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Summary
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MAINS
365

ENVIRONMENT
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CONTENTS
1. CLIMATE CHANGE 4.2 Solar Energy in India 23
4.2.1.International Solar Alliance (ISA) 24
1.1 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
4.3 National Green Hydrogen Mission 25
Change (UNFCCC) COP29 5
4.4 Ethanol Blending 25
1.1.1. India at COP29 5
4.5 Geothermal Energy in India 26
1.2 Sea Level Rise 6
1.3 Climate Change Impact on Cryosphere 6 5. CONSERVATION EFFORTS
1.4 Loss and Damage Fund (LDF) 7
5.1. International Treaties and Conventions 28
1.5 Article 6 7
5.1.1 CoP-16 to the UNCBD 28
1.6 Carbon Credit Trading Scheme, 2023 8
5.1.2 National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan
1.7 Green Credit Programme (GCP) 9 (NBSAP)28
1.8 Methane Emissions 10 5.1.3 High Seas Treaty 29
1.9 Key Concepts in News 10 5.1.4 Antarctic Treaty 29
1.9.1. Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism 5.2. Forest and Wildlife Conservation 30
(CBAM)10
5.2.1 Western Ghats 30
1.9.2. Greenwashing 10
5.2.2 National Board for Wildlife (NBWL) 31
1.9.3. Carbon Capture and Utilisation (CCU) 11
5.2.3 Agriculture and Biodiversity Conservation 31
2. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION AND DEGRADATION 5.2.4 Human-Wildlife Conflict 32
5.3. Ramsar Convention 32
2.1 Coal Thermal Power Plants (TPPs) 13
5.4. Treaty on Intellectual Property, Genetic Resources
2.2 Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) and Associated Traditional Knowledge 33
Amendment Act, 2024 13
5.5. Biological Diversity (Access and Benefit Sharing)
2.3 Community Participation in Water Regulation 2025 33
Conservation14
2.4 Ground Water Pollution in India 14 6. DISASTER MANAGEMENT
2.5 Water Recycling & Reuse in India 15 6.1. The Disaster Management (Amendment) Act,
2.6 Plastic Pollution 15 202435
2.7 Revised Classification of Industries 16 6.2. Technology in Disaster Management & Risk
Reduction (DMRR) 35
3. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
6.3. Earthquake Management in India 36
3.1 World Coalition for Peace with Nature 18 6.4. Landslide Management 36
3.2 Environmental Accounting 18 6.5. Cyclone Management in India 37
3.3 Sustainable Agriculture in India 19 6.6. Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) 37
3.3.1. National Mission on Natural Farming (NMNF)19
7. GEOGRAPHY
3.3.2. Agroforestry 20
3.3.3. Other Sustainable Agriculture Practices in 7.1. El-Nino - Monsoon Link 39
News20 7.2. 150 years of India Meteorological Department
3.4 Miscellaneous 21 (IMD)39
3.4.1. Digitization and Environmental Sustainability 21 7.3. Bharat Forecast System (BFS) 40
3.4.2. Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) 21 7.4. River Linking Project 40
3.4.3. Great Nicobar Island 22 7.5. Atmospheric Rivers (ARs) 41

4. RENEWABLE ENERGY AND ALTERNATIVE ENERGY

RESOURCES

4.1 Nuclear Energy Mission 23

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STUDENT NOTE
Dear Students,

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365 resources, renowned for their comprehensive coverage of current affairs.

The summary of Mains 365 provides a comprehensive overview of key

environmental developments, their significance, concerns, way-forward, and
Relevent case studies for your UPSC Mains answers.

This summary helps you revise key topics quickly and effectively.

Utilize these insights to enhance your preparation and ensure a strong

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1. CLIMATE CHANGE
1.1 United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC) COP29

COP29, held in Baku, Azerbaijan, concluded with Baku Climate Unity Pact.
Key Outcomes of COP29
New Collective Quantified Goal on Climate Finance (NCQG) or Baku Finance Goal: Proposed in COP21 for
post-2025 climate finance goal under Article 9 of Paris Agreement.
 Target: Triple finance to USD 300 billion annually by 2035.
Finalized the rules for Article 6 of Paris Agreement.
Concluded all transparency negotiating items: Enhanced Transparency Framework (ETF); 1st submissions
of Biennial Transparency Reports (BTRs); Baku Declaration on Global Climate Transparency etc.
Launched the Baku Adaptation Road Map and Baku High-Level Dialogue on Adaptation for Framework for
Global Climate Resilience implementation.
 Sharm el-Sheikh mitigation Ambition & implementation work programme
Adopted Baku Workplan and renewed the mandate of Facilitative Working Group (FWG) of Local
Communities and Indigenous Peoples Platform (LCIPP).
10 year extension to Lima Work Programme on Gender & Climate Change.
Key Initiatives/Declarations launched at COP29
Reducing Methane from Organic Waste Declaration (India not a signatory).
Global Energy Storage and Grids Pledge: 1,500 GW energy storage in power sector by 2030.
Hydrogen Declaration: Non-binding Declaration.
Climate Finance Action Fund (CFAF) (Hq: Baku, Azerbaijan)
Global Matchmaking Platform (GMP): Decarbonizing heavy-emitting industries.
Issues persisting in climate negotiations
NCQG falls short of global investment required i.e., $6.3–6.7 trillion per year by 2030.
Deadlock on Mitigation Work Programme (MWP) due to divergent views on fossil fuels’ role in future energy
mix and contention on Global Stocktake.
Slow operationalization and inadequate funding in Loss and Damage Fund (LDF);
Conclusion
Emission cuts of 42% (by 2030) and 57% (by 2035) below 2019 levels are needed for 1.5°C. Further, negotiations
required Climate Diplomacy as per Common but Differentiated Responsibility.

1.1.1. India at COP29

India clarified its stance regarding climate negotiation at Plenary Session of UNFCCC-COP29.
India’s stance on various aspects
NCQG: Proposed a goal of $1.3 trillion annually.
Opposed changes to the scope of the Mitigation Work Programme (MWP).
 Recognition of pre-2020 mitigation gap by developed countries (Annex I).
Just Transition: Developed countries to provide financial/technological support; Respect right to
development of developing countries.
Opposed follow-up mechanisms for Global Stock Take (GST) outcomes
Criticized UAE dialogue text for its lack of connection to finance, etc.
Called for clear indicators to measure progress on adaptation.
Voice of Global South
 Integrating Disaster Resilient Infrastructure into Adaptation Strategies: By India and Coalition for Disaster
Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI).

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 Energy Transitions for Global South: By India and International Solar Alliance (ISA).
Conclusion
India plays a critical leadership role for other emerging markets and developing economies (EMDEs) in climate
diplomacy.

1.2 Sea Level Rise

As per the State of Climate 2024, Global mean sea level rose at a rate of 4.77 mm annually [2014-23] (>double
between 1993 and 2002).
Trend in India (Centre for Study of Science, Technology and Policy, CSTEP)
Maximum SLR (4.44 cm) witnessed by Mumbai (1987-2021).
Factors Responsible
Ocean Thermal Expansion: Absorbing heat from GHGs and Ice melting: From glaciers, ice caps, etc.

Impacts of SLR Mitigation Measures

~32% of India’s coastline underwent sea erosion Flood Barriers: Ecosystem based (Oyster
[1990-2018] (National Centre for Coastal Research beds along the coast); Man Made (seawall),
(NCCR) etc.
29% of India’s population lives within 50 km of Floating Cities: E.g., Flood proof cities in
coastline and are vulnerable to displacement. South Korea and Maldives.
Freshwater salinization and Loss of coastal Others: Storm surge modelling; Integrated
ecosystems like mangroves, coral reefs, etc. Coastal Zone Management

Conclusion
Rising sea levels pose a serious threat to India’s coastal population and ecosystems. Urgent and integrated
mitigation strategies—ranging from natural barriers to innovative infrastructure—are essential to safeguard
vulnerable regions and ensure long-term coastal resilience.

1.3 Climate Change Impact on Cryosphere

2025 was designated as the International Year of
Glaciers’ Preservation. CRYOSPHERE
Impacts of Climate Change on Cryosphere ICE CAP

Greenland Ice Sheet currently losing 30 million tons of SN

OW
ice per hour. (State of Cryosphere 2024) ICE
SNOW
LAND AND SEA BERG ICE
Venezuela lost all its glaciers (2024) and Nepal’s Yala GLACIER RIVER ICE ICE SHELF
glacier was declared dead. ICE
Greening of Antarctic SHEET
If temperature rises by 2°C, Himalayas expected to PERMAFROST
lose 50 % of today’s ice. SEA
LAND
Impact of melting Cryosphere LAND
Positive feedback: Disturbs Earth Energy Budget maintained by high Albedo; Release of Carbon from
Permafrost.
Sea levels: 60m rise in global sea level in case all glacier ice melted. (NASA).
Cryosphere stores 80% of world’s fresh water.
Weakened Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) and Slowing of Antarctic Circumpolar
Current (ACC)
Rise in Natural Disasters like Glacier Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs).
Initiatives
Global: Himalayan Adaptation Network by IUCN; Living Himalayas Initiative by Worldwide Fund for Nature.

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Indian: National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem; Indian National Centre for Ocean
Information Services (INCOIS) etc.
Way Forward
Integrating local efforts with international frameworks.
Innovative financial mechanisms through multilateral development banks (MDBs), private investors, etc.
Others: Robust data-sharing platforms, policy support, etc.
Conclusion
The rapid melting of the cryosphere due to climate change threatens global sea levels, freshwater reserves, and
climate stability. Strengthening global collaboration, local action, and innovative financing is critical to preserving
these fragile ecosystems and mitigating cascading impacts.

1.4 Loss and Damage Fund (LDF)

Decisions were made at COP29 to ensure full operationalization of LDF.
About LDF
Agreed upon during COP27 and operationalized in COP28, Dubai as an outcome of Warsaw International
Mechanism (WIM) for Loss and Damage (LD), created in 2013.
Aim: Total pledged financial support for Fund has exceeded $730 million.
LD is negative effects of climate change occurring despite mitigation & adaptation efforts.
Challenges in L&D fund
Absence of a mutually agreed definition to categorize L&D activities.
Low pledges in comparison to funding requirement.
Low technical capacity especially in developing countries – to scientifically model L&D.
Difficulty in quantifying nontangible L&D like disappearing cultures and ways of living etc.
Way Forward
Establishing mechanism to assess non-economic damage especially for vulnerable.
Account for losses in ecosystem services and in human productivity.
Clear criteria for determining contribution levels and monitoring and enforcing compliance.
Conclusion
LDF upholds climate justice by aiding regions with minimal carbon footprints.

