📘 Introduction to English Syntax

1. What is Syntax?

 Definition: Syntax is the study of how words combine to form phrases,

clauses, and sentences in a language.
 It investigates the rules and principles that govern sentence structure.
 In other words, syntax looks at word order and how meanings change
when order changes.

Example:

 Correct: The boy kicked the ball.

 Incorrect: Boy the ball kicked the.
→ Same words, but syntax makes only the first sentence grammatical.

2. Syntax in Linguistics

 Syntax is one of the core branches of linguistics, alongside

phonetics/phonology (sound), morphology (word structure),
semantics (meaning), and pragmatics (language in context).
 It is the “middle ground” between morphology and semantics.

Example:

 Morphology: un-happy (word structure)

 Syntax: The girl is unhappy. (sentence structure)
 Semantics: meaning of the sentence
 Pragmatics: using it in context → She didn’t laugh. She is unhappy.

3. Why is Syntax Important?

 It tells us how meaning changes with structure.

 It helps identify grammatical vs. ungrammatical sentences.
 It reveals how languages differ in sentence patterns.

Example:

 English: I like pizza. (Subject–Verb–Object, SVO)

 Japanese: Watashi wa piza o tabemasu. → “I pizza eat” (SOV order)

4. Key Concepts in Syntax

a) Constituency in Syntax
🔹 Definition (easy):
Constituency means that words in a sentence group together into units
(called constituents).
These units behave like a single “block” inside the sentence.

How to See Constituents (Tests)

1. Substitution Test – If a group of words can be replaced by a pronoun

(he, she, it, they), it is a constituent.
o The little boy with a hat ran home.
o Replace with He: He ran home. ✅
→ The little boy with a hat is a constituent (a noun phrase).
2. Movement Test – If a group of words can be moved together, it is a
constituent.
o She will meet [her friend at the café].
o Move it: [Her friend at the café], she will meet. ✅
→ That group is a constituent (object noun phrase).
3. Coordination Test – If a group can be joined with another similar
group using and/or, it is a constituent.
o He [ate pizza] and [drank juice]. ✅
→ Both are verb phrases, so they are constituents.

Easy Example Sentences

 Sentence: The dog chased the cat.

o Constituents:
 The dog (NP = noun phrase)
 chased the cat (VP = verb phrase)
 the cat (NP = noun phrase)

👉 Each part works as a block, not just random words.

✅ In short: Constituency = the idea that sentences are made of building

blocks (phrases), not just strings of words.

b) Hierarchy in Syntax

🔹 Definition (easy):
Hierarchy means that a sentence is not just a flat line of words — instead,
words group together at different levels (like a family tree). Some words are
“closer” to each other than others.
Why Hierarchy Matters?

Because the way words group together can change meaning.

Examples

1. Sentence: I saw the man with a telescope.

 Two possible hierarchies:

1. [I saw [the man [with a telescope]]] → The man has a telescope.
2. [I [saw the man] [with a telescope]] → I used a telescope to see
the man.

👉 Same words, different grouping → different meaning.

2. Sentence: The girl read a book in the library.

 Hierarchy of phrases:
o [The girl] (Noun Phrase)
o [read a book in the library] (Verb Phrase)
o [a book] (Noun Phrase)
o [in the library] (Prepositional Phrase)
 👉 Each smaller unit builds into bigger ones, like blocks inside blocks.

3. Sentence: The old teacher laughed.

 Hierarchy:
o [The old teacher] = NP (noun phrase)
o [laughed] = VP (verb phrase)
o Together → Sentence (S).

✅ In short:
Hierarchy = Sentences are layers of structure, not just word strings. Some
words belong together more closely, forming phrases inside larger phrases.

c) Phrase Structure

🔹 Definition (easy):
Phrase structure means that sentences are built from phrases (groups of
words) that act as single units.

 A phrase has a head word (main word) and sometimes other words
around it.
 Different kinds of phrases form larger structures → clauses →
sentences.

Main Types of Phrases

1. Noun Phrase (NP) → Head = Noun

o The tall boy
o A big house in the city
✅ Example sentence: The tall boy is playing football.
(NP = The tall boy)
2. Verb Phrase (VP) → Head = Verb
o is running fast
o ate the sandwich
✅ Example sentence: She ate the sandwich.
(VP = ate the sandwich)
 3. Prepositional Phrase (PP) → Head = Preposition
o in the garden
o under the table
✅ Example sentence: The cat is under the table.
(PP = under the table)
4. Adjective Phrase (AdjP) → Head = Adjective
o very smart
o full of energy
✅ Example sentence: The student is very smart.
(AdjP = very smart)
5. Adverb Phrase (AdvP) → Head = Adverb
o quite slowly
o very quickly
✅ Example sentence: He ran very quickly.
(AdvP = very quickly)

How Phrase Structure Builds Sentences

Example: The little girl sang a song in the park.

