Important Formulas

C101.3 Apply the concepts/principles to solve the problems

0π
2 ππ/2
3 π/2
If the phase difference between two waves is 2 π then the path difference
between that two waves is λ.
We know that for a path difference λ, phase difference = 2 π
difference = 0 (Waves are in-phase) .
phase difference = 1800 (Waves are out-phase) .
15B11PH111 Physics-1 214) What is the relation between phase difference ( ϕ) and path difference
a) ϕ = (2π/λ)* X
b) ϕ = (2π)* X
c) ϕ = (1/ λ)* X
d) ϕ = (2/ λ)* X
❑[Link]
Resultant Intensity = ( Resultant Amplitude ) 2
I ∝ cosine square ∆
⇒ Imin < I1+I2Imax=4a2
Imin =0
Iav = I Iav = (I1+I2)
= sum of intensity
S2P – S1P = nλ, n = 0,1,2,3… THE INTERFERENCE FRINGES
S2P – S1P = n λ
sheet of thickness t and refractive index µ in the path of one
there at same time i.e. T = T’.
as a single prism of obtuse angle of [Link] acute angle α on both side is
where n =
δ is angle of deviation
If µ1= µ2=µ and t1>t2, ∆ is positive (upward shift)
or t2>t1, ∆ is negative (downward shift)
If t1 =t2 = t and µ1 >µ2, ∆ is positive (upward shift)
or µ2>µ1 , ∆ is negative (downward shift)
both side of O are colored because the fringe width ( β) depends
Phase change π occurs when light gets reflected. So,
µ1
µ2Assuming a light beam is incident normally on a interface. Then the
denser medium, a phase change of π occurs. The
µ
µ
tthin-film ∼1 µm
(tthin-film→ order of the λ visible light) Examples
π phase
Considering a phase change π equivalent to a path difference λ/2 due to reflection
n=
Excessively thin film in air i.e. t<< λ
But under the given condition i.e. t<< λ Thus film will appear dark
Excessively thick film in air i.e. t>> λ
In order to reduce these losses, lens surfaces are often coated with a λ/4µ thick
2 µf t cos r = (2 n+1) λ/2For normal incidence, the two interfering beams will interfere destructively,
if µa (air) = 1
µf (MgF2) = 1.38
µg (glass) = 1.5
So, for minimum thickness, n = 0, 2 µf t= λ/2 ⇒ t= λ/4µf
If a film, having thickness of λ/4µf and refractive index (µf) less than that of the glass (µg), is
should be coated on a glass surface to reduce its reflectivity. If µa =1
In the figure, ∆ECF and ∆FCL are
congruent, thus EC = CL = t and FE = FL The optical path difference
⇒ ∆ = µ (NF + FL) = µNL
In practical applications, where θ is very small,
where n = 0,1,2 …..
film λ and µ are constant. So change in path difference is only
points Q and R , OQ = x1, OR = x2
Fringe width: if N=1 then (x2-x1)=β
t = 10 λ = 5.893x10-6m.
θ
For air film, µ =1 and for near normal
n = 0, 1, 2,
M N tntnrnR = radius of curvature of lens
t = thickness of air film at a distance AB = rn
OA = R -t
From ∆OAB: OB2 = OA2 + AB2
n = 0, 1, 2,
For n = 0
The diameter of the dark rings is n = 1, 2,
Suppose diameter of 5th and 15th ring are determined then, m = 15-5 = 10
line gives the value of 4 λR.
PQ be the thickness (say t) of air film at point P , thus t = PQ = PL – QL
n = 0, 1, 2,
n = 0, 1, 2,
PQ be the thickness (say t) of air film from point O, thus t = PQ = PL + QL
n = 0, 1, 2,
n = 0, 1, 2,
n = 0, 1, 2,
❑By using a liquid film with refractive index µLiquid with condition µConvex lens< µLiquid <
µGlass plate. For example: crown glass=1.45, flint glass=1.63 and liquid with 1.45 < µ <1.63 .