1.5 Article 6
Rules for carbon trading under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement were finalized.
About Article 6
Contains Tools/mechanisms of carbon market allowing countries to voluntarily cooperate for Nationally
Determined Contribution (NDC).
 Carbon Market: Trading systems where entities buy carbon credits to offset their greenhouse gas
emissions by supporting projects that reduce/remove emissions.
 One tradable carbon credit generally equals one metric tonne of carbon dioxide.
 Types: Emissions trading system (ETS) and Carbon tax.
3 main mechanisms: 2 Market-based and 1 Non-market based.
Significance of Article 6: Cut costs for NDCs by >50%, saving $250 billion annually by 2030 (World Bank);
Broader Impact through non-market approaches (Article 6.8), etc.

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Mechanisms under Article 6

Market based approaches Non-Market based approach

Article 6.2 Article 6.4 Article 6.8
Decentralized approach for Centralized approach for Promote mitigation and
bilateral cooperation. transferring ITMOs called adaptation.
Involves trading of International Paris Agreement Crediting No emission reductions trading.
Transferred Mitigation Mechanism (PACM).
More than One Participating
outcomes (ITMOs). Establishes global carbon Party.
market.
Baseline-and-crediting
mechanism.

Difference between Carbon trading of Kyoto

Protocol and Paris Agreement
Aspect Kyoto Protocol Paris Agreement (Article 6)
Limited to developed countries (Annex I) Inclusive of all countries.
Scope of with project hosting by developing
Participation countries.

Share of proceeds from CDM projects 5% of proceeds from Article 6.4

Adaptation transactions allocated to the Global
directed to the Adaptation Fund.
Funding Adaptation Fund.

Project-based mechanisms like- Combines market-based and

Market Scope Clean Development Mechanism non-market-based approaches.
(CDM) and Joint Implementation (JI)

Allowed use of older credits from Restricts legacy credit use; only
Legacy Credits inactive projects, causing post-2013 credits.
oversupply concerns.

Key Challenges
Inadequate Quantification Standards: Draft rules do not require countries to monitor reversals.
Double Counting: Article 6.2 do not strictly avoid inconsistencies in emission reduction calculations.
Coverage: Only 24% of global emissions covered under carbon taxes and ETS. (World bank)
Conclusion
Carbon market requires uniform reporting standards, third-party verification, and strong safeguards against
reversal risks.

1.6 Carbon Credit Trading Scheme, 2023

Union Environment Ministry notified draft Greenhouse Gases Emission Intensity (GEI) Target Rules, 2025 for four
energy-intensive sectors (aluminium, cement, chlor-alkali, and pulp & paper) under Carbon Credit Trading
Scheme (CCTS), 2023.
Key Highlights of the Rules
GEI Targets Calculation: As per Bureau of Energy Efficiency’s methodology.
Compliance for Obligated Entities: Meet GEI targets annually as per CCTS, 2023.
Environmental Compensation: Imposed by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB).
Legal Backing: Non-compliance under Environmental Protection Act, 1986.

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About Carbon Credits Trading Scheme (CCTS), 2023

Introduced through amendments in Energy Conservation (Amendment) Act, 2022, establishes Indian
Carbon Market under two mechanisms:
 Compliance mechanism: Mandatory program for the energy-intensive industries.
◊ Initially includes 9 sectors like Fertiliser, Iron & Steel, Pulp & Paper, Petrochemicals, etc.
 Offset mechanism: Voluntary project-based for entities not under compliance mechanism.
Challenges of CCTS
Lack of experience among Industry stakeholders with complex institutional framework.
Poor Market Transparency like double counting of GHG reductions, poor assessment, etc.
Uncertainty about Penalties and shortage of renewable sources to meet obligations.
Conclusion
Establishing clear methodologies for emission targets for building a transparent, efficient, and globally attractive
carbon market in India.

1.7 Green Credit Programme (GCP)

Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate notified
methodology for Calculation of Green Credits (GC) under
GCP.
About Green Credit Programme (GCP), 2023
Innovative market-based mechanism for environment
positive actions.
Enhance India’s
Eligible Activities: Tree plantations, Sustainable agriculture Tree and Forest
practices, waste management, etc. Cover.
Key Features: Voluntary Participation, credit trading on
domestic platform, etc.
Administering: Indian Council of Forestry Research and
Significance of Use of
Education (ICFRE), Dehradun.
Green credit Technology
About Green Credit (GC) Encourage
based tools
participation of
Singular incentive unit provided for environmentally individuals, public for maintaining a
positive activity. sector, and private dynamic land bank
Credits can be traded on a dedicated exchange, similar sector for afforestation. for plantations.
to carbon credits.

Green Credit Carbon Credit

Under Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. Under Energy Conservation Act, 2001.

Benefits individuals and communities. Benefits Industries and corporations.

Green credit activities may qualify for carbon credits, leading to climate co-benefits but not vice versa.

Concerns Associated with GCP

Incentivizes forest diversion: Companies can buy credits instead of restoring forests.
No addition to forest cover: Unlike compensatory afforestation, it allows use of existing degraded forest land.
Evaluation: GCP methodology lacks clear criteria for evaluating success.
Way Forward
Establishing the nature and quantified methodology for Green Credit like carbon credit.
Clearly Defining Activities to prevent dual incentivisation of the same activity.
Conclusion
Though a promising initiative, but its success will depend on the clarity of methodologies and processes
implemented.

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1.8 Methane Emissions

COP29 Presidency launched Reducing Methane from
Organic Waste Declaration for supporting 2021 Global
Methane Pledge (GMP). Shifts the burden to Limiting emission from
methane reduction Paddy cultivation (India is
About Global Methane Pledge (GMP)
(lifetime of just 12 among largest producer
Launched at COP26 by the European Union and the USA. years) from CO2 and exporter of rice) will
Parties to take voluntary actions for methane emissions reduction (lifetime of impact livelihood for
reduction to at least 30% by 2030 from 2020 levels. 100-1000 years). small, marginal and
medium farmers.
Need for Reducing Methane Emissions
Global Warming Potential (GWP) 28 times higher than
CO2. Reasons for India’s
Methane responsible for ~30 % global temperature rise refusal to join GMP
since Industrial Revolution. (Global Methane Tracker,
2025) India has the largest cattle population
Atmospheric methane (CH4) saw largest 3-year (source of enteric methane).
increase. (WMO’s Greenhouse gas Bulletin))

Initiatives to reduce Methane Emissions

Global: Earth Surface Mineral Dust Source Investigation (EMIT), Airborne Visible InfraRed Imaging Spectrometer
- Next Generation (AVIRIS-NG), etc.
India: National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA), Gobar (Galvanizing Organic Bio-Agro Resources)
–Dhan Scheme, etc.
Conclusion
Reducing methane emissions requires global technical and policy efforts, such as international initiatives,
improving livestock feeding practices, etc.

1.9 Key Concepts in News

1.9.1. Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM)
Kazan Declaration adopted by BRICS rejected CBAM, calling it discriminatory.
About carbon border adjustment mechanism (CBAM)
European Union’s (EU) policy imposing a carbon tax on imports of certain products from countries with less
stringent climate policies. E.g. Steel.
CBAM, implemented in 2023, moves from transitional phase to full enforcement by 2026.
Significance of CBAM
Decarbonisation of EU.
Prevents Carbon leakage, when companies in the EU move carbon-intensive production to lenient countries.
Encourage cleaner industrial production in non-EU countries.
India’s Concerns
CBAM tax burden would represent 0.05% of India’s GDP (Centre for Science and Environment).
Disproportionate burden on small and medium enterprises (SMEs ) compared to larger ones.
Stringent compliance requirements, certifications, digital filings, and verification protocols.
Conclusion
CBAM’s climate ambition is noble, but execution is bureaucratically extractive.

1.9.2. Greenwashing
Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA) Issues Guidelines for Prevention and Regulation of Greenwashing
and Misleading Environmental Claims, 2024.

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Key Highlights
Continuation of the Guidelines for Prevention of Misleading Advertisement, 2022.
Aim to promote truthful and meaningful environmental claims.
Defines Greenwashing as deceptive or misleading practices, including misleading words, symbols, or
imagery.
Applicable to all environmental claims, manufacturers, etc.
Types of Greenwashing
Greenhushing (underreporting/hiding sustainable credentials)
Greenrinsing (regular changing of ESG targets before achievement)
Greenlabeling (labelling unsustainable product as green); etc.
Need for Regulating Green Washing
Prevent erosion of public trust: E.g., in Volkswagen emissions scandal (2015),
Delay genuine solutions to climate change
Redirect resources towards environmental friendliness.
Conclusion
The guidelines could be enhanced with new technologies like AI for accountability and cross-border collaboration.

1.9.3. Carbon Capture and Utilisation (CCU)

India Unveiled First Cluster of Five CCU Testbeds for Cement Sector.
About Carbon Capture and Utilisation (CCU)
Technologies for capture & use of carbon as a feedstock to CO2 Utilization Pathways
make products like fuels, chemicals, etc.
Carbon Capture: Direct Utilisation
 From industrial or energy sources: Technologies like
membranes, solvent absorption, etc. Enhanced Oil Food &
Recovery (EOR) Healthcare Industrial Uses
 Directly from the air (Direct Air Capture - DAC): Through a
gas trapping system where CO2 is isolated from the rest of CO2 injected into High-purity CO2 As a solvent
the air. oil/gas used in food (e.g., dry

Carbon Utilisation: Once captured, CO2 can go for Direct reservoirs to processing and cleaning), heat
boost extraction medical transfer fluid,
Utilisation or CO2-to-Products (See image) applications welding gas, etc.
Significance of CCUS
Decarbonisation of Hard to abate sectors: Like cement, steel, CO2-to-Products
etc.
Propel Low carbon Hydrogen Fuels Mineral
Chemicals
Realization of Net Zero Targets Carbonates
Used in urea Converted to
Issues with CCUS adoption in India production, methanol or further Reacted with
plastics (e.g., processed into calcium/
Variation in Carbon Capture Costs across sectors. polycarbonates), gasoline and diesel magnesium
Limited CO2 storage Limit, especially for saline aquifers and and
via Fischer-Tropsch to produce
microbiological
basaltic storage. conversions synthesis building
materials.
Absence of downstream CO2 infrastructure. E.g., cement
Conclusion
Despite high costs, regulatory complexities, CCUS is a critical technology for decarbonization.

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2. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
AND DEGRADATION
2.1 Coal Thermal Power Plants (TPPs)
MoEF&CC has granted a fourth extension for coal-based TPPs to comply with SO2 emission norms.
In 2015, India introduced its first emission norms for TPPs targeting SO2, NO2, and Mercury, aiming to curb air
pollution caused by coal combustion.
Major Pollutants from Coal-Based TPPs
GHGs: Carbon Dioxide (CO2), Sulphur Dioxide (SO2), Nitrogen Oxides (NO2)
 Decarbonizing coal-based power can cut India’s GHG emissions by 30%.
Particulate Matter: Fly Ash, PM2.5, PM10.
Other: Heavy metals like Mercury and bottom ash.

