the living and working conditions of people in a given area with a
view to formulating practical social measures for their betterment and
welfare.

The Case-Study Method:

A case study is defined as “an investigation of an individual or group
in which the variables which are measured and whose empirical
relations explored are characteristics of the individuals or group and
not a sub-unit of it.” It is a form of qualitative analysis involving the
very careful and complete observation of a person, a situation or an
institution.

The case study method is employed in studying an individual case or

that of a group, a community or an institution.

Questionnaire and Interview Method:

Questionnaire and interviews are very common and popular research

tools of sociologists these days. The questionnaire is a list of
important and pertinent questions concerning a problem.

It is sent to persons and associations concerned, requesting them to

answer the questions to the best of their knowledge and ability. The
object is to obtain knowledge about facts known to the informant but
not to the investigator. From answers received to certain questions
predictions are made about social behaviour.

The Public Opinion Poll Method:

This method is used to seek and gauge the beliefs, sentiments and
attitudes of the public on any given proposition. The public gives its
views by answering ‘yes’, ‘no’ or ‘do not know’ to the proposition. The
results of the ‘public poll’ help the authorities concerned in modifying
their policies accordingly.

Functionalism or Structural Functional Method:

The approach of functionalism is being given great importance in the

study of social phenomena by some sociologists. By this method we
try to interpret any part of society in terms of its functions and not in
terms of its utility and origin. Functionalism, in other words, refers to
the study of social phenomena from the point of view of the functions
that particular institutions such as family, class, political institutions,
religion, etc., serve in a society.
It is a functional analysis of the different parts of society.

Verstehen approach

The Verstehen approach in sociology, introduced by Max Weber, is a

qualitative methodology emphasizing empathetic understanding of
social phenomena by interpreting the subjective meanings,
motivations, and intentions behind individuals' actions from their own
perspective. The German word "Verstehen" translates to
"understanding," and this approach contrasts with positivism by
focusing on the internal, subjective reality of social actors to gain
deeper insight into their behavior and social life