❑ By lifting convex lens upward with a distance λ/4. because 2t=n λ (for dark rings)
2[t + ( λ/4)] = n λ+ λ/2=(2n+1) λ/2 (bright) Newton’s Ring with white light
dark ring will form at P where PA = λ /2.
If we now raise the lens by λ /4, then 2 t
would be λ /2 and instead of the dark
If the lens is further moved by λ /4,
present ; for example, the D1 and D2 lines of sodium ( λ1 = 5890 Å and λ2 = 5896 Å). What
bright and dark rings of λ1 superpose
on the bright and dark rings of λ2 ,
for wavelength λ1 will fall on the dark ring for wavelength λ2 , and conversely .
Thus, if point J corresponds to a dark spot for λ1, then it will correspond to a bright spot for λ2,
and conversely. Further, the nearby dark rings for λ1 will almost fall at the same place as the
bright rings for λ2, and the interference pattern will be washed out. Thus viewing from a
Now, if the lens is further moved upward by a distance t1 = 2t0.
if point J` corresponds to a dark spot for λ1, then it will also correspond to a dark spot
for λ2. The fringe pattern will reappear but now with a slightly weaker contrast.
[Link] of the Meter: 1 meter=1553164.13 red cadmium wavelength
so that OM’2 =OM2
undergo an abrupt phase change of π (when getting reflected by the beam splitter).
Consider λ = 5×10−5 cm & d = 0.025 cm then the angles θ where the dark fringes
θ = 0, 2.56, 3.62, 4.44, 5.13, 5.73, 6.28 …..
n = 1000, 999, 998, 997 …..
If, d = 0.0025 cm, then
θ = 0, 8.11, 11.48, 14.07, 16.26 ….
n = 100, 99, 98, 97 ….
to θ = 00)
θ = 2.51, 3.59, 4.41 ….
n = 999, 998, 997 …..
Here, n = 1000 disappears This indicates that as d decreases, fringes become
A central dark fringe for which θ = 0 can be represented by
Inclination θp and radius rp. Then
Screen on which fringes are obtained, then θp = rp/D.
If d = 1cm & λ = 500 nm,
θp
the red Cadmium line ( λ = 6438.4696 Å) is one of the ideal monochromatic source.
1 meter = 1553164.125 red cadmium wavelengths, the accuracy is almost 1 part in 109.
extra optical path difference of 2(µ-1)t.
2x=2(µ-1)t
x=(µ-1)t
When d = 0, fringe pattern due to λ1 and λ2 would overlap.
If movable mirror is displaced by a distance d, then maxima corresponding to λ1 will not
coincide with that of λ2.
If λ1 > λ2 and n1 = n & n2 = n+1 then, at θ = 0, for dark fringes
These corresponds to the position of distinctness i.e. bright of λ1 overlaps with bright of λ2
2µt cos r=nλ
centre. fixvariable 2dcos θ = nλ
Let n ϕ = 2 α
phase ϕ are infinitely small
The quantity na is still finite (=A)
Path difference, ∆, between waves from A and B
reaching at P = BN. From ∆ABN BN = ∆ = b sin θ.
where A = na
Principal/Central Maxima
Thus R will be maximum when β = 0 → R = A = na
The resultant amplitude R will be minimum when sin β = 0 but β ≠ 0
i.e. β = ± π ,±2 π ,±3 π ,±4 π ..., ± n π
This is the condition for minima. where n = 1,2,3 …. gives the condition of 1st,
2nd, 3rd, minima. Here n ≠ 0, because for n = 0,
θ = 0 which corresponds central maxima.
Differentiating above equation with respect to β
But here sin β=0 or β=
m π gives the position
except when β=0.
β= tan β (secondary maxima)
Here, β=0 corresponds to the central maximum.
curves, y= β and y=tan β by graphical method.