 NP = The little girl

 VP = sang a song in the park
 Inside VP:
o NP = a song
o PP = in the park

👉 Phrases join together like building blocks until we get the whole sentence.

✅ In short:
Phrase structure shows that sentences are not random words, but
organized groups (phrases) built around a head word.

📝 15 Quizzes
Part A – Definitions (Multiple Choice)

1. Syntax studies:
a) Sounds
b) Word meanings
c) Sentence structure ✅
d) Social use of language
2. Which is NOT part of syntax?
a) Word order
b) Sentence hierarchy
 c) Pronunciation ✅
d) Constituency
3. Syntax belongs to which area of linguistics?
a) Applied Linguistics
b) Theoretical Linguistics ✅
c) Sociolinguistics
d) Historical Linguistics

1c, 2c, 3b,

Part B – True/False

4. Syntax explains why “The cat sleeps” is grammatical but “Cat the
sleeps” is not. → ✅ True
5. Constituents cannot be tested by substitution. → ❌ False
6. Hierarchy shows that some words group together more closely than
others. → ✅ True

Part C – Fill in the blanks

7. Syntax is the study of __________. → sentence structure

8. A group of words that functions as a single unit is called a __________. →
constituent
9. The abbreviation SVO in English syntax stands for __________. →
Subject–Verb–Object

Part D – Application

10. Which phrase is a constituent in this sentence?

The tall man bought a new car yesterday.
a) The tall man ✅
b) Tall bought
c) Car yesterday
d) Bought new
11. Which test proves that in the park is a constituent in They
played in the park?
a) Movement ✅ (In the park, they played.)
b) Deletion
c) Stress
d) Pronunciation
12. Identify the hierarchical ambiguity: I saw the man with
binoculars.
→ Either the man has binoculars or I used binoculars. ✅
Part E – Matching

13. Match the phrase type with the example:

 NP → is running quickly
 VP → the big house
 PP → under the table

Part F – Short Answer

14. Give an example of a sentence with a constituent NP and prove

it using the substitution test.
→ The young teacher laughed loudly. → She laughed loudly. ✅
15. Why does syntax use hierarchy instead of treating sentences as
a flat line of words?
→ Because sentences have internal structure and different
groupings of words can change meaning. ✅

📘 Historical Perspectives on
Syntax
(Evolution of syntactic theories in English linguistics)

🔹 1. Traditional Grammar (Ancient – 19th

century)
 Definition: Traditional grammar comes from Greek and Latin
models of language (Aristotle, Dionysius Thrax, Priscian). It described
grammar mainly in prescriptive terms (rules of “correct” usage).
 Focus: parts of speech, word order, sentence diagramming.

Example:

 Sentence: The boy runs fast.

 Traditional grammar labels:
o The = article, boy = noun, runs = verb, fast = adverb.
 Rules: Subject + Predicate form a sentence.
🔹 2. Structuralism (Early 20th century –
1950s)
 Definition: A scientific, descriptive approach (not prescriptive).
Associated with Ferdinand de Saussure and later Leonard
Bloomfield.
 Focus: describing language as a system of relations, analyzing
sentences by immediate constituents (IC analysis).

Example:

 Sentence: The little boy saw a dog.

 IC analysis: [The little boy] [saw a dog].
 Each group is a constituent.

🔹 3. Generative Grammar (1950s – present)

 Definition: Developed by Noam Chomsky.
 Focus: Humans have an innate “universal grammar.” Syntax is a
mental system of rules that generates infinite sentences.
 Introduced phrase structure rules and transformations.

Example:

 Deep structure: The dog is chasing the cat.

 Transformation (passive): The cat is being chased by the dog.
 Same meaning, different structure → explained by transformations.

🔹 4. Government and Binding Theory (1980s)

 Definition: A refinement of generative grammar. Uses principles
(universal rules) and parameters (language-specific options).
 Key concept: movement rules (NP-movement, Wh-movement).

Example:

 John is easy [to please __]. (NP movement)

 What did she say [__]? (Wh-movement)

🔹 5. Minimalist Program (1990s – present)

 Definition: Chomsky’s newest model. Suggests syntax should be
explained in the simplest and most economical way.
  Focus: How the human brain produces language with minimal effort.

Example:

 Sentence: Who did Mary see?

 Minimalist view: Movement happens only if necessary (economy
principle).

🔹 6. Functional and Cognitive Approaches

(1970s – present)
 Definition: Alternative approaches focusing on how syntax is shaped
by meaning, communication, and cognition.
 Associated with Halliday’s Systemic Functional Grammar and
Cognitive Grammar (Langacker).
 Syntax is not just formal rules but tied to function and usage.