Why Coal Still Matters

Energy security: Meets ~55% of India’s power needs.
 Electricity use may triple by 2050 (IEA).
Domestic availability: 5th largest coal reserves globally.
Employment & regional development in mining areas (e.g., Jharkhand, Odisha).

Emission Control Measures

Flue Gas De-sulphurisation (FGD) Technology, Electro Static Precipitator (ESP), NOx Combustion
Modification etc.
Perform, Achieve, Trade (PAT) Scheme.
Biomass co-firing to reduce net emissions.
Promotion of efficient Ultra Supercritical/Supercritical units over Subcritical Thermal Units
Carbon capture pilot at Vindhyachal.
Conclusion
Mitigating pollution from coal use requires promoting reuse and recycling of coal combustion by-products and
fuel cleaning methods like coal beneficiation and washing

2.2 Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Amendment Act, 2024

MoEF&CC notified new rules for holding inquiry and imposing penalties, following the decriminalization of
offences under the Water Act, replacing them with penalties .
Key Features of the Original Act (1974)
Aims to prevent, control, and restore water quality in India.
Establishes Central Pollution Control Boards (CPCB) and State Pollution Control Boards (SPCB) as regulatory
bodies.
Requires industrial units to obtain consent from SPCBs before operations.
Key Amendments (2024)
Central government empowered to-
 Prescribe manner of nomination and terms and conditions of service of Chairman of SPCB
 Exempt certain categories of industrial plants from restrictions on new outlets and discharges.
 Issue guidelines for grant, refusal, or cancellation of consent granted by SPCB.
Head of a department liable to pay penalty equal to one month of their basic salary if department violates
any provision.
Allows to Appoint Adjudicating officer to determine penalties

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 Penalties to be credited to the Environment Protection Fund established under the Environment
(Protection) Act, 1986.

Significance of Amendments

Decriminalization for Reduced Regulatory Streamlined Balancing

Trust-Based Governance and Burden Appointment Development and
ease of living and business Processes Environment Protection
operations

Conclusion
Stakeholder Engagement and training and capacity-building programs for Pollution Control Boards can
enhance effective enforcement of environmental regulations

2.3 Community Participation in Water Conservation

Recently, Jal Sanchay Jan Bhagidari initiative was launched by
Ministry of Jal Shakti from Surat, Gujarat.
Emphasises on
About Jal Sanchay Jan Bhagidari initiative India's traditional
Inspired by Gujarat’s successful Jal Sanchay initiative, it focuses consciousness-Treats Adopts Whole of
water as a form of Society and Whole of
on water conservation through community participation. God and rivers as Government
Goddesses approach
Significance of Community Participation in Water
Conservation
Foster Behavioural response: E.g., Jal Sahelis in Bundelkhand Features
have sparked a cultural shift towards Conservation.
of Jal
Utilization of Local Knowledge and Insights: E.g., Bari Farming
System (Assam) involves co-existence of fruit trees, vegetable Sanchay Jan
cultivations, and the pond. Bhagidari
Instilling a sense of ownership: Pani Panchayat, Odisha involves
voluntary farmers’ participation in distribution of surface and
ground water.
Align with the
Challenges Treats water
conservation not just ongoings "Jal Shakti
Lack of accessibility and complexity of water resources data as policy matter but Abhiyaan: Catch the
also as social Rain" of collaborative
Limited technical knowledge required for water conservation. commitment water management
Limited association with outsiders and Mere Ceremonial
Involvement: E.g. At Panchayat level.
Conclusion
Promoting participative water conservation requires inclusive policy dialogue, active involvement of corporate
and community stakeholders, and the adoption of sustainable practices like LiFE.

2.4 Ground Water Pollution in India

Union Minister of Jal Shakti released Annual Ground Water Quality Report of the Country for the Year 2024.
About Groundwater pollution
Major Groundwater Contaminants: Nitrate (e.g. Rajasthan), Fluoride (e.g. Rajasthan), Arsenic (e.g. West
Bengal), Uranium (e.g. Rajasthan) and Salinity (e.g. Delhi)
Major Causes: Discharge of untreated industrial waste; Excessive fertilizers and pesticides use; Climate
Change Impact and overuse on GW levels
Initiatives
Legislative provisions: Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974, Environment Protection Act 1986
and The Water Cess Act, 1977.
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Institutional: Central Ground Water Authority; Central Ground Water Board (CGWB); Central Pollution Control
Board.
Way Forward
Separate groundwater rights from land ownership & empower local bodies for regulation.
Phytoremediation: E.g. using aquatic plants to accumulate and remove arsenic from GW.
Prevent overuse of nitrogenous fertilizers in agriculture.
Conclusion
Groundwater pollution in India remains a serious concern. Strengthening local regulation, curbing fertilizer
overuse, and adopting eco-friendly solutions like phytoremediation are key to safeguarding this vital resource.

2.5 Water Recycling & Reuse in India

‘Jal hi Amrit’ initiative under AMRUT2.0 was launched to incentivize States /UTs for efficient management of
Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs)/Used Water Treatment Plants (UWTPS).
Water Recycling & Reuse in India
~72% of India’s wastewater ends up in nearby rivers, lakes, etc. (Centre for Science and Environment (CSE))
Water Reuse Technologies
Membrane Bioreactor; Ultrafiltration; Reverse Osmosis and Disinfection Technologies (UV/Ozone/Advanced
Oxidation); Electrodialysis Reversal; Thermal Evaporation/ Crystallization etc.
Challenges of Water Recycling & Reuse
Low treatment capacity of Sewage treatment plants (STPs): ~18.6%. in Class I cities and Class II towns
High Capital and Operational Costs of STPs
Low Compliance rate of STPs: 23 % of treatment capacity is meeting the consented parameters of State
Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs)
Lack of specific framework for treatment of polluted water
Initiatives
National Framework on Safe Reuse of Treated Water in 2022.
Power Tariff Policy 2016: Mandates all Thermal Power Plants to use treated sewage water
National Water Policy-2012 mandates recycle and reuse of water
Way Forward
Decentralized STPs at city-level E.g. Bangalore’s district split into 3 zones based on its natural topography
Governance reforms E.g., Karnataka, ULBs has defined responsibilities
Implement tiered volumetric pricing structure
Implement tradable water-use credits system based on treated wastewater usage.
Conclusion
India must overcome infrastructural and regulatory gaps to scale water recycling, with decentralization and
market-based incentives offering viable pathways forward.

2.6 Plastic Pollution

Recently Plastic Pollution Treaty Negotiations were adjourned in Busan, South Korea without finalization of a
treaty.
About the Plastic Pollution Treaty
Mandated by a 2022 UN Environment Assembly resolution.
India’s stance on Plastic Pollution Treaty
 Inability to support any measures to regulate the production of primary plastic polymers as it could
impact development rights of nations.
 Scope of instrument to be limited to addressing plastic pollution only.
 No support to inclusion of any list with phase out dates, at this stage.

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 Need of due consideration to national circumstances and capabilities

Plastic Pollution in India

Status of Plastic Pollution in India

4.12 Million Tonnes Per Annum Per capita plastic waste generation doubled
plastic waste is generated. (CPCB’s annual over last 5 years. (CPCB’s annual report in
report in 2020-21) 2020-21)

Ranked 3rd
globally in generation of single-use plastic (SUP) waste (Plastic Waste Makers Index 2019)

Challenges in tackling Plastic waste in India (Public Accounts Committee (PAC) report titled “Pollution caused
by Plastic”)
Absence of mechanism for assessment of generation of plastic wastes.
Non-Compliance like non-registration of plastic units, etc.
Units functioning without valid registration due to lackadaisical approach of CPCB, SPCBs, etc.
Delay in elimination of Single Use Plastic (SUP) as many states did not ban it.

Initiatives taken for Tackling Plastic Pollution in India

Plastic Waste Management Rules and its amendment
Plastic Waste Management (Amendment) Rules, 2024
 Responsibility of Producers, Importers and Brand Owners for collection of such plastic packaging
Extended Producer Responsibility on Plastic Packaging, 2022
Project REPLAN (Reducing Plastic from Nature)
Recommendations
Encourage producers to develop separate waste stream for collection of plastic packaging waste and
issuance of EPR certification on achieving annual targets.
Include penalty for ULBs which do not set up Plastic Waste Management systems.
Incentivise producers and fund R&D for developing eco-friendly alternative to SUPs.
Conclusion
As negotiations continue, the global community must demand a framework that prioritises equity,
accountability, and meaningful action.

2.7 Revised Classification of Industries

Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has directed State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) to adopt a revised
classification of industries.
About Revised classification
CPCB introduced Blue category based on Pollution Index (PI).
CPCB will incentivize industries which have demonstrated the successful implementation of environmental
management measures.
Classification of Industries
Purpose: To ensure that the industry is established in a manner which is consistent with the environmental
objectives.

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Existing Categories of Sectors

Category PI Key detail /Examples

Not normally be permitted in ecologically fragile area / protected area.

Red PI> 80 E.g. Cement, manufacturing of automobiles, distilleries, etc.

Orange 55 ≤ PI < 80 E.g. Brick manufacturing, dry cell battery, coal washeries, etc.

Green 25 ≤ PI < 55 E.g. Manufacturing of Compact disc Computer (CD/DVD), chilling plants, etc.

White PI < 25 These are non-polluting; do not require Environmental Clearance (EC) and Consent.
E.g. Assembly of air coolers, cardboard manufacturing, medical oxygen, etc.
Note: For any new or left-out sector, the SPCB/ Pollution Control Committees (PCCs) are allowed to categorize the
sector at its own level.

About Blue Category

Includes Essential Environmental Services (ESSs) facilities which are essential to control, abate and mitigate
pollution generated from Domestic and Industrial activities.
Examples: Municipal Solid Waste Management Facility, sewage treatment plants, etc.
Usage/Relevance of classification
Sector specific plans for Industrial pollution control
SPCBs/PCCs may prioritize environmental surveillance programs.
Tool for progressive environmental management
Conclusion
The CPCB’s revised classification of industries, including the introduction of the Blue category, reflects a progressive
shift towards environmentally responsible industrial regulation.

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3. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

3.1 World Coalition for Peace with Nature

“World Coalition for Peace with Nature: A Call for Life” Launched at UN COP 16.
About the Coalition
Voluntary coalition to address environmental challenges by changing human-nature relationship.
Reaffirms: Rights based approach of Kunming Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF).
About Peace with Nature
Emphasizes interconnectedness of environmental issues like Triple planetary crisis involving climate
change, biodiversity loss, and pollution.
Significance: Ecological sustainability, climate resilience, and biodiversity conservation.
Challenges: Preference to Short-term economic goals, lax attitude towards environmental targets, and
growing human population.
Conclusion
Need to transform economic and financial systems to include natural capital, Shift taxation from production
to resource use and waste, offer financial assistance to developing countries, etc.