The more exact values are 1.430 π, 2.46 π, 3.47 π,
4.471 π….
b sin θ = 3 λ/2, 5 λ /2, 7 λ /2 etc as
Intensity of Principal maximum: β = 0
maxima i.e. for n = 1)
I0:I1 :I2 :I3 …… .= 1: 4/9 π2 : 4/25 π2: 4/49 π2…
Principle maxima, β = 0, I = I0 = A2
Minima, sin β = 0, β = n π
First minima at sin θ = ± λ/b and
slit width = 2A1A2 = 2B1B2 = b
slit separation A1B1 = A2B2 = d
would be y = y1 + y2
Minimum Intensity can be achieved when I = 0 i.e.
where n = 1, 2, 3, ……..
where m = 0, 1, 2, 3, ….
where n = 1, 2, 3, …….. Similarly interference maxima will
where m = 0, 1, 2, 3, ….
β
slit width = bDue to single slit diffraction
θ
d = a+b b= slit width
a= separation b/w slits
where m = 0, 1, 2, 3, ….
where n = 1, 2, 3, ….
Suppose, for a given values of θ, b and d, both equations (1) and (2) are
Since n =1, 2, 3, …, Therefore, m = 2, 4, 6, 8, .… Thus ,
∆A
B2θPθN slits
Path difference A1A1’=∆
sin θ,
Slit width ∆A
2θP
fθ
b= (n-1)∆
Phase difference b/w the waves emerging from two consecutive wavelets =
δ
Multiply eq(1) with ‘2sin φ /2’
Where, m = 0 ,1, 2, 3, …
m = 0 (at θ = 0): Zero order principal maximum .
m = 1: First order principal maxima .
m = 2: Second order principal maxima .
m = 3: Third order principal maxima .
-sin-1 2 λ /d
sin-1λ/d
sin-1λ/d
sin-12 λ /d
Substituting γ = ±mπ we get
the case with n = 0, 2N, 3N,..
(iii) n = N gives principal maxima of the first order. From the above equation it is clear that
(i) n = 0 gives the principal maxima of zero order;
(ii) n = 1, 2, 3,…(N-1) gives minima;
For example, if n = N then,
mN-1=2 mN+1=4
Example: F or a=2b, 5 consecutively placed slits are considered
for diffraction i.e. N=5. Find out the minima b/w two principal
No. of minima between two consecutive principal maxima = 4
No. of secondary maxima = 3
m = 0, 1, 2..
n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
No. of principal maxima in the central maxima = 5 (-2,-1,0,1,2)
Example: A diffraction grating, (normally 1500 lines/ inch),
For very small dθm
where m = 0,1,2,3,...
If (θm+dθm) and (θm- dθm) represent the angle of
it is clear that larger the number slits sharper will be principal maxima .Here, 2dθm is the width of
mth
(mN-1) = 2
(mN+1) = 4 m=1
N=3
If m1 = 5 and m2 = 4, then θ1 = θ2.
maximum value of θ = π/2, which will give
Thus, the grating element d = (b + a) determines the maximum possible order.
❑In the equation if d < λ then sinθ > 1 NOT POSSIBLE
❑Similarly second, third etc. orders will be absent if d < 2λ , d < 3λ , respectively .
In general if d < mλ mth order spectrum will be absent.
where m = 0,1,2,3,...
θm represents position of line and the integers
a d = a+b
d = a+b N number of slits = numbers of lines per inch or mm.