Example:

 It is raining.
 Functional view: Subject it is a “dummy” to fulfill the English
requirement of having a subject.
 Cognitive view: Structure reflects how we conceptualize experience.

📝 15 Multiple Choice Quizzes:

Historical Perspectives on Syntax
1. Traditional grammar is mainly:

a) Descriptive
b) Prescriptive ✅
c) Functional
d) Minimalist

2. Which language traditions influenced early English

grammar rules?

a) Arabic and Chinese

b) Greek and Latin ✅
c) Sanskrit and Persian
d) Russian and German
3. Who is considered the father of structural linguistics?

a) Noam Chomsky
b) Leonard Bloomfield ✅
c) Halliday
d) Aristotle

4. Structuralism is primarily:

a) Prescriptive
b) Descriptive ✅
c) Transformational
d) Functional

5. Immediate Constituent (IC) analysis was developed under

which theory?

a) Traditional Grammar
b) Structuralism ✅
c) Generative Grammar
d) Cognitive Grammar

6. Generative Grammar was introduced in the:

a) 1920s
b) 1950s ✅
c) 1980s
d) 2000s

7. Who introduced Generative Grammar?

a) Ferdinand de Saussure
b) Noam Chomsky ✅
c) Halliday
d) Leonard Bloomfield

8. Which of the following explains transformations such as

active → passive?
a) Functional Grammar
b) Generative Grammar ✅
c) Structuralism
d) Minimalist Program

9. Government and Binding Theory explains cross-linguistic

differences through:

a) Dialects
b) Parameters ✅
c) Word lists
d) Prescriptions

10. In Government and Binding Theory, the concept of NP-

movement is seen in which sentence?

a) John is easy [to please __]. ✅

b) The cat chased the dog.
c) The boy ran quickly.
d) It is raining.

11. The Minimalist Program emphasizes:

a) Complex rules
b) Economic and simple explanations ✅
c) Prescriptive grammar
d) Phonetic description

12. Which theory would explain It is raining as a subject

requirement of English grammar?

a) Traditional Grammar
b) Structuralism
c) Functional Grammar ✅
d) Generative Grammar

13. Halliday is associated with:

a) Minimalist Program
b) Cognitive Grammar
c) Systemic Functional Grammar ✅
d) Structuralism

14. Which theory views syntax as reflecting human cognition

and meaning-making?

a) Cognitive Grammar ✅
b) Structuralism
c) Traditional Grammar
d) Government and Binding

15. Which of the following is the correct chronological order?

a) Structuralism → Traditional Grammar → Minimalist Program

b) Traditional Grammar → Structuralism → Generative Grammar → GB Theory
→ Minimalist Program ✅
c) Minimalist Program → Functional Grammar → Traditional Grammar
d) Cognitive Grammar → Structuralism → Traditional Grammar

📝 15 Quizzes
Part A – Multiple Choice

1. Traditional grammar is mainly:

a) Prescriptive ✅
b) Descriptive
c) Cognitive
d) Transformational
2. Who is considered the founder of structural linguistics?
a) Noam Chomsky
b) Leonard Bloomfield ✅
c) Ferdinand de Saussure ✅ (accept both, since Saussure = European
tradition, Bloomfield = American)
d) Halliday
3. Generative grammar was introduced in the:
a) 1920s
b) 1950s ✅
c) 1980s
d) 2000s

Part B – True/False

4. Traditional grammar focused on describing how people actually use

language. → ❌ False (it was prescriptive).
 5. Structuralism introduced the concept of immediate constituents. → ✅
True
6. Minimalist Program seeks to explain syntax in the most economical
way. → ✅ True

Part C – Fill in the blanks

7. Generative grammar explains syntax using __________ and __________.

→ phrase structure rules and transformations ✅
8. In Government and Binding Theory, languages differ by __________.
→ parameters ✅
9. In functional grammar, syntax is shaped by __________.
→ meaning and communication needs ✅

Part D – Matching

10. Match the theory to the scholar:

 Traditional Grammar → Aristotle, Latin grammarians ✅

 Structuralism → Bloomfield / Saussure ✅
 Generative Grammar → Chomsky ✅
 Functional Grammar → Halliday ✅

Part E – Application

11. Which theory would explain the difference between The cat
chased the dog vs. The dog was chased by the cat as a
transformation?
→ Generative Grammar ✅
12. Which theory would focus on why English requires a subject in It
is raining?
→ Functional Grammar ✅
13. If you divide The tall girl danced quickly into [The tall girl]
[danced quickly], which theory are you applying?
→ Structuralism (Immediate Constituent analysis) ✅

Part F – Short Answer

14. Give one key difference between Traditional Grammar and

Structuralism.
→ Traditional grammar = prescriptive, Structuralism = descriptive. ✅
 15. Why is the Minimalist Program called “minimalist”?
→ Because it tries to explain syntax using the simplest, most
economical rules possible. ✅

✅ In short:

 Syntax theories evolved from prescriptive rules (Traditional) →

scientific description (Structuralism) → mental grammar
(Generative & Minimalist) → usage-based (Functional &
Cognitive).

