UNIT 1 – DIGITAL FUNDAMENTALS

PART A ( 2 Marks)
1. Where the digital systems are used?
Digital systems are used in many areas such as:
1. Computers and Mobile Phones – for processing, storing, and communicating
information.
2. Automobiles and Robotics – for control systems, navigation, and automation.
These systems help in fast, accurate, and efficient operations across various industries.
2. List the names of universal gates. Why it is named so?
Names of Universal Gates:
1. NAND Gate
2. NOR Gate
They are called universal gates because any logic gate (AND, OR, NOT, XOR, etc.)
can be constructed using only NAND or only NOR gates.
3. Apply Karnaugh map to simple function x + y.

The simplest form of the function f(x, y) = x + y is: f(x, y) = x + y

4. Compare the advantages of using K-maps over Boolean algebra in simplifying logic
expressions.
Advantages of using Karnaugh Maps (K-maps) over Boolean Algebra:
1. Visual Simplification: K-maps offer a clear, visual method to simplify expressions,
reducing chances of algebraic mistakes.
2. Faster for Small Variables: For 2 to 4 variables, K-maps are quicker and easier than
 solving Boolean algebra equations.
3. Easier Grouping of 1s: It helps in directly identifying and grouping adjacent 1s for
minimization.
4. Reduces Human Error: Less complex than manipulating long Boolean expressions
manually.
5. Helps in Minimizing SOP/POS: K-maps simplify expressions directly into Sum of
Products (SOP) or Product of Sums (POS) form.
5. Differentiate between NAND and NOR gates in terms of universal gate behavior.

6. Convert (101011)2 into its decimal equivalent.

Each digit in a binary number represents a power of 2, starting from the rightmost bit
(which is the least significant bit):
Binary: 1 0 1 0 1 1
Power of 2: 2⁵ 2⁴ 2³ 2² 2¹ 2⁰
32 16 8 4 2 1
Now multiply each bit by its corresponding power of 2:
= 1×32 + 0×16 + 1×8 + 0×4 + 1×2 + 1×1
= 32 + 0 + 8 + 0 + 2 + 1
= 43
(101011)₂ = (43)₁₀
7. Implement the Boolean function F = A + B′C using basic logic gates.

8. Assess what "don't care" conditions represent in Karnaugh maps (K-maps).

"Don't care" conditions in Karnaugh Maps (K-maps):
 Definition: "Don't care" conditions represent input combinations for which the
output is not defined or doesn’t affect the operation of the circuit.
 Symbol: They are usually marked as ‘X’ in the K-map.
  Purpose:
They provide flexibility in simplification by allowing grouping with 1s or 0s to form
larger groups. This leads to a more simplified Boolean expression.
 Example: Used in BCD to 7-segment display or unused binary inputs where some
combinations will never occur.
9. Analyze how to convert the octal number (125)8 into its decimal equivalent.
The octal number system is base-8, meaning each digit represents powers of 8. To
convert to decimal (base-10), multiply each digit by 8 raised to the power of its
position, starting from the right (0-based index), and sum them.
Step-by-Step Conversion of (125)₈
Octal Digit Position (Power of 8) Calculation Result
1 2 1 × 8² = 1 × 64 64
2 1 2 × 8¹ = 2 × 8 16
5 0 5 × 8⁰ = 5 × 1 5
Decimal Value = 64 + 16 + 5 = 85
(125)₈ = (85)₁₀
10. Examine the procedure for converting the binary number (1011100111011)2 into
both its octal and hexadecimal equivalents.
Step 1: Group the Binary Digits
To convert to octal (base-8), we group binary digits in sets of 3 bits from right to left.
For hexadecimal (base-16), we group them in sets of 4 bits.
Let’s pad the binary number with leading zeros to make full groups:
Original