Rate of change of angle of diffraction with respect to change of wavelength dθ/dλ
If θ is very small
For small values of θ and a given value of m,
wavelength. ( i.e. ∆θ/∆λ is a constant, such a
For large θ, dispersion is greater at red end
λ→λ +dλ, θ→θ +dθ
If dx is the linear separation of two spectral lines differing in wavelength dλ in the focal
❑[Link]
❑[Link]
e/primer/java/polarizedlight/3dpolarized/
•According to him the tangent of polarizing angle (θp) is equal to the refractive index of
µ1
µ2Polarization by Reflection: Brewster’s Law
µ1
µ2
θ is angle between plane of incident
•Therefore I = I0 <cos2θ> = I0/2 Law of Malus
❑[Link]
/[Link]
> ve so µo < µe and ro > reIn calcite the velocity of O ray is
ve so µo > µe and ro < re
uniaxial the ellipsoid lies inside the sphere. v0=ve
v0=vePositive Uniaxial Crystal Negative Uniaxial Crystal
Along the optic axis vo=ve, both wave front will touch each other
Hence µo > µe Polarization by Double Refraction
µCB = 1.55 µO = 1.6584
µE = 1.4864
µO > µ[Link] of one of the two refracted beams in case of doubly
about midway between µO
and µE i.e. µO> µCB > µE
birefringence = (µo ~ µe).Double Refraction : Summary
angle α which is made by the major or minor
This angle α is given by
1) When φ = 0, 2π, 4π…. or 2nπ
3) When φ = ±(2n+1)π/2
4) When φ =± (2n+1)π/2 and Eoy=Eox=EoThus emergent ray is a linearly polarized light with
vibrations in the same plane as of
2) When φ = π, 3π, 5π…. or (2n+1)π
(i)Ex= Eocos(ωt+kz); Ey= Eo/√2cos(ω t+kz+π)
(ii)Ex= Eosin(ωt+kz); Ey= Eocos(ωt+kz+ π)
(iii)Ex= E=sin(kz- ωt+ π/3); Ey= Eosin(kz- ωt- π/6)
(iv)Ex= Eosin(kz- ωt+ π/4); Ey= Eo/√2sin(kz- ωt)
If θ = 0,2π ,4π ,6π ,..... or 2 nπGraphical Representations
at z=0
For φ =
+π/2 Circularly Polarized Light
For z = 0 and φ = -
π/2
A right-handed/clockwise circularly polarized
left-handed/anti-clockwise circularly polarized
A left-handed/anti-clockwise circularly
right-handed/clockwise circularly polarized if
Path difference between E-wave & O-wave is (µO ~ µE) d.
tµOd
µEd
θ = angle made by
where k = ω/c represents free space propagation constant.
At X = 0, we have:
Therefore at the emerging surface (X = d) of the crystal, components would be
O-ray is λ/4 i.e.
n= 0,1, 2, 3…
light and vice verse. For n = 0, 2, 4,….. emergent light will be LCP and for n = 1, 3, 5,… RCP
making angle θ with the principal section, we can divide this vibration in E-wave and
O-wave. After transmission through the QWP, they will have a phase difference π/2 and
O-ray is λ/2 i.e.
n= 0,1, 2, 3… Use: HWP Convert Right
Similarly λ (Full wave Plate) , λ/6 plate or λ/8 plate etc
Observation: In the absence of Quartz, I=0.
=0Quartz is an optically active material
PPL = LCP + RCP
where, t = thickness of optically active substance
From the Huygen's principle of superposition, x = x1 + x2 and y = y1 + y2.
The vibrations for the emergent beam: along the X-axis: x = x1 + x2 = 0
and along the Y-axis : y = y1 + y2 = 2asinω t
δ between them.
This is equation of straight line inclined at δ/2 with y-axis.
µR : the refractive index of clockwise vibration
µL : the refractive index of anti-clockwise vibration
If θ is the rotation produced by l decimeter length of an optically active substance
having concentration of its solution c gm/cm3 then specific rotation at a given
temperature T for a given wavelength λ is expressed as:
The unit of specific rotation is deg.(decimeter)-1(gm/cc)-1
–In one frame S : P = (x, y, z, t )
–In another frame S ’: P = (x ’, y ’, z ’, t ’)
x z y S P = (x, y, z, t )
P = (x ’, y ’, z ’, t ’) •S is at rest and S’ is moving with velocity ‘v’
x = 20.5 m, y=0, z=0 and t= 7.2 s. What are the co ordinates
of this event in a frame moving at 30.5 m/s with respect to
Ans: x’=-199.1 m, y’=0, z’=0 and t’=7.2s.