3.2 Environmental Accounting

Union Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) released 8th “EnviStats India 2025:
Environment Accounts”
About the EnviStats
1st EnviStats were released in 2018 on Sir Partha Dasgupta Committee recommendations.
Compiled in accordance with the SEEA (System of Environmental-Economic Accounting) Framework.
 SEEA is an international framework for compiling Environment Economic accounts, describing the
interaction between economy and environment and changes in environmental assets.
 Two sides of SEEA- SEEA-Central Framework (SEEA-CF) and SEEA-Ecosystem Accounting (SEEA-EA)
Includes four areas: Energy Accounts, Ocean Accounts, Soil Nutrient Index, and Biodiversity.
Other initiatives in India: Gross Environment Product Index (GEPI) by Uttarakhand; Green GDP by Chhattisgarh.
Significance of Environmental Accounting
Current parameters like GDP overlooks environmental depletion and degradation
Balance economic growth with environmental sustainability.
Challenges
High implementation costs, especially for Small and Medium Enterprises.
Complexity of environmental data.
Lack of standardization.
Conclusion
Incorporating environmental considerations into financial decision-making could achieve cost effective
sustainable growth.

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3.3 Sustainable Agriculture in India

3.3.1. National Mission on Natural Farming (NMNF)
Union Cabinet approved National Mission on Natural Farming (NMNF) as a standalone Centrally Sponsored
Scheme under Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers’ Welfare.
About National Mission on Natural Farming
Tenure: Till 2025-26
National Steering Committee (NSC): At National level, under Chairpersonship of Minister of Agriculture &
Farmers’ Welfare.

Key Targets of NMNF

15,000 clusters in Gram Reach 1 crore farmers and 30,000 Krishi Sakhis (Community
Panchayats, which are initiate Natural Farming (NF) Resource Persons - CRP) for scaling
willing. in 7.5 lakh Ha area. of NF practices and knowledge.

10,000 Bio-Input Resource Centres (BRCs)- ~2000 NF Model Demonstration Farms to be

cluster-level enterprise for locally prepared established at Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs),
Inputs/formulations utilizing biological entities Agricultural Universities (AUs) and farmers’
fields.

About Natural Farming (NF)

Chemical free, low-input, climate-resilient system based on locally available resources.
Key Components: Beejamrit (cow dung, urine, etc.); Jivamrit (bio-stimulant for microorganism activity);
Mulching (covering soil using live crops); Whapasa (using earthworms); Plant Protection (using biological
concoctions), etc.
Significance: Improved yield; Environmental conservation; better soil and human health, etc.
Key Issues: Yield uncertainty; input supply issues through availability of cow dung and urine; etc.
Differences with Organic Farming
Parameter Organic Farming Natural Farming
Input Off-farm purchased organic inputs. On-farm inputs.
Agro Practices Ploughing, tilting, mixing of manures, Decomposition of organic matter by
weeding, etc. microbes and earthworm.
Cost More expensive Low cost
Other Initiatives to promote Natural Farming
National Centre for Management of Agriculture Extension (MANAGE)
National Centre for Organic and Natural Farming (NCONF)
State level initiatives: Prakritik Kheti Khushhal Kissan (PK3) Yojana, Himachal Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh
Community Managed Natural Farming (APCNF)
Conclusion
NMNF aims to enhance agriculture practices with scientifically supported approaches for sustainability,
climate resilience, safe food, and reduced farmer input costs.

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3.3.2. Agroforestry
Economic Advisory Council to the PM (EAC-PM) highlighted the untapped potential of agroforestry in India.
About Agroforestry
Defined In India as the tree cover % greater than 10% on agricultural land.
Types: Silvopastoral (trees and livestock); Silvoarable (trees and crops); Hedgerows and buffer strips
(sacred groves, Devrai in Maharashtra) etc.
Covers 8.65% (28.42 million hectares) of India’s total geographical area.
Traditional methods of Agroforestry: Itteri system (Tamil Nadu); Khejri System (Arid North -west regions like
Rajasthan) etc.
Significance
~93 % of India’s domestic timber is from agroforestry plots.
Stores up to 30% more carbon than traditional agricultural systems.
Help meet the target of increasing forest/tree cover to 33% [National Forest Policy (1988)].
Issues related to Agroforestry in India
Procedural complexities: National Transit Pass System (NTPS), only issues transit permits and not tree
feeling permits.
Unutilized potential: Only 17% of total agricultural land is under agroforestry.
Import dependence: India imported ~USD 2.7 billion worth of timber (2023).
Others: Multiple state laws (Agriculture, a state subject), etc.
India’s approach & Initiatives taken
National Agroforestry Policy
Sub-Mission on Agroforestry (SMAF)
GROW initiative: By NITI Aayog
2017 Amendment to the Forest Act 1927: Redefined bamboo from a tree to grass.
Way Forward
Arun Kumar Bansal committee: Emphasized participatory approach.
Recommendations in National Agroforestry Policy: Institutional Setup at National level to promote
Agroforestry; Decentralized institutions, like Gram Sabha, etc.
Conclusion
Unlocking its Agroforestry’s full potential in India requires policy simplification, strengthened local governance,
and sustained institutional support.

3.3.3. Other Sustainable Agriculture Practices in News

Integrated Nutrient Regenerative

Management (INM) Agriculture (RA)
Maintains soil fertility and plant nutrient supply Harmonizes farming with nature, involving
for sustaining desired productivity. principles of minimizing soil disturbance,
Optimizes benefits from organic, inorganic, and maximizing crop diversity, maintaining soil cover,
biological components. integrating livestock.
Significance: Enhances soil health, sustainable Benefits: reduce soil erosion and greenhouse gas
crop production, and cost-effectiveness. emissions
Challenges: Careful decision-making, nutrient Challenges: high adoption cost, initial yield loss.
management knowledge, and remote access. Conclusion: To make it viable, financial
Conclusion: INF can ensure holistic nutrient supply intervention and technical capacity building is
to crops by right information and research. needed.

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 8468022022 www.visionias.in

3.4 Miscellaneous
3.4.1. Digitization and Environmental Sustainability
Declaration on Green Digital Action (GDA) adopted by COP 29 of UNFCCC.
Key Highlights of the Declaration
Leveraging digital technologies for climate action and building resilient digital infrastructure.
Mitigate impacts of digitization on climate by establishing metrics to measure its environmental impact.
Environmental footprint of Digitalization (UN Trade and Development’s Digital Economy Report
2024)
ICT sector accounts for 1.5– 3.2 % of global GHG emissions in 2020.
30% rise in digital related waste from 2010 to 2022.
In 2022, Global data centres alone consumed 460 terawatts hours power(expected to double by 2026).
Demand for minerals required for digitalization like graphite, lithium, and cobalt could surge by 500 % to 2050.
Significance of Digital Technologies in Sustainable Development
Monitoring: E.g., AI could measure changes in icebergs 10,000 times faster than a human.
Informed decision making: Data analytics, cloud computing, etc.
Sustainable Design approaches: Stress on circular economy model.
Promoting Open data sources: E.g., Digital Public Infrastructure, etc.
Role in Disaster Management: Climate monitoring and forecasting.
Collective Intelligence: People work with technology to mobilize information, ideas, and insights, etc. E.g.,
Agrolly app for crop information, etc.
Conclusion
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) recommends adapting standardized procedure, encourage
companies to power data centres with clean energy, etc.

3.4.2. Indian Himalayan Region (IHR)

Recent Supreme Court judgments relating to climate change necessitate a sustainable development model
for IHR.
Key judgments
MK Ranjitsinh vs. Union of India case (2024): Right to be free from the adverse effects of climate change
under Articles 14 and 21.
Ashok Kumar Raghav vs Union of India case (2023): SC asked the central government to suggest a way
forward regarding carrying capacity of the Himalayan States/towns.
State of Telangana vs Mohd. Abdul Qasim case: Adoption of an ecocentric view of the environment (where
nature is at the core).

Importance of IHR Challenges associated with IHR

Himalayan glaciers feed majority rivers Himalayan states reported loss of 1,072 sq km of
Barrier for Frigid dry arctic winds and monsoon forest cover (2019 -2021).
winds. Gangotri glacier (Uttarakhand Himalaya)
Biodiversity Hotspot: Himalaya Hotspot and the retreated by 1,700 metres between 1935 and 2022.
Indo-Burma Hotspot IHR records ~100 million tourists every year.
Carbon Sink (stores 5.4 billion tonnes of carbon). Many urbanised towns (E.g., Shimla, Mussorie)
Provides resources like gucchi mushroom. already exceeded their carrying capacity.

Initiatives to Protect the Ecosystem of the Himalayan Mountain System

India’s Initiatives: National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem (NMSHE); Centre for Cryosphere
& Climate Change Studies; Sustainable Tourism & Waste Management: Swadesh Darshan Scheme, etc.
Global Initiatives: International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD); SECURE Himalaya
Project
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Way-forward
“Himalayan Authority” to coordinate integrated and holistic development of the region.
“Smart Mountain Tourism Destinations” similar to Smart Cities
Introduce ‘Green Cess’ (Payment for Environmental Services) based on eco-certification, etc.
Building on best practices, (e.g., Dhara Vikas in Sikkim and others) for revival of springs.
Conclusion
There is a need for stronger conservation measures to address habitat loss, illegal wildlife trade, forest fires,
etc.

3.4.3. Great Nicobar Island

NITI Ayog Draft Report on Greenfield International Airport – Great Nicobar released.
Concerns with the Project
Environmental concerns like Loss of top soil, sewage waste generation, impact on mangroves.
Artificial beach illumination impacts sea turtles (like leatherback turtle, and Nicobar megapode).
Lack of transparency and hasty consent process.
Shompen tribe remain vulnerable to infectious diseases.
A&N located in high-risk seismic zone.
Way forward (Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) report)
Measures: Halt construction during leather back turtles’ breeding season, use sodium vapor lights, Solid
waste management system.
Policy Reforms: Implement Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation
and Resettlement Act, 2013 for displaced people, etc.
Conclusion
Balance between development and conservation should be guided by environmental responsibility and cultural
sensitivity.