📘 Parts of Speech in English

In English, words are classified into lexical categories based on their roles
in sentences. These are called parts of speech. Each part of speech has its
own function.

🔹 1. Noun
Definition: A noun names a person, place, thing, or idea.
Examples:

 John (person)
 London (place)
 book (thing)
 freedom (idea)
Sentence: The teacher is reading a book.

🔹 2. Pronoun
Definition: A pronoun replaces a noun to avoid repetition.
Examples: he, she, it, they, who
Sentence: Lisa is my friend. She is very kind.

🔹 3. Verb
Definition: A verb shows action, state, or existence.
Types:
  Action verbs (run, eat, write)
 Linking verbs (be, seem, become)
 Auxiliary verbs (have, do, will)
Sentence: They are playing football.

🔹 4. Adjective
Definition: An adjective describes or modifies a noun or pronoun.
Examples: happy, tall, red, interesting
Sentence: She wore a beautiful dress.

🔹 5. Adverb
Definition: An adverb modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb. It tells
how, when, where, or to what extent.
Examples: quickly, very, yesterday, here
Sentence: He speaks English fluently.

🔹 6. Preposition
Definition: A preposition shows the relationship between a noun/pronoun
and another word in the sentence.
Examples: in, on, under, between, with
Sentence: The cat is under the table.

🔹 7. Conjunction
Definition: A conjunction connects words, phrases, or clauses.
Types:

 Coordinating (and, but, or, so)

 Subordinating (because, although, if)
 Correlative (either…or, neither…nor, both…and)
Sentence: I wanted to go out, but it was raining.

🔹 8. Interjection
Definition: An interjection expresses sudden feelings or emotions.
Examples: Oh! Wow! Ouch! Hey!
Sentence: Wow! That was amazing.

✅ Summary Table
Part of Function Example Sentence
Speech
Noun Names The cat sleeps.
person/place/thing/idea
Pronoun Replaces noun She is kind.
Verb Shows action/state He runs fast.
Adjective Describes noun A tall building.
Adverb Modifies verb/adjective He runs quickly.
Preposition Shows relationship The book is on the
table.
Conjunction Connects words/clauses I like tea and coffee.
Interjection Expresses feelings Oh no!

📝 15 Quizzes
1. Which word is a noun?

a) Quickly
b) Happiness ✅
c) Beautiful
d) Run

2. Which sentence uses a pronoun correctly?

a) Mary and me is friends.

b) She is my best friend. ✅
c) Him went to school.
d) They am playing.

3. Which of the following is a verb?

a) Tall
b) Eat ✅
c) Happiness
d) Quickly
4. Identify the adjective:

a) Book
b) Slowly
c) Beautiful ✅
d) Walked

5. Which sentence contains an adverb?

a) He ran quickly. ✅
b) The book is red.
c) She is a teacher.
d) Wow! That’s great.

6. Which word is a preposition?

a) On ✅
b) Jump
c) Happy
d) They

7. Which sentence contains a coordinating conjunction?

a) I stayed home because it rained.

b) I wanted to go, but I was tired. ✅
c) Neither she nor he came.
d) Wow! That’s great.

8. Which word is an interjection?

a) Dog
b) Ouch! ✅
c) Slowly
d) Between

9. In the sentence She is tall, the word tall is a:

a) Noun
b) Adjective ✅
c) Verb
d) Adverb

10. Which of the following is a correlative conjunction?

a) And
b) But
c) Either…or ✅
d) Because

11. Choose the correct linking verb:

a) Run
b) Eat
c) Is ✅
d) Jump

12. In The boy with the red hat is my brother, the phrase
with the red hat is a:

a) Noun
b) Prepositional phrase ✅
c) Adjective
d) Verb

13. Which of the following words is an adverb of manner?

a) Yesterday
b) Slowly ✅
c) Here
d) Very

14. Which part of speech is the word freedom?

a) Verb
b) Adjective
c) Noun ✅
d) Preposition
15. In Wow! That’s fantastic!, the word Wow! is an:

a) Noun
b) Verb
c) Interjection ✅
d) Adverb

✅ Answer Key:
1-b, 2-b, 3-b, 4-c, 5-a, 6-a, 7-b, 8-b, 9-b, 10-c, 11-c, 12-b, 13-b, 14-c, 15-c