x z y S P = (x, y, z, t )
P = (x ’, y ’, z ’, t ’)
c = 299 792 458 m/s
•The speed of light in vacuum/free space is
The speed of light c = 3 x 108 m/s
motion between the reference frames. (Recall V13 = V12 + V23)
•At t = 0, the origins and axes of both systems are coincident with system
•A flashbulb goes off at both origins when t = 0.
x’ = x – vt
y‘ = y
z‘ = z
t’ = t
Here γ is a factor of
may be a function of v. γ must
If v << c , i.e. γ ≈ 1, yielding the familiar Galilean transformation.
v = 10% c
v = 80% c
v = 99.9% c
v = 99% c Lorentz Contraction
the length of the rod w .r . t. O’ is: L0 = x2’ – x1’
apparent length (L = x2– x1).
time, so; t1 = t2 in S.
Since γ ≥ 1, t will be larger than t0.
decays The life time of µ mesons is 2.2 µs and their
distance of 0.998c x 2.2 µs or 0.66km in their
x = 20.5 m, y=0, z=0 and t= 7.2 s. What are the co ordinates
of this event in a frame moving at 30.5 m/s with respect to
observers in the laboratory? Ans.: 2.294 µs.
x=c, means if a ray of light is emitted in the moving
• Let v = c, again Ux = c.
• Let U`x = v = c, again Ux = c.
rest and Ek=0, it possesses the energy E0=m0c2 (rest energy or rest mass energy).
If v<<c i.e. v/c<<1 So
1) When m0=0 and v<c, E=0, p=0
2) When m0=0 and v=c, E=0/0, p=0/0 indeterminate form, hence must have E and p.
•E = hν ; h = Planck's Constant = 6.63 x 10-34 Js
•Incoming energy (photon energy) = energy required to emit the electron +
•hν = Work Function (Φ)+ Kinetic energy (1/2 mv2), where, v = max speed. A
Ek= hν -Work Function ( hν0)
•Work Function = h ν0, where ν0 is "cut off frequency or threshold
Compton Scattering playing billiards assuming λ=h/p
If θ = 900 then cosθ = 0 ⇒∆λ = λc = 0.0242 Å for an electron.
If θ = 1800 then cosθ = -1 ⇒∆λmax = 0.0484 Å
∆λ ∝ (1-cosθ) Compton Scattering
The direction of recoiled electron (φ) depends on the direction of scattered photon (θ).
If θ = 00 ⇒ φ = 900
If θ = 1800 ⇒ φ = 00The electron can recoil in forward direction only at φ≤ 900,
hνiIf θ = 00 ⇒ K.E. = 0
If θ = 1800 ⇒ K.E. will be maximum
700nm): λf - λi < 0.01% which
For X-rays: λf - λi ≈ several % for
objects that varies with time and/or space in confirmation with the
waves are called “matter waves” with wavelength λ which are
•For v = 0, λ=∞ . This means that only with moving
velocity of 30 m/s, and (b) an electron with a velocity of 107
m/s.
There is a strong diffracting beam for Φ= 500 and V = 54 Volts. Results of measurements of
electrons entering into detector for various values of
energy m0c2 of 0.51 MeV, so we can take γ = 1.
Thus, λth and λexp are nearly same and hence are in agreement which confirms
•Note both k-values and x-values have a spread ∆ k and ∆ x.
Hence, we can get group velocity vg = v
since, group velocity is always equals to particle velocity ( vg = v), then
If the dispersion relation is ω = Ak2,
∆x ∆x •The wave number of a wave packet is not
∆k ∆k
•Typically, ∆ x ∆ k ~ 1
A particle/wave is trapped in a
position ∆ x?