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4. RENEWABLE ENERGY AND

ALTERNATIVE ENERGY RESOURCES
4.1 Nuclear Energy Mission
Union Finance Minister announced a dedicated Nuclear Energy Mission in the Union Budget 2025-26.
About Nuclear Energy Mission
Target: To achieve 100 GW of nuclear power capacity by 2047
Current Status: Installed nuclear energy capacity is 8.18 GW as of January, 2025.
Aim: Development of small modular reactors (SMRs) and setting up of at least 5 SMRs by 2033.
Key Features
Private Sector Participation through Proposed changes to Atomic Energy Act, 1962, and Civil Liability for
Nuclear Damage Act, 2010.
Partnerships with private sector with motive of: Setting up Bharat Small Reactors (BSRs), Research &
development of Bharat Small Modular Reactor (SMR), and Research & development of newer technologies for
nuclear energy.
Relevance of Nuclear Energy for India
India home to one of world’s largest thorium deposits.
Overcome issues in expanding RE in India: E.g. Low waste/Pollution, Limited land requirement.
Strengthening Energy Security Through Indigenous Capabilities
Challenges with respect to Nuclear Energy for India (Economic Survey)
Public concerns about safety
Geographical concentration of uranium and other essential minerals.
Shortfall of Sulphuric Acid for uranium extraction.
Lack of a supportive ecosystem and the monopolistic nature of nuclear fuel supply chains.
Way-Forward
Standardization and Licensing by regulatory frameworks to facilitate the deployment of SMRs.
Consideration of Safeguards requirements during early stages of SMR designs
Innovative Financing Framework
Conclusion
With its vast thorium reserves and strong institutional capabilities, nuclear energy can play a crucial role in
achieving India’s climate goals and “Viksit Bharat” vision.

4.2 Solar Energy in India

India has achieved a historic milestone by crossing 100 GW of solar power capacity, with PM Surya Ghar: Muft
Bijli Yojana (PMSGMBY) powering 10 lakh homes as of March 2025.
Status of solar energy in India
Ranks 5th in Solar Power Capacity globally with Installed solar energy capacity of 110 GW (Power Ministry,
June 2025)
Potential in India: 748 Giga Watt peak (National Institute of Solar Energy).
Significance of Solar energy in India
Rural Electrification through off-grid power generation with fast capacity expansion.
Cost-saving: E.g., Under PMSGMBY, 1 crore families are expected to save Rs 15000 crore annually through
reduced electricity bills.
Reducing reliance on central grid, minimizing transmission losses, and enabling better load management.
Factors behind growth of Solar Energy in India
Abundant solar radiation: With ~300 sunny days per year and 4-7 kWh/m²/day.

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Financial support: India allowed 100% of foreign direct investment (FDI).

Indigenous manufacturing of solar components: Through initiatives like Solar Park Scheme
International Cooperation and Leadership: E.g. International Solar alliance.
Challenges Related to Solar Energy in India
Solar can need 300 times space as nuclear energy (Economic Survey 2023-24).
Extraction of minerals leave large scars in landscape and require substantial water. (Economic Survey 2023-
24)
Decline in the Solar photovoltaic Potential (SPV) due to increase in aerosol load from carbon emissions (IMD
Study)
High dependency on Imports: E.g., reliance on China for components/minerals
Gaps in R&D and Technology: India lags in adoption of latest solar cell technologies.

Initiatives taken to Promote Solar Energy

PM Surya Ghar Muft Bijli Yojana
Grid Connected Solar Rooftop Programme
Production-linked incentive scheme under National Programme on high efficiency Solar PV Modules
Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha evam Utthaan Mahabhiyan (PM-KUSUM)

Way Forward
Expansion of PLI Scheme to cover early-stage solar manufacturing.
Promote agrivoltaics and increase development of floating solar panels.
Other: Harmonizing state and central policies; Circular economy approach, Reassessment of current import
duties on solar modules, Collaboration with countries etc.
Conclusion
A balanced approach, combining financial incentives, technological innovation, and international cooperation,
will be crucial in making solar energy a cornerstone of India’s energy security and green growth strategy.

4.2.1.International Solar Alliance (ISA)

Recently, Paraguay became the 100th country to join the International Solar Alliance (ISA).
About International Solar Alliance (ISA):
Treaty-based intergovernmental organization for increased deployment of solar energy technologies.
Jointly announced by India and France in 2015 at UN Paris Climate Change Conference (COP-21 of UNFCCC).
Guided by ‘Towards 1000’ strategy:
 Mobilise USD 1,000 billion of investments in solar energy solutions by 2030
 Deliver energy access to 1,000 million people using clean energy solutions
 Installation of 1,000 GW of solar energy capacity.
 Mitigate global solar emissions to the tune of 1,000 million tonnes of CO2 every year.
Significance of ISA
Differentiated approach for High-income countries, Emerging economies, Low-income countries and SIDS.
Creation of a global solar energy market.
Facilitate standardised policies.
Platform for collaborative Research and Development.
Significant shift in India’s Foreign Policy to further strategic interests. E.g. Mission LiFE.

Initiatives taken by ISA

One Sun One World One Grid (OSOWOG)
Solar Technology Application Resource Centre (STAR C)
Global Solar Facility
Development of Large-Scale Solar Power Projects under Solar Park Concept in ISA Member Countries.
ISA Solar Fellowship for Mid-Career Professionals

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 8468022022 www.visionias.in

Challenges for ISA

Coordination issues among member states hinders effective implementation of initiatives.
China dominates the global solar supply chain.
Private sector participation may make renewable energy inaccessible.
Other: Issues of land acquisition & Technical challenges E.g. Grid integration.
Conclusion
Addressing regional disparities, ensuring equitable energy access, and adopting a people-centric, inclusive
approach are key to accelerating solar adoption.

4.3 National Green Hydrogen Mission

MNRE has released Scheme Guidelines for development of Standards and Regulatory framework under the
National Green Hydrogen Mission.
About National Green Hydrogen Mission (NGHM) (2023)
Duration: Phase I (2022-23 to 2025-26) and Phase II (2026-27 to 2029-30).
Objective: To make India a Global Hub for production, usage and export of Green Hydrogen and its derivatives.
Key components: Facilitating demand creation; Strategic Interventions for Green Hydrogen Transition
(SIGHT) programme; and Development of Green Hydrogen Hubs
Expected Outcomes:
 Development of green hydrogen production capacity of at least 5 MMT (Million Metric Tonne) per annum.
 Abatement of 50 MMT of annual GHG emissions
About Green Hydrogen (GH2)
Hydrogen produced through electrolysis, using electricity generated from renewable sources like solar,
wind, hydro etc.
Also produced from biomass, which involves the gasification of biomass to produce hydrogen.
Benefits of Hydrogen as a fuel: Lower emissions; Decarbonize sectors like transportation, shipping, and steel,
etc.; Power and Efficiency (3 times as powerful as gasoline).
Applications of GH2: Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs) Aviation and Maritime, Industry (Fertilizer Refinery,
Steel, Transport (Road, Rail), Shipping, Power Generation.)
Challenges in green hydrogen adoption
High production cost.
Requires high-pressure tanks and cryogenic temperatures for storage.
Green hydrogen production can require up to 9 Liters of water per kilogram.
Other issues: Lack of Skill In domain of hydrogen production; Lack of global standards on carbon intensity &
safety etc.
Conclusion
Lowering production costs, providing incentives like the PLI scheme, ensuring adequate financing, and
establishing an expert-led PMU are essential to advancing green hydrogen in India.

4.4 Ethanol Blending

India is gearing up to set a new target of 30% ethanol blending in petrol by 2030, having already achieved a 20%
blend (March 2025).
What is Ethanol Blending?
It involves a blended motor fuel containing ethyl alcohol.
Key Targets: Targets of 20% ethanol blending in petrol by 2025 (Updated) and 5% biodiesel blending in
diesel by 2030. (National Policy on Biofuels, 2018 and Ethanol blending Program (EBP))
Significance
 E20 reduces carbon monoxide emission by ~30% in 4-wheelers compared to petrol

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 8468022022 www.visionias.in

 Reduced import dependency and Boost to farmer income

Challenges in Ethanol Blending
Producers: Availability of feedstock, weather related issues
Oil Marketing Companies: Need for additional storage tanks, logistics cost and emissions
Vehicle manufacturers: Optimization of engine for higher blends, conduct of durability studies on engines.
Initiatives launched for Ethanol Blending
Reduced GST (from 18 to 5%) on ethanol.
PM JI-VAN YOJANA.
Flexi-fuel engines and components included under PLI scheme.
Amendment of Industries (Development & Regulation) Act, 1951 to ensure free movement of ethanol.
Way Forward
Ensure uniform availability of ethanol blends across India.
Augmenting infrastructure of Oil marketing companies.
Providing tax incentive to absorb R&D cost on E20 compatible design, etc.
Encouraging use of water saving crops to produce ethanol. E.g. Maize
Production from non-food feedstock to prevent tradeoff with food security
Conclusion
Ethanol Blending has significantly enhanced foreign exchange savings, reduced carbon emissions, and
supported sugar industries. It plays a vital role in promoting energy security, environmental sustainability, and
rural economic stability.

4.5 Geothermal Energy in India

India has identified a potential of approximately 10,600 MW of geothermal power (Geological Survey of India).
About Geothermal Energy
Heat energy from the earth—geo (earth) + thermal (heat).
Potential in India: ~300 geothermal hot springs.
Puga and Chumathang in eastern Ladakh most
promising sites.
Major Geothermal Spots
Potential Issues of Geothermal Energy
Possible land subsidence, high transportation Puga
charges (Due to remote plant location).
Manikaran
Possible release of toxic chemicals e.g. mercury,
arsenic, boron, and antimony.
Other Issues: Higher capital costs, techno-
economic viability issue due to remote location
Sohana
Initiatives in India
Renewable Energy Research & Technology
Development Programme (RE-RTD) Tuwa
Dholera Surajakund
100% financial support by MNRE to government/ SONATA
Unai
non-profit research organizations. Salbardi Tattapani
Bakreshwar
Singareni Collieries Company limited Tulsi Shyap
Godavari Basin
commissioned a 20 kW pilot geothermal power Ganeshpuri Buga
plant in Manuguru. Rajapur
NW-SE Himalayan Arc
Conclusion Bhutaya-Gudorn
West Coast Continental
Advancing geothermal energy in India requires margin
detailed geological mapping, increased Son-Narmada- Tapti
R&D incentives for cost-effective extraction lineament
technologies, and investment in infrastructure for
Major Geothermal Spots
efficient power distribution.

