on the surface of the earth.

A landform is a
Syllabus natural feature of the earth's surface.

Landforms of the Earth: Mountains, Causes of Landform Development

plateaus, plains (definition, types and 1. Plate Tectonics: The lithosphere is broken
their formation): into several small and big plates. These plates
Mountains - fold, residual and block. float on the semi-molten asthenosphere.
Plateaus - intermontane and volcanic. The horizontal movement of these plates is
Plains - structural and depositional. very slow. The plates push, collide or slide past
Examples from the world and India. each other. This results in disturbances in the
sedimentary rock deposits lying in between
two or more plates. The sedimentary rocks are
The earth is made up of a series of concentric compressed. This compression causes folding of
rock layers namely crust, mantle and core. the rocks. Almost all the fold mountain ranges
The intense heat in the earth's interior does of the world have been formed this way. The
not travel to the surface because rocks are bad forces responsible for the formation of fold
conductors of heat. The internal heat of the mountains are called Orogenic movements. The
earth therefore, melts the rocks and keeps the term 'orogenic' is derived from the Greek word
asthenosphere which is underneath the crust meaning 'mountain-building'. These forces act
in a semi-molten state. This leads to several at a tangent to the surface of the earth and are
conditions which cause landform development primarily involved in plate tectonics.

Forces Causing Landforms on the Surface o

I I
Endogenic Forces (Internal Processes) Exogenic Forces (External Processes)

I
piastrophic (large scale) Forces

Epeirogenic Orogenic
{Continent building) Forces (Mountain building) Forces

I I Alluvial and erosional plains, valleys,

Block Mountains, Basins, Fold Mountains,
Rift valleys, Plains Faults, Plateaus, Landforms glacial I ndforms

Fig. 5.1. Forces causing formation of landforms

LANDFORMS OF THE EARTH

-
 , rust. uch str sses may b
arth s in k e a
2. Uplift and submergence
. Anoth r
arth a t wei h t of the ov rling roe s, mov m ents used
.
th expansion or contract in the
t of for s op rating inside th a t O th - man ' tle
. f th arth, etc. Th on of he
alon th. r diu fr m th•E arth s centr 1 par t o . ese str ss es s som me.
surfa e and ar hara cterised by larg rocks to ompress1ve forces ubje
Th es er al 1 th . kling or folding along the lines of producin
uplift or u id nc f land are a. wrin kl i Fi 5 2 Th Weakn g
m v m nt know n Epeirogenic' mov . m , 1 , This is shown m ig. : • e raising o ness
or ontin nt building mo mentt.s., 'Er 'gene iros in
tic ma k es t
he fold mountams. f folds
s
r k m an 'c ntin nt'; 'geni O • . If you look at the physical map of the
mean uild ing. uc h movements are the result
s k ou will find a number of arc shaped rno world
f faulting or ra ks in the earth's surface • Block
ch ins They are Andes (South A untain
mountain , basins, rift valleys, are produced by c a1 . ) Al meric
th see mo emen s. Thus, the co tment bu g Rockies (North Amenca' ps (Europe) ca),
a ti itie ur on a very large seal<;.:.. (Africa), the Himalayas, Zagros, Elburg
. d n (Asia). More such mountain chair and
The above two forces, namely orogenic and Kun lu exist
epeiro enic a are_ to_gether called Diastro hic 1 w the sea. Almost all the high ran st
be o 1 h ges like
Forces (originating deep inside the earth . They th e H imalayas and the A ps ave peaks covered e
act horizontally and vertical! oduce relief w1 ith snow throughout the year. Many gla .
aciers
such as mountai plateaus, plains, lakes and r e found on these ranges. These glac. s
a f ciers
big fau ts. become the source of water 1or perennial rive
-----3. Exogenic Forces: There are forces . . bi ers
Therefore, these mountai give irth to active
operating on the surface of the earth, not inside agents of denudat10n and glacial erosion.
the earth which cause formation of landforms. Fold mountains are . the highest and the
These forces are called Exogenic Forces. The
most extensive mountain ranges of the world
external forces or Exogenic forces are described
Their chief characteristics are: •
as Destructive Forces because they cause
widespread destruction through weathering and (i) They form irregular wave-like formations
erosion of existing landforms. They, then form called folds. The upfold rock strata in
new landforms through both erosion and arch-like shape are called anticlines or
deposition. crest and the down folded structures are
known as synclines or troughs. (Fig.5.2)
LANDFORMS (ii) Most of these mountains are constituted
There are a large number of landforms on the of sedimentary rocks formed due to
surface of the earth. The major landforms are:
deposition and consolidation of sediments
(i} Mountains; (ii) Plateaus; and (iii) Plains.
in shallow oceans like the Tethys, in the
MOUNTAINS case of the Himalayas.
A mountain is described as a very steep land Earth's Surface
or hill rising to great heights above the land
surrounding it. Mountains are classified into
three main types depending on the forces
that have formed them. Three main types
of mountains are-Fold Mountains, Residual
Anticline
Mountains and Block Mountains.