•Best guess: The particle is in the center, x = L/2
•But there is an error ∆ x on this amount
•It is no greater than L/2
position L/2 L/2 L/4 Estimating Uncertainty
∆ Measurements are made by observing something : length, time, momentum, energy
– How long is a desk ? L = (5 ± 0.1) m = L ± ∆L (depends on ruler used)
– How long was this lecture ? T = (50 ± 1)minutes = T ± ∆T (depends on the accuracy of
– How much your weight? M = (1000 ± 900) kg = m ± ∆m
precision ∆x and a SIMULTANEOUS measurement of its
momentum ∆p in the X direction , then the product of the two
≅h/4π irrespective of how precise the measurement tools.
For an electron to be confined inside Nucleus; ∆x ≈ 10-14 m; So, ∆p ≥ ■/2∆x ; ∆p ≈
1.054x10-34/2x10-14
∆p ≈ 1.054x10-20 kg-ms-1.
Given: pc ≈ 1.054x10-20 x 3x108= 3.3x10-12J = 20.625 MeV & moc2 = 0.51MeV
existence of electron in the nucleus, the uncertainty ∆x in its position must
∆p ≥ h/2π∆x
≥ 1.054×10-34 Js/10-14 m
Then, velocity of electron =p/m ≈ 1.2×1010 ms-1 (impossible)
Now, if e- is out side the nucleus then (assume) ∆x=10-10 m
∆p ≥ h/2π∆x ≈ 1.1×10-24 kg-ms-1
Then velocity for electron =p/m ≈ 1.2×106 ms-1 (possible) Non existence of electron in the nucleus
Applications of Uncertainty Principle
convenience assume initial p = 0.
2θ “microscope”
∆xD
enters the microscope somewhere within a cone of half angle α.
α α “microscope”
p p α ∆p =2psinα By conservation of momentum, there must be
Can reduce as much as we like by making λ small……
So, if we attempt to reduce uncertainty in position by decreasing λ, we INCREASE the
For single slit diffraction, sin θ = λ /d, postulates that λ is the de Broglie wavelength. Momentum
uncertainty
quantum mechanics, a wave function (ψ) describes wave
An acceptable/well behaved wave function Ψ must fulfill the
to 0 at the boundaries ( i.e. x = ±∞ or at the boundaries).
If N = 1, wave function is NORMALIZED.
■ ψ(x)=G ψ(x)Operators
3. A Particle limited to the x-axis has the wave function ψ =ax between x=0 and x=1; ψ =0
(a)Find the probability that the particle can be found x=0.45 and x=0.55.
0.0251 a2, a2/4
The wave function is ψ for a a particle moving freely in the x-direction is given as
ψ=Ae-iω(t-x/ υ)
Since ν=E/h (Planck’s relation) and λ=h/p (de-Broglie relation)
ψ(x , t) = A e-(2πi/h)(Et-px)
–ψn(x) is an eigen function or eigen state
for a free particle V=0
•V= 0, 0 < x < L, V → ∞, x ≤ 0 and x ≥ L
the particle outside the box. Zero probability means that ψ(x) =
•The wave function must also be 0 at the walls (x = 0 and x = L), since
the wavefunction must be continuous or mathematically, ψ(0) = 0
and ψ(L) = 0
•In the region 0 < x < L, where V = 0, the Schrödinger equation can
•In the region 0 < x < L, where V = 0, the Schrödinger equation can
Therefor the wavefunction ψ(x) must be zero outside the box. ψ(x) must be also
zero at the walls, that is at x = 0 & x = L, for otherwise there would be
•Continuity : ψ(x=0) = ψ(x=L) = 0
Here, n = 0 is not admissible because it yields ψ zero everywhere which means
can have certain discrete energy corresponding to n=1,2,3,…
is called its quantum number. The wave function ψ(x) corresponding to each
•The lowest energy for a quantum system is termed as ground state . E1=h2/8mL2
λ= L
λ=2L
λ=L
λ=2L
the middle for n =1.
ground state (n = 1) and second excited state (n = 3)
to 1 keV. m =9.1 x10-31 Kg, n = 10.4
The emission of α -particles from atomic nuclei is an example of
In eq. (3) G = 0, as there will be no reflection in
F/A.