26
 wwww.visionias.in
8468022022, 9019066066

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AHMEDABAD BENGALURU BHOPAL CHANDIGARH DELHI GUWAHATI HYDERABAD JAIPUR JODHPUR LUCKNOW PRAYAGRAJ PUNE RANCHI
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5. CONSERVATION EFFORTS
5.1. International Treaties and Conventions
5.1.1 CoP-16 to the UNCBD
CoP-16 to UN Convention on Biological Diversity (UNCBD) concluded in Cali, Columbia.
Key Outcomes
Operationalisation of Cali Fund for fair benefit sharing.
Companies benefiting from Digital Sequence Information (DSI) to contribute 1% of their profit to support
Indigenous Peoples and local communities.
 DSI is the genomic sequence and other related digital data of organisms for research.
Recognition of rights of Indigenous Communities by a permanent subsidiary body under Article 8(j) of the
UNCBD and Cali Fund.
Launch of Kunming Biodiversity Fund (KBF) under Global Environment Facility (GEF).
Identification of Ecologically or Biologically Significant Marine Areas (EBSAs).
Shortcomings
Developed countries lagged in their commitment to provide $20 billion annually by 2025.
Only 44 member states submitted their updated National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP)
aligned with KMGBF.
Lack of consensus on contributions to Cali Fund.
Disagreements over biodiversity credits and offsets.
Others: No decision on updating and completing the monitoring framework under KMGBF; delay in Planning,
Monitoring, Reporting, and Review (PMRR) mechanisms, etc.

About UNCBD
International legally binding treaty, operates under UNEP, adopted at Earth Summit, Rio de Janeiro, in 1992.
Protocols/Targets: Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, Nagoya-Kuala Lumpur Supplementary Protocol, Nagoya
Protocol on Access and Benefit Sharing; Aichi Biodiversity Targets; Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity
Framework (KMGBF).
 Key Targets of KMGBF
◊ 30-by-30 Target (i.e. 30% conservation of land, sea, and inland water, degraded ecosystem by 2030.)
◊ Reducing introduction of invasive alien species by 50% by 2030
◊ Mobilizing $200 billion annually, including $30 billion through international finance.

Conclusion
Roadmap for CoP-17 in Yerevan, Armenia, 2026 lies in strengthening
Architecture for the
Monitoring and enhancing NBSAPs with time-bound action plans. implementation of NBSAP

5.1.2 National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP)

India Updated its NBSAP for 2024-30, required by every party under
Article 6 of UNCBD. National National Biodiversity
Authority
Key Highlights of Updated NBSAP (First created in 1999) Level

Aligns with Aichi Biodiversity Targets and KMGBF and adopts ‘Whole
State State Biodiversity
of Government’ and ‘Whole of Society’ approach.
Level Boards and Union Territory
Includes 23 National Biodiversity Targets (NBTs) on three themes– Biodiversity Councils
reducing threats to biodiversity; ensuring sustainable use of resources;
and enhancing tools for implementation. Local
Biodiversity Management
Level
Implementation by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Committees

Change (MoEFCC). NOTE: Ministry of Envirenment, Forest and

Governance structure: Multi-tier (refer infographic) under Biological Climate Change (MoEFCC) serves as the central
agency responsible for coordinating biodiversity
Diversity Act, 2002. conservation efforts across India

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Resource mobilization: Through Biodiversity Finance Initiative (BIOFIN) [Global partnership launched by
UNDP and European Commission].
Significance
Ecosystem Based Management Approach.
Outlines strategies to address challenges through ecosystem restoration.
Provides insights on biodiversity status and future strategies.
Robust Implementation through bottom-up approach, mainstreaming biodiversity, sectoral integration, and
inter-agency cooperation.
Conclusion
Need to Integrate traditional practices with modern governance to deal with contemporary environmental
challenges.

5.1.3 High Seas Treaty

India approves Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ) Agreement for implementation by Ministry
of Earth Sciences.
What are High Seas?
Areas outside the national jurisdiction of any country (National jurisdictions extends up to 200 nautical
miles (370 km) from coastline, called Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)).
Constitute about two-thirds of total ocean area and considered global commons.
About BBNJ Agreement
Formally called Agreement on Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine Biological Diversity of Areas
Beyond National Jurisdiction.
International treaty under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).
Key Guiding Principles: Polluter Pays, Common Heritage of Humankind; Freedom of Marine Scientific Research;
Equity and Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits; etc.
Key provisions of BBNJ Agreement
Coverage: Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction (ABNJ), including high seas.
Institutional Arrangement: Conference of Parties (COP)[Main decision making body], Scientific and Technical
Body (STB), Clearing-House Mechanism (CHM).
Financial Mechanism: Voluntary Trust Fund, Special Trust Fund, Global Facility Fund.
Four Substantive Elements: Marine Genetic Resources (MGR), Area-Based Management Tools (ABMT),
Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs), Capacity-Building and the Transfer of Marine Technology.
Significance of BBNJ Agreement
Equitable economic order including interests of developing states.
Strategic expansion of India in areas beyond the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ).
Conclusion
Treaty would help in achieving the “30x30” target to protect 30% of marine ecosystems by 2030.

5.1.4 Antarctic Treaty

Recently, 46th Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM) and 26th Committee on Environmental Protection
(CEP) hosted by the National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research, Ministry of Earth Sciences concluded.
About Antarctic Treaty
Genesis: Signed in Washington, 1959 by 12 countries & enforced in 1961.
Members: 57, of which 29 are consultative parties (India, a consultative Party since 1983).
Applicability: Area south of 60° South latitude.
Key provisions: Peaceful use of the region; International scientific cooperation; Prohibit nuclear explosions,
radioactive waste disposal, and military deployments.
Related Agreements
Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (1991)
Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (1972)
Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (1980)

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About Antarctica Region

Area south of 60 degrees South Latitude.
Thick ice covers about 98% of the land.
Has Largest international Marine Protected Area i.e., Antarctica’s Ross Sea.
Significance: Regulation of Global Climate; Slows Global Heating; etc.
Threats to the Region
Melting of Floating ice shelves.
Average summer temperatures increasing by ~3°C between 1970 and 2020.
Impact on Biodiversity including marine ecosystems, collapse of fish stock, etc.
India’s initiatives for Antarctica
First research station: Dakshin Gangotri (1983).
 Current research stations: Maitri (1989) and Bharati (2012).
 In ATCM- 46 India announced a plan to set up an, Maitri-II.
In 2022, India enacted the Indian Antarctic Act, 2022.
Conclusion
The Treaty is amongst successful international agreements for ongoing protection of an undisturbed continent.

5.2. Forest and Wildlife Conservation

5.2.1 Western Ghats
Karnataka government rejected the Kasturirangan committee report on protection of Western Ghats (WG)
region.
More on the News
Kasturirangan committee proposed 37% of the WG, to be declared as Eco-sensitive Area (ESA).
In June, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Goa, sought reduction of ESA post centre notification.
MoEF&CC issued a draft notification on the WG as an ESZ.

About ESZ
Ecologically important and fragile areas around protected areas notified under Environment (Protection)
Act, 1986. E.g., Doon Valley, Bhagirathi, Western Ghats, Mount Abu, etc.
Category of activities allowed (ESZ Guidelines)
 Prohibited: Commercial Mining, setting of industries causing pollution, etc.
 Regulated: Felling of Trees, Establishment of hotels and resorts, etc.
 Permitted: Ongoing agriculture and horticulture practices by local communities, dairy farming, etc

Significance of the Western Ghats

One of the world’s eight ‘hottest biodiversity hotspots’ declared in 2012 by UNESCO.
Caters to water needs of ~245 million people in the peninsular areas.
~63% of India’s woody evergreen taxa and medicinal plants are endemic.
Rich in iron, manganese and bauxite ores in parts of the ranges.
Threats and Issues in Western Ghats
Anthropogenic impacts like Urbanisation, and global warming.
Issues with Implementing Committee Recommendations due to opposition by States.
Way Forward
Western Ghats Ecology Authority to oversee the regulatory framework.
Western Ghats Sustainable Development Fund to incentivise green growth, etc.
Conclusion
Western Ghats serve as an important wildlife corridor characterised by high ecological sensitivity.

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5.2.2 National Board for Wildlife (NBWL)

PM chaired the 7th meeting of NBWL occurring after 10 years at Gir National Park in Gujarat.
About the National Board for Wildlife
Statutory body established in 2003 after amending the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
Constituted as advisory body during 1952, designated as Indian Board for Wildlife (IBWL).
 IBWL was instrumental in setting in place the Wild Life Protection Act, 1972, establishing Gir National Park
for Asiatic Lions, declaring tiger as national animal.
Members: Chairperson-Prime Minister of India, Vice-Chairperson: Union Minister of Ministry of Environment &
Forests and climate change etc.
Functions of NBWL
Promote the conservation and development of wild life and forests.
Framing policies and advising Central and State Governments on conserving wildlife.
Recommendations regarding setting up and management of protected areas like national parks.
Carrying out impact assessment of various projects and activities.
Concerns related to NBWL
Approving Projects in Protected Areas: E.g., Ken-Betwa project, was cleared despite submergence of nearly
100 sq km of the Panna Tiger Reserve.
Threats to Endangered Species: E.g., Oil exploration in Hollongapar Gibbon Sanctuary (Assam).
Way forward
Need for Expertise: Through qualified wildlife scientists, and conservation NGOs, etc.
Institutionalize Local Community Participation: Free, Prior, and Informed Consent (FPIC).
Leveraging scientific and technological tools like AI-Based habitat modelling.
Conclusion
Role of NBWL is of critical importance to ensure the long-term protection of India’s biodiversity.

5.2.3 Agriculture and Biodiversity Conservation

Recently, Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) released its flagship report “Agriculture and Conservation”.
Relationship between agriculture and conservation

Impact of Agriculture on Biodiversity Impact of Biodiversity on Agriculture

Positive: ~17% of species on IUCN Red List have Positive: Provisioning of services (production
agriculture documented as a habitat. of biomass, etc.), regulating and maintenance
services (climate regulation, etc.).

Negative: Threatens 34% of species on the IUCN Negative: Ecosystem disservices such as
Red List of Threatened Species, direct threats crop predation, pests and pathogens.
(conversion of natural habitats to croplands),
indirect (introduction of invasive species, etc.).

Key Measures to align Agriculture with Conservation

Financing For Sustainable Agriculture: Increasing role of collectives like FPOs, etc.
Innovative Practices: Use of Green Manure (E.g., Dhaincha in Tamil Nadu) for soil fertility.
Sustainable Nitrogen Management: Biological nitrogen fixation using leguminous crops (e.g., soybean,
alfalfa, etc.).
Aquatic Foods: UNFCCC Ocean Dialogue (2023) )recognized aquatic foods’ role (fisheries and aquaculture)
for climate solutions.
Policy Reforms: Globally less than 5% of agricultural subsidies are green subsidies.
Conclusion
Adoption of digital agriculture solutions and innovative agri-technologies can align agriculture with biodiversity
conservation.