Fold Mountains
They are the result of lateral compression of the
earth's crust.
Fold mountains are the result of 1 - ale
earth movements caused b
Fig. 5.2. How fold mountains are formed

TOTAL GEOGRAPHY_ 9
 ... F Id mountains have greater length but • Denudation and erosion by natural agents
(iii) are comparatively
smaller in width. The such as winds, water, snow etc., cause the
Himalayas are about 2400 km in length. mountains to be lowered but some resistant
. ) Most fold mountains except the Himalayas areas may remain and form residual
((iv mountains.
are found on the margms in
o f con timen t s.
They are located in two directions. The • They may also be formed on plateaus that
Rockies and The Andes are in north- are dissected by rivers. For example the hills
south direction. The Himalayas are in and valleys in the Deccan plateau.
west-east direction. It is clear that all of • In Fig. 5.3 the original highland (plateau)
them face the oceans. is worn down by the down cutting action of
(v) Fold mountains are associated with rivers to form residual mountains.
volcanic activity and have many active • They are also called mountains of denudation.
volcanoes. Most residual mountains are characterised
(vi) They have parallel ranges. Between by low elevations; however, both gentle and
the parallel ranges are high plateaus precipitous relief can exist, depending on
known as intermontane plateaus, such the degree of recent erosion.
as Anatolian Plateau in Turkey and the • Examples of Residual mountains are Nilgiri,
Tibetan Plateau. Parasnath and Rajmahal Hills in India and
The fold mountain chains that exist beneath the the Catskill range in the USA.
sea have their tops revealed as Islands like in
original surface
the West Indies. There are also oceanic trenches Surface as a result
which are the result of the same forces as fold
mountains. These forces in combination with
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
•
•
of denudation

volcanic mountain systems lead to the formation

of ridges. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge rises 3 km
above the floor of the Atlantic Ocean and joins
the Indian Ocean Ridge. Fig. 5.3. Residual Mountain.

Residual Mountains Block Mountains

Mountains which are subjected to weathering • The forces of faulting, also known as
and erosion for a long time, are lowered down epeirogenic forces, lead to the formation of
and called residual or relict mountains. block mountains.

There are two types of Fold Mountains:

Young Fold Mountains Old Fold Mountains
1. They have been formed later than the Old 1. They have been formed long ago much
- Fold Mountains. before the Young Fold Mountains.
2. The Himalayas, Andes, Alps and Rockies 2. The Appalachians, the Urals and the Aravallis
- are examples of young fold mountains. (India) are examples of old fold mountains.
3. They have steep slopes, deep valleys and 3. They are highly eroded by the agents
sharp pointed snow covered peaks. of gradation. They have gentler slopes,
- 4
• They are much higher than the old fold
rounded tops and sculptured domes.
4. They are lower than the young fold
r-- mountains and have rough topography. mountains.
5 • Volcanic activities of volcanic activities
are common in these 5. There are evidences
mountains. still in them.
 Block Mountain

Fig. 5.4. Rift Valley.