•As L→∞, T→ 0
•For V0→∞, T→ 0
Emission of α - particles from atomic nuclei , Penetration of particles through rectangular
• α particles are confined in
• α particles can eventually
Po-212 atom (Z = 84), which presents a square barrier of width 9.4 fermi
and height 26 MeV. What is the tunneling probability for an α-particle with
is about 2 x 106 per second. Therefore, the decay time for an α-particle is about
(2 x 106 s-1)-1= 0.5 µs Example
If E=1eV, Vo =10eV, L=0.50nm
If E=2eV, Vo =10eV, L=0.50 nm
(F = -kx ) and potential energy V=1/2kx2,
• E can have any value with E=K.E.+ P.E.
• Particle oscillate back and forth between x = -A & x = +A .
the ends ( x= ± A ).
Here, y2 = β x2 and Hn(y) is known as Hermite
where, n = 0, 1, 2, ……. The solution
eight bound eigen states, n = 0 to 7. The
energy of E=E0 and not E=0 as the
For n=0; probability is opposite at x=0
interval ∆x is just the inverse of its average
The energy of the oscillator is E=(p2/2m)+(kx2/2), where p is its
Emin=0. Use the uncertainty principle to find an expression for E in terms
(or h v/2, where v is frequency of the oscillator).
❑[Link]
15B11PH111 ODD2020 4 Physics-1
[Link]
density u(λ)dλ
of the cavity. λ is wavelength, v is
wavelength between λ and λ+dλ per unit volume would be;
Spectral energy density u(λ)dλ
u(ν)dν increases as ν2, and in the limit ν → ∞,
u(ν)dν → ∞.
as ν → ∞, u(ν)dν → 0.
energy only by the quantum of energy ∆ E=hν
E=nhν where n 1,2,3,...
∆E=hν
Eo=0E1=hνE2=2hνE3=3hνEn=nhνNn
Therefore average energy(ε)=Σ En/Σ NnTotal number of resonators
(N)= No+N1+N2+N3…+Nn
Total Energy (E) = NoEo+N1E1+N2E2+N3E3…+NnEn
No e-hν/kT , similarly for N2 = Noe-2hν/kT and Nn = No e-nhν/kT .
frequency. u(ν)dν = average Energy X Number density
and solving for λ = λmax. We find
This equation is known as Stefan-Boltzmann Law. Where, e = emissivity, ranges from 0 (for
perfectly reflecting surface) to 1
(for a black body, and σ (Stefan’s constant) = ac/4 =5.67x10-8 watt/m2-K4.
0.5 µm) which is in the visible light region.
increases with ↑ in λ and at a particular λ its value
is maximum i.e. λm. With further ↑ in λ, the
5. An ↑ in T causes a ↓ in λm, such that
λmT= constant
at a particular temperature for the range of λs considered. This area ↑s
T4 this represents Stefan-Boltzmann’s law. The Black Body radiation curve Spectral energy density
u(λ)dλ
toward the blue/violet end of the spectrum.
■ → sub-shell →s, p, d, f.. Allowed states: ■ = 0 to (n-1) Azimuthal Quantum Number (■) (by
Sommerfield) Principle Quantum Number (n): (By Bohr)
L2= ■(■+1)■2
Lz = m■ ■ m■ = -■, (-■+1), …,0, …, (■-1), ■
•possible values of m■ = 2■+1 from +■ through 0 to –■. Space Quantization
•If ■= 0, Lz can have only single value
of 0. If ■= 1, Lz has three values ■, 0
having ■= 2 :
•The spin quantum number is defined as s =1/2
•Spin angular momentum S2=s(s+1)■2
Sz=ms■
ms = ±1/2
J2=j(j+1)■2
where, j = total angular momentum quantum number.
j=(■±s) = (■±1/2)
Jz=mj■, mj=-j, (-j+1), …,(j-1), j Total Angular Momentum : J
Jz = Lz ± Sz
mj = m■ ± ms
ms = 2S+1, where S is the number of singly occupied electrons
For S=0 → singlet state.