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5.2.4 Human-Wildlife Conflict

Recent Wolf Attacks in Bahraich, Uttar Pradesh raised concerns about Human-Wildlife conflict.
About Human-Wildlife Conflict (HWC)
Encountered between humans and wildlife leading to negative results, like loss of life and livelihood (WWF).
Management in India: Primary responsibility of the respective State/ UT Government.
Some Examples of HWC: Predation on livestock; Damage to crops/fences; etc.
Impacts: Retaliatory killing, Rising zoonotic diseases; psychological Impact on Communities Damage to crops.
Causes
Seasonal changes and Extreme weather events: E.g., Arctic Ice Melting increases Human-polar bear
interaction.
Changes in Land use, expansion of agriculture. E.g., Sunderbans reaching its carrying capacity.
Changes in animals movement patterns, life cycles, etc.
Laws and Policy to tackle HWC
Forest and wildlife under Concurrent List.
Wildlife Protection Act of 1972.
Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs): Issued by Central government.
Others: National Wildlife Action Plan 2017-2035 (NWAP).
Way forward: National wildlife Action Plan (2017-2035)
Science-based plans for species-specific and region-specific.
Participation of local community.
Centre of Excellence (CoE) under Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change.
Conclusion
Rising human-wildlife conflicts demand science-based strategies, legal enforcement, and community
participation to ensure coexistence and protect both lives and biodiversity.

5.3. Ramsar Convention

Recently, new Ramsar sites were recognized under Ramsar Convention now totalling 91 in India.
About Ramsar Convention
Intergovernmental treaty for conservation and wise use of wetlands (maintenance of their ecological
character, achieved through implementation of ecosystem approaches, within the context of sustainable
development).
Adopted at Ramsar (Iran) in 1971 and enforced in 1975.
‘List of wetlands of international importance’ (Ramsar List) contains wetlands holding significant value for
humanity.
Sites in India: Oldest (Chilika Lake, Odisha and Keoladeo National Park, Rajasthan [1981]) and Latest
(Khichan and Menar, both in Rajasthan [2025]).
 Wetland City Accreditation (WCA): Indore and Udaipur.
Montreux Record: Ramsar sites where changes in ecological character have occurred/occurring/ likely to
occur. Examples: Loktak (Manipur) and Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan).
Significance of Convention: Fulfil Sustainable Development Goals; Research and Data Exchange among
Parties; International Cooperation.

About Wetlands
Land area saturated or flooded with water, either seasonally or permanently.
Current Status in India: 7 lakh wetlands covering ~16 Mha i.e., 4.86% of total area.
Significance of Wetlands: Carbon sink and Water storage; Nature’s shock absorber (prevents coastal
erosion); Kidneys of landscapes (filters out contaminants), etc.
Schemes/Policies/Initiatives: Wetland (Conservation and Management) Rules 2017; National Mission for
Clean Ganga (NMCG); Blue Flag Certification

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Constraints: Alteration of natural hydrological regimes due to groundwater salinization; Proliferation of

invasive species like Water hyacinth; Unsustainable harvesting of wetland resources such as wood, fish,
water, sand etc.
Challenges Associated
Implementation: States to review their national laws and share information.
Ambiguous Language of the Convention: Makes obligation to restore wetlands uncertain.
Absence of Formal Dispute Settlement: Hinders effective implementation.
Way Forward
Mutual Cooperation and Support among States: Ensuring regional implementation.
Building Societal consensus
Monitoring: Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA).
Conclusion
Wetland provide substantial economic value through services like flood protection and water purification, etc.

5.4. Treaty on Intellectual Property, Genetic

Resources and Associated Traditional Knowledge
The treaty has been adopted by the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO).
About the Treaty
First WIPO Treaty to address the interface between Intellectual Property (IP), Genetic Resources (GR) and
Traditional Knowledge (TK) and include provisions for Indigenous Peoples and local communities.
It will establish in international law, a new disclosure requirement for patent applicants based on GR and/or
associated TK.
Patent applicants must disclose: Country of origin of GR; Indigenous peoples/local community that provided
the associated TK.
Members: Any member states of WIPO may become party.
Non-retroactivity: Not applicable on patents filed prior to entry into force of this treaty.
About Genetic Resources (GRs) and Associated Traditional Knowledge (TK)
GRs are contained in medicinal plants, agricultural crops, and animal breeds. They are protected using
inventions developed through them.
TK are knowledge system held by indigenous communities.
Importance of TK: Natural Resource Managers (E.g., Karez or surang bavi system); Scientific research
(E.g., Polyculture technique called Milpa by Mayan people for regenerative agriculture); Forest conservation
(Sacred Groves conservation by Garo and Khasi tribes in Meghalaya), etc.
Challenges associated: Biopiracy; Limited Farmers rights; Lack of documentation, etc.

Measures by Government to Protect India’s TK and GRs

Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL)
Legislations: Patent Act, 1970; The Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmer’s Rights Act, 2001, etc.
Ministry of AYUSH: Dedicated ministry for traditional medicine.
UNESCO recognition: Yoga, etc. recognized as Intangible Cultural Heritage.

Conclusion
The treaty would curb biopiracy, enhance ethical innovations making the IP framework more inclusive.

5.5. Biological Diversity (Access and Benefit Sharing) Regulation 2025

The National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) has issued the Biological Diversity (Access and Benefit Sharing)
Regulation 2025.
Key Highlights of the Rule
Aim: To regulate the fair sharing of benefits from the use of biological resources and associated knowledge.

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Statutory Framework: Notified by NBA as per Biodiversity Act (BDA) 2002 replacing 2014 rules.
Key Features: Inclusion of Digital Sequence Information (DSI), prior informed consent (PIC), profit sharing,
transfer of research results, and benefit sharing for IPR commercialisation.
Challenges
Transboundary nature of resources makes difficult to obtain PIC.
Difficulty distinguishing between academic and commercial research.
Limited regulation of customary laws.
Weak institutional capacity, and monitoring issues.
Way Forward
Multilateral benefit-sharing across borders.
Legally recognize customary laws of indigenous communities and integrate them into ABS frameworks.
Clarifying research use to prevent misuse,
Others: Digitize Documentation through technological use; improve monitoring, etc
Conclusion
Rules ensure local researchers play a central role in any commercially-viable research.

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6. DISASTER MANAGEMENT
6.1. The Disaster Management (Amendment) Act, 2024
Disaster Management (Amendment) Act, 2024 was enacted to amend the Disaster Management Act 2005.
Need for Amendment in Disaster Management Act (DMA) 2005
Inadequate Integration of Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) E.g. 2013 Uttarakhand floods demonstrated
inadequate land-use planning, early warning systems, construction regulation.
Fostering effective community participation as community members are first responders.
Weak Project Planning and Execution of Disaster management activities by NDMA.
Insufficient Addressing of Health-Related Issues like epidemics in previous act.
Addressing Systemic and Cascading nature of disasters and climate risks.
Key amendments under Disaster Management (Amendment) Act, 2025
NDMA and SDMA given responsibility to prepare DM plans
New functions added for NDMA and SDMA: Taking periodic stock of disaster risks, Providing technical
assistance to authorities.
State governments empowered to constitute a separate Urban Disaster Management Authority (UDMA) for
state capitals and a State Disaster Response Force (SDRF).
Statutory status to National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC) and the High Level Committee (HLC)
Provides for the creation of a disaster database at the national and state levels.
Potential Issues with Act
Financial constraints of Urban Local Bodies to effectively set up and run the UDMAs.
Excessive rulemaking power to Central government, through delegated legislation
Bill is brought under Entry 23 of the Concurrent List of Seventh Schedule which deals with “social security and
social insurance, employment and unemployment”.
Bill does not expand the list of notified disasters to include climate-induced disaster.

Key Provisions of Disaster Management Act 2005

Establishment of Authorities: Act establishes a three-tier structure for disaster management.
 National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)
 State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMAs)
 District Disaster Management Authorities (DDMAs)
Preparation of Disaster Management Plans: At national, state, and district levels.
National Disaster Response Force (NDRF): for specialized response to disasters.

Conclusion
Act aims to strengthen disaster risk reduction and management by introducing new structures like Urban
Disaster Management Authorities. However, its success will hinge on overcoming challenges related to
coordination, authority, and resource allocation among various levels of government.

6.2. Technology in Disaster Management & Risk Reduction (DMRR)

Recently, advancements in geospatial technology based on AI, Machine Learning (ML) and Internet of things
(IoT) have been widely used in DMRR.
Use of Technology in Disaster Management Cycle
Prevention/Mitigation. E.g., building hazard maps using AI.
Preparedness:
 Disaster prediction and early warning systems: E.g. Google Disaster Alerts; Odisha SDMA’a “SATARK”.
 Event simulation: E.g. Mobile Learning Hub Philippines.

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Response:
 Emergency communication: E.g., Covid-19 chatbots launched by WHO.
 Search and rescue: E.g. Use of drones in Wayanad after landslide for search and rescue mission.
Recovery: Use of drones to transport essential goods.
Conclusion
The integration of technologies has significantly improved the accuracy of early warnings, efficiency of
emergency responses, and effectiveness of post-disaster recovery.

6.3. Earthquake Management in India

Taiwan rocked by earthquake of magnitude 7.4, biggest in 25 years.
About Earthquakes
Sudden, rapid shaking of the earth caused by the shifting of underground rock.
Causes: Tectonic Plate Movements; Fault Slippage (Build-up of stress along the fault line overcomes the
friction between rocks); Volcanic and anthropogenic activities, etc.
Vulnerability In India: 59% of the Indian landmass classified as earthquake-prone.
Recent Earthquakes: Myanmar earthquake, Delhi-National Capital Region (NCR)Shallow Earthquake, Taiwan
Reverse Faulting etc.
Initiatives
Earthquake Risk Assessment and Mapping by GSI
Indian Standard Code for seismic design and construction of structures (IS 1893) by BIS.
Others: Earthquake Early Warning System (EEWS), National Earthquake Risk Mitigation Project
Way forward (NDMA Guidelines)
Ensure incorporation of Earthquake resistant design features.
Facilitate selective strengthening and seismic retrofitting of existing priority structures.
Others: Improve the compliance regime; capacity development interventions; strengthen emergency
response capability, etc.
Conclusion
With over half of India prone to earthquakes, proactive risk assessment, resilient infrastructure, and strict
compliance with safety norms are essential for effective disaster preparedness and mitigation.

6.4. Landslide Management

Hilly regions of Wayanad district of Kerala experienced one of the worst landslides in recent history.
About Landslides
Landslide occurs when gravity forces on hill slope material exceed the frictional forces holding the material
in place, causing slope failure.
India’s Landscape Susceptibility to Landslides (Indian Landslide Susceptibility Map (ILSM)): 13.17% of India’s
geographical area. India accounts for about 8% of global fatalities due to landslides.
Causes of Landslides
In Himalayas:
 Geological Factors: Steep slopes, rapid rivers, rockfalls, and intense water saturation.
 Other reasons: Slope cutting, lack of comprehensive land use policy, Hydropower Projects and excessive
tourism.
In Western Ghats:
 Basalt rocks, high gradient, Deforestation, Mining, Construction activities.
 Western Ghats require less rainfall to trigger landslides due to greater water retention.
Initiatives
National Landslide Susceptibility Mapping (NLSM) Programme
Landslide Atlas of India by National Remote Sensing Centre of ISRO.