* Due to tensional force, cracks or faults may
occur on the earth's crust. If two parallel
faults occur, the land in between subsides
to form a rift valley. If a block rises, it forms
a horst or block mountain. Fig. 5.5. Formation of block mountain by
tension after faults develop
* Block mountains which have flattened
summits are also called horst mountains. of formation. We will use the same criteria in
Those which have tilted summits have one the case of plateaus.
side steep, other side very gentle.
• Block mountains are often separated by Intermontane Plateaus
intervening basins called graben.
These are the highest and most extensive
• If there are two parallel faults, the valley types on the globe. The plateaus surrounded
floor may sink and a rift valley may be
by hills and mountains on all sides are called
formed (Fig. 5.5). The most extensive system
being the African Rift Valley.
lntermontane Plateaus. They are formed along
with fold mountains. The Tibetan plateau is
• Examples of block mountains are the Vosges
the world's highest as well as most extensive
(France) and the Black Forest mountains in
Europe. Salt Range of Pakistan and Sierra intermontane plateau. Other examples are
Nevada mountains of California, USA are Columbian Plateau, North American Cordillera,
other examples of block mountains. Bolivian, Peruvian and Mexican plateaus.

PLATEAUS Volcanic Plateaus

Plateau is defined as an area of high ground, Volcanic plateaus are formed by numerous
500 feet above the ground level. These uplands volcanic eruptions that slowly build up over time,
have steep slope on one side. The upper part is forming a plateau. The Plateau of Peninsular
generally fiat and is called tableland. Plateaus India, especially the north western Deccan, is
are also classified in several ways. In the case an example of lava plateau. Other examples are
of mountains we have used the criteria of mode
South African plateau, Columbian Plateau and

Fig. 5.6. (B) Residual Mountain

Fig. 5.6. (C) Block Mountain

TOTAL GEOGRAPHY - 9
 . ian lateau. The Peninsular plateau of cause submergence of coastal land under ocean
Ethiopia p ormous accumulation of basaltic water. The Great Plains of the USA were formed
I dia has en
n Th Columbian Plateau has about due to uplift of land submerged under water.
rock. o f lava suggesting that 20 different The Great Plains are surrounded by Mississippi-
20Iayers o .
· ruptions have formed this plateau. M1ssoun Plams m the east and Rockies in the
volcanic er
west. The fact that they were submerged under
PLAINS water is responsible for the existence of many
A Plain is defined a an ext nsive area of lakes in the vast lowland. Gulf Coast is another
example of an emerged coastal plain.
lowland with a lev l or gently undulating surface.
The formation of plains is one of the most On the other hand, the Coromandel plains in
. t iguing Iandform development process on India are the result of mild subsidence followed
int g
the surface of the earth. There are seemingly by sedimentation. Thus, the forces of structural
endless variations in plains. They are also an development as well as deposition were active
in the formation of these plains.
imprint of past and present processes. For
example, a sudden heavy downpour may wash Depositional Plains
away a standing landform or fill up a depression The plains that are formed by the deposition of
to form a plain. A plain is seldom formed materials which have been brought by various
by a single process. However, three types of agents of transportation are called Depositional
plains can be distinguished-Structural Plains, Plains.
Erosional Plains and Depositional Plains. (i) River Deposition: The most widespread
of these are alluvial plains like the
Structural Plains
Northern Plains of India; the flood plains
The plains that are formed due to uplift or like the Mississippi Plains in the USA,
subsidence of land are called Structural deltaic plains in Egypt and India. At
Plains. Diastrophic forces may cause uplift of a the foothills of mountains are formed
portion of land beneath the ocean water or may Piedmont Alluvial Plains. The flood