For S=1/2 → doublet.
For S=1 → triplet, and so on.
A single free electron has S=1/2; it is therefore always in a doublet state.
Using the formula, Spin Multiplicity of oxygen = 2S+1 = 2(2×1/2)+1 = 3,
where S= two singly occupied electrons ×ms (ms always equal to ½).
L = | ■ 1 - ■ 2| to ( ■ 1 + ■ 2)
If ■ 1 = 1 and ■ 2 = 1 then L= 0 to 2 Thus L = 0, 1, 2
S = |s1 - s2| to (s1 +s2)
If s1 = 1/2 and s2 = 1/2 then S = 0, 1
•J = |L-S| To ( L+S)
•If L=1 and S= 0 ,1
•L=1, S=0 → J = 1
•L=1, S=1 → J = 0, 1, 2 .
•M → Spin Multiplicity = (2S+1) , S → Total Spin
•IF S = 0 M = 1 → Singlet State
•IF S = ½ M = 2 → Doublet State
•IF S = 1 M = 3 → Triplet State
2 2S1/22 2P1/22 2P3/2
1 2S1/2GROUND STATE EXCITED
n=1, l = 0→ S state, s=1/2
j=1/2 (l±s),
M=2(spin multiplicity = 2 s+1)
Designation or Term symbol: 1 2S1/2first excited state
n=2, l=0, 1 as l=0 →( n-1) so state is S and P state
1) l=0, s=1/2, j=1/2, M=2 so 2 2S1/2
2) l=1, s=1/2, j=1/2, 3/2 M=2 so 2 2P1/2, 2 2P3/2Hydrogen atom
WHAT WILL BE THE DESIGNATION FOR n = 3 level?
l1 = 0, l2 = 0; Hence, L = 0→ S state
s1=1/2, s1=1/2; Hence, S = 0, 1
1) L= 0, S=0, J=0; M=1 so 2 1S0
2) L= 0, S=1, J= 1. M=3 so 2 3S1ground state 1s2
l1 = 0, l2 = 0; Hence, L = 0→ S state,
s1=1/2, s1=1/2; Hence, S = 0, 1 {S=1 is not possible}
J=0 (L±S),
M=1 (spin multiplicity = 2 s+1)
l1 = 0, l2 = 1; Hence, L = 1→ P state
s1=1/2, s1=1/2; Hence, S = 0, 1
1) L= 1, S=0, J=1; M=1 so 2 1P1 singlet
2) L= 1, S=1, J= 0,1,2; M=3 so 2 3P0, 2 3P1, 2 3P2
I = current; A = Area the current encloses
-(e/2m ) is referred as gyromagnetic
ratio. Negative sign means that µ is in
Potential energy of dipole inside magnetic field depends on the magnitude of µ of magnetic
µ in a magnetic field B. Torque τ on this dipole
where θ is the angle between µ and B.
•When µ points in the same direction as B then Um = - µB , mean its maximum value.
•Potential energy Um is zero at θ = 900 means when µ is perpendicular to B.
moment makes an angle θ with the external magnetic field direction, then
•Changes in ml are restricted to ∆ ml = 0, ±1.
Consider an atomic electron with orbital quantum number ■=
Zeeman Splitting for l = 1
energy by µBB. For example, if ■=2 then m■=0,±1, ±2
Zeeman Splitting for l = 2
∆ml = 1 ∆ml = 0 ∆ml = -1hν0No field With magnetic field
m■ = 2
m■ = 1
m■ = 0
m■ = -1
m■ = -2
m■ = 1
m■ = 0
m■ = -1
field is 1.00 T. Find the ratio of e/m for the electron from this data.