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GSI recently established National Landslide Forecasting Centre

Bhusanket Web Portal and Bhooskhalan Mobile App
Way forward (NDMA Guidelines)
No construction in the areas having slopes above 30 degrees or areas falling on spring lines and first-order
streams.
Perform load-bearing tests, use of hazard zonation, and slope and land-use maps in urban planning.
Fast-growing trees and useful grasses to be grown.
Provisions in MNREGA scheme for structural mitigation of landslides in hill areas.
Conclusion
Given India’s high landslide vulnerability, especially in hilly regions, proactive zoning, resilient infrastructure, and
nature-based solutions are vital for minimizing risk and safeguarding communities.

6.5. Cyclone Management in India

IMD has issued red and orange alerts for multiple districts in Kerala and Tamilnadu due to Cyclone Fengal’s
residual impact.
About Cyclones
Large-scale system of air that rotates around the centre of a low-pressure area accompanied by violent
storms and bad weather rotating anticlockwise in Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in Southern
Hemisphere.
India’s vulnerability: Exposed to nearly 10% of the World’s tropical cyclones.
Recent Occurrences: Cyclone Dana (2024) Along Odisha Coast; Cycone Fengal (2024) , Along Tamil Nadu,
Puducherry; Cyclone Remal (2024) over Bay of Bengal.
Management Framework in India
Institutional: National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project (NCRMP) by MHA; Project management and
institutional support at National, State and District level; etc.
Dynamic impact based Color coding warnings: By IMD like Green (no action), yellow (be watchful), orange
(be alert), and Red (take action).
Way forward (NDMA Guidelines)
Establishing state-of-the-art cyclone early warning system (EWS).
Mapping and delineation of coastal wetlands, patches of mangroves and shelterbelts.
Exclusive eco-system monitoring network to study the impact of climate change.
Establishing a comprehensive ‘Cyclone Disaster Management Information System’ (CDMIS).

Odisha Model with goal of ‘zero-human casualties’

Proactive approach (First Indian state to establish a disaster management authority)
Cyclone or tsunami warnings through sirens and mass messaging
Multi-hazard disaster- resilient houses & Community-Based Disaster Preparedness (CBDP)

Conclusion
With rising cyclone frequency, India must strengthen early warning systems, ecosystem buffers, and community-
based preparedness—replicating successful models like Odisha’s—to minimize human and economic losses.

6.6. Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs)

According to a recent report by Central Water Commission (CWC), glacial lakes and other water bodies in the
Himalayas have expanded their surface area.
About Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF)
Sudden release of significant amount of water retained in a glacial irrespective of the cause.
Recent Occurrences: 2023 (GLOF at South Lhonak, Sikkim), Kedarnath (2013), Chamoli (2021).
Major Causes of GLOFs
Rapid glacier advance. (E.g., Gilkey Glacier, Alaska)

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Moraine dam instability (E.g., South Lhonak GLOFs, Sikkim), Ice dam failure, Seismic activity
Human Activities (Unregulated urbanization, irrational mining, deforestation, hydropower projects, GHG
emissions etc. )
Way forward (NDMA Guidelines)
Structural and Non-Structural Measures: Controlled breaching, siphoning, and construction of outlet control
structures.
Advancing Monitoring and EWS: Integration of satellite-based monitoring and Geographic Information
Systems (GIS)
Focus on the latest scientific research and case studies from Himalayas.
Facilitate collaboration among experts, policymakers, and stakeholders.
Conclusion
The growing threat of GLOFs in the Himalayas demands science-led monitoring, structural safeguards, and
coordinated action to prevent large-scale disasters in vulnerable mountain regions.

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7. GEOGRAPHY
7.1. El-Nino - Monsoon Link
A Study in Nature’s Scientific Report reveals regional and temporal variability of Indian summer monsoon rainfall
in relation to El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO).
Major Finding
El-Nino monsoon relationship diminished in Central India, became strong in North India, and showed no
considerable variation over South India.
About ENSO
Recurring climate pattern involving changes in the Central and Eastern tropical Pacific Ocean waters.
Occurrence: Irregular cycles of 2-7 years with 3 phases, namely, ENSO neutral, El Nino and La Nina phases.
Relationship between ENSO and Indian monsoon rainfall: Inverse, with El Niño suppressing monsoon rainfall
and La Niña enhancing it.

El Nino & La Nina

Pacific Pacific Pacific
Ocean Ocean North Ocean
America North
North Asia Asia America
Asia
America Dry, warm
weather Cool wet
Trade winds weather Warmer
winter
South Warm water
movement Warm water
Australia America South movement
Australia America South
Australia America
Normal Condition La Nina Condition El Nino Condition

How El Nino impacts Monsoon

Weakens walker circulation and Shifts Jet Stream
Weakens pressure gradient between Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean
Leads to atmospheric stability that inhibits the vertical movement of air and suppresses the development
of convective clouds.
Conclusion
Amidst rising warming, it is advisable for researchers to study in detail the mechanism of ENSO and Indian
Monsoon.

7.2. 150 years of India Meteorological Department (IMD)

Mission Mausam was launched to mark 150 Years of IMD.
About Mission Mausam
Ministry: Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES).
Aim: Make India a “Weather-ready and Climate-smart” nation.
Phase-I will be implemented in 2024-26.
Implementation: IMD, the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, and the National Centre for Medium-Range
Weather Forecasting.
About IMD (Hq: New Delhi [Initially Calcutta])
Establishment:1875
Provides meteorological information for weather-sensitive activities (Agriculture, etc.) and warns against
severe weather phenomena (Cyclones, etc.).

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Major achievements
 Reliable weather data collection.
 Perfected monsoon forecasting and boosted telecommunication.
 Accurate cyclone warnings reducing deaths from 10,000 (1999) to zero (2020-24).
 Serves as UN Early Warning for All advisor to five developing nations.
Conclusion
IMD continues to evolve, ensuring its services remain relevant and impactful amidst rising weather
unpredictability.

7.3. Bharat Forecast System (BFS)

Bharat Forecast System Launched by Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES).
Key Features
High-Resolution Forecasting: BFS provides 6 km resolution forecasts for tropical regions.
Local Forecasting: Down to panchayat level.
Accuracy: 30%-64% improvement in extreme rainfall forecasts using real-time modelling.
Doppler Weather Radar Network: Utilizes 40 Doppler Weather Radars (DWRs).
About Hyperlocal Weather Forecasting
It pinpoints weather conditions to extremely localized areas.
Significance: Disaster Preparedness; safeguarding agricultural livelihoods, Global Climate Resilience; Traffic
Management in Urban Areas.
Key Challenges
Outdated prediction models.
IMD operates around 800 automatic weather stations, 1,500 automatic rain gauges (Total Need: 3, 00, 000)
and 37 doppler weather radars (Needed: 70).
Difficulty in predicting erratic and dynamic small-scale events.
Key Initiatives for Hyperlocal Weather Forecasting
IFLOWS-Mumbai by MoES.
CoS-it-FloWS: For flood forecast In Kerala.
Others: Gram Panchayat-Level Weather Forecasting, Mission Mausam, etc.
Way Forward
Understanding complexities of climate change and harness AI for better prediction.
Consider local ecology and socio-economic conditions.
Upgradation of weather forecasting infrastructure.
Conclusion
Significant investments in technology, research, and infrastructure is required for effective hyperlocal
forecasting.

7.4. River Linking Project

Maharashtra approved Wainganga-Nalganga River Linking Project and PM laid foundation of Ken-Betwa
Linking Project.
About Interlinking of Rivers
National River Linking Project (NRLP) aims to connect surplus rivers with deficient ones.
Background: National Water Development Agency (NWDA) identified 30 links under the National Perspective
Plan (NPP) in 1980.
Ken Betwa river link: Approved in 2021 by the Union Cabinet as 1st river interlinking project)
Benefits of River Interlinking
Benefits 35 million hectares for irrigation.
40
 8468022022 www.visionias.in

Generation of around 34000 Megawatt of

hydro power. Judicial pronouncement in
Others: Canal for navigation, employment
generation, etc.
context of Interlinking of Rivers
Challenges In Re: Networking of Rivers (2012): SC
State water disputes: Including bilateral recognised the need for inter-linking of rivers
disputes for transboundary rivers. in India and directed the Central Government
Environmental impact: Proposed Daudhan to constitute a Special Committee for
dam for Ken Betwa Link Project could Inter-linking of Rivers which will be
submerge 10% of tiger habitat in Panna Tiger responsible for carrying out the inter-linking
Reserve
program.
Social: Polavaram Link project, part of
Mahanadi-Godavari-Krishna-Pennar-
Cauvery-Vaigai Rivers’ interlinking, has impacted 1 lakh families (80% being Tribal).
Government Steps
Task Force for Interlinking of River.
Special Committee for Interlinking of Rivers (2014)
Group on Intra-state River Links (2015)
National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development funding towards Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee
Yojana.
Conclusion
Integrating traditional solutions like Mangal Turbine along with smart technologies are key for project’s success.

7.5. Atmospheric Rivers (ARs)

Scientists warn about intensification of ARs due to global warming.
About AR or Flying Rivers
Long, narrow air corridors that transport water vapor from the tropics to the poles.
Account for 90% of global moisture transfer outside the tropics.
Embedded in low-level jet streams within extra tropical cyclones.
Recent examples of Intensification of ARs: New Zealand (2022), California (2022-23).
Impact on India
Alters monsoon dynamic, ARs linked to 7 of India’s 10 worst monsoon floods (1985–2020), including 2013
Uttarakhand and 2018 Kerala floods.
Increased rainfall accelerates snow melt, lowering snow albedo and affecting glacier stability.
AR-driven water vapor intrusions worsen fog and haze in the Indo-Gangetic Plains.
Impact of Climate Change on ARs
Expected to become 50-290% more frequent by 2100 with a poleward shift.
Worsen floods in some regions while depriving others of rainfall.
Consequences of shifting ARs
Subtropics: Longer droughts and declining water availability
Higher Latitudes: More extreme precipitation, floods, and faster sea-ice melting, especially in the Arctic.
Indian Ocean Region: Warming seas and increased vapour pressure deficit (VPD) enhance evaporation,
fueling AR formation and landfall.
Conclusion
Better forecasting, and region-specific mitigation strategies are required to deal with threats posed by ARs.

41
 Mastering CSAT:
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