ntains
Mountains Plateaus ains
Plains

Old Fold Mountains

Fold Mountains Structural

New Fold Mountains

Residual Mountains lntermontane Plateau Erosional

River

Block Mountains Volcanic Plateau

Fig. 5. 7. Landforms
Depositional

- Rive
Wind

Marine

LANDFORMS OF THE EARTH

 internal forces in addition to the su
. d ib d above are also alluvial These in . fo b urfac
plams es ri e ·vers weathering and erosional orces ecome domi
Plains • They are found along th ri f t O rs in sculpturing of land. The landf t
like Ganga ang-tz •, Me k Ong '. Salv ek ac
have, thus , the following advantages: orms
et . and are r gard d as granaries of the
world. In India flood plains are divided (i) Mountains, plateaus, plains and Valley
into Khadar Plains (new deposits. made are beautiful sculptures of nature on ths
every year) and Bhangar (old deposits not surface crust of the earth. They add t:
the beauty of the earth.
renewed every year)·
(ii) Landforms represent the relief featur
(ii) Wind Deposition: Most such plains are
sandy deserts like the Sahara in Afnca of the earth. They have an impact s
and the Thar desert in India. They have climate, direction of winds, precipitation
irregular and undulating surface made by as well as other atmospheric processes
existence of sand dunes and hallows. Loess The Himalayas act as a climatic divide
plains in China are formed from deserts. shaping the distinctive climate of the
Indian subcontinent.
(iii) Marine Deposition: These plains are 1
found in coastal regions. Examples are (iii) The mountain ranges of the world are
the east coast of India, the estuarine the abode of snow and glaciers. They are
banks in the Netherlands, coast of thus the source of perennial rivers.
Germany and Denmark. In Denmark we (iv) Many kinds of forests are found on the
find polders and dykes. A polder is a slopes of mountains, hills and plateaus.
piece of land reclaimed from the sea or These are home to different species of
lake. The submerged land is surrounded plants and animals. Thus, biodiversity of
by an embankment (dyke) and drained life on earth can also be attributed to relief.
by pumping water into canals. (v) Since such relief features also exist in
oceans, the island groups and coastal
IMPORTANCE OF LANDFORMS regions are ideal fishing sites.
The landforms on the surface of the earth are (vi) Maj or landforms are created by
symbols of energy of the earth. They are basically disturbances resulting from the forces
a result of enormous heat generated inside the operating in the interior of the earth.
earth and climate factors operating on the surface Most mineral and fossil fuels come near
of the earth. The earth releases its energy through the surface of the earth due to these
tectonic activity, earthquakes and volcanoes. disturbances.

EXERCISES
I. Choose the correct option:
1. The forces responsible for the formation of f ld mountains:
(a) Orogenic movements (b) Collisional movements
(c) Diastrophic movements (d) Exogenic movements
2. The large scale uplift or subsidence ofland:
(a)Orogenic movements (b) Diastrophic forces
(c) Epeirogenic movements (d) Exogenic movements
3. The two forces, Orogenic and Epeirogenic that originate deep inside the earth:
(a) Exogenic forces (b) Continent building movements
(e) Diastrophic forces (d) Collisional movements
4. The forces operating on the surface of the earth which cause formation of landforms are called:
(a) Exogenic forces (b) Orogenic forces (c) Diastrophic forces (d) Epeirogenic forces

TOTAL GEOGRAPHY_ 9
 s.

Identify A and B.
(a) A: Anticline B: Archline (b} A: Syncline B: Anticline
(c) A: Anticline B: Syncline (d) A: Syncline B: Archline
6. Oceeanic trenches in combinatio with volcanic mountain systems lead to the formation of:
(a) Troughs ,11)) Ridges (c) Fold mountains (d) Synclines
7. Volcanic activities are common in which of the following?
a) Young fold mountains (b) Old fold mountains
(c) Residual mountains (d) Volcanic plateaus
s. Assertion (A): External forces or Exogenic forces are Destructive Forces.
Reason (R): They produce relief such as mountains, plateaus, plains, lakes and big faults.
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and Rare true but R does not explain A.
c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.
9. Assertion (A): Residual mountains are also called mountains of denudation.
Reason (R): Denudation and erosion by natural agents cause mountains to be lowered.
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and Rare true but R does not explain A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.
10. Which amongst the following highlands are highly eroded by the agents of gradation and have
gentler slopes, rounded tops and sculptured domes?
(a) Young fold mountains (b) Old fold mountains
(c) Residual mountains (d) Volcanic plateaus
11. Mountains which are subjected to weathering and erosion for a long time are lowered down:
(a) Old fold mountains (b) Volcanic plateaus
(c) Relict mountains (d) Intermontane plateaus
12. Which of the following is/ are correctly matched?
(a) Young fold mountains: Himalayas, Alps
(b) Old fold mountains : Urals, Aravalli
(c) Residual mountains : Nilgiri, Rajmahal Hills
(d) All of the above.
13. Assertion (A): The forces of faulting lead to the formation of block mountains.
Reason (R): Block mountains are often separated by intervening basins called graben.
(a) Both A and Rare true and R is the correct explanation of A.
).0r"Both A and R are true but R does not explain A,
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.

LANDFORMS OF THE EARTH

 formed as a result of two diff
t oa t of India wer . r nt
Th I m ndel pl ins alon th
1 • tiviti s. Nam th m. • (b) Su b s1'd nee ' erosion
.
(a) ub id n d p . itio n (d) Upliftment, erosion
{ ) pliftm nt dep itio n .als which have been brought by vari
ous
1 • th t r form d by the d ep osition of maten
1 • Th P . (d) Dykes
nt f transp rtation: . ( ) Polder
• (b) Depositional plam c
tru tural plam . d have irregular and undulating surf
p itional plains formed as a resu lt ofaction of win ace
1 • b aus of . f and dunes and hallows.
d (b) existence o s
(a) n w deposits made every ay. d All of the above.
( ) existence of scrubs. (d)
17. A piece ofland reclaimed from the sea or lake:
____(ttJPolder
(a) Horst (b) Graben (c) Dyke
b •d ce of land are called:
18. The plains that are formed due to uplift or su s1 en al 1 d
(a) Structural plains (b) Deposition P ai
(c) Plains (d) Landforms
19. Which of the following pairs is incorrectly matched?
(a) Structural Plains : Coromandel Plains
(b) Wind Deposition Plains : Thar Desert
(c) River Deposition Plains : Northern Plains (India)
(d) Marine Deposition Plains : Western Coastal Plains (India)
20. Epeirogenic forces lead to the formation of Block Mountains. In this context which of the
following are true?
(a) Horst - block mountains with flattened summits
(b) Graben - basins separating block mountains.
(c) Vosges - example of block mountains.
(d) All of the above.
21. Name the plateaus, formed along with fold mountains, that are surrounded by hills and
mountains on all sides.
(a) Volcanic Plateaus (b) Structural Plateaus
{c) Intermontane Plateaus (d) Depositional Plateaus
22. Assertion (A): Many lakes exist in the vast lowland of the Great Plains of the USA.
Reason (R): The Great Plains were formed due to uplift of land submerged under water.
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
{b) Both A and Rare true but R does not explain A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.
II. Short An wer Que tion
1. What is meant by a landform? Give two examples.
2. Why are the fold mountains called so?
3. Give two chief characteristics of the fold mountains.
4. Give one example of each:
(a) Young fold mountain· (b
' ) Old fold mountain.

TOTAL GEOGRAPHY_
9
 s. Give one example of r sidual mountain nd n ex mpl e of depositional plain.
6. Briefly describe how the Gr at Pl ins of USA w r formed. They are examples of which type of
Plains.
7. Draw a well labelled diagram to show th formation of a residual mountain.
8. How is a rift valley form d? Giv on example of a rift valley.
9. Give a brief definition of a plateau.
10. What is an intermontan plateau? Give one example.
11. Give two points of importance oflandforms.

n1. Di tinguish between each of the following:

1. Fold Mountains and Block Mountains.
Intermontane Plateaus and Volcanic Plateaus .
3. Structural Plains and Depositional Plains.

IV. Structured Questions

L (a) How are various landforms formed on the surface of the earth?
(b) Describe the formation of mountains and their types.
(c) Give a reason for each of the following:
(i) Asthenosphere though underneath the crust is in a semi-molten state.
(ii) Exogenic forces are also called destructive forces.
(iii) Residual mountains are also called mountains of denudation.
(d) Draw a well labelled diagram to show the formation of block mountain.
2. (a) Describe the characteristics of two different types of plateaus.
(b) Describe the characteristics of structural plains.
(c) Give a reason for each of the following:
(i) There are different types of plains.
(ii) Alluvial plains are regarded as the granaries of the world.
(iii) The landforms on the surface of the earth are symbols of the energy of the earth.
(d) Explain the chief characteristics of depositional plains and their types.

V. Thinking Skills
1. Find out the landforms found in your state. How were these landforms formed?
How many changes have come in these landforms over the years.
2. The earth releases its energy through tectonic activity, earthquakes and volcanoes.
Imagine what will be the consequences if this energy remains trapped inside the
earth. State these consequences with examples.

VI. Practical Work

1. Draw and colour different relief features on the surface of the earth.
2. On an outline map of the world show major fold mountains, plateaus and plains with the help
of symbols.

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LANDFORMS OF THE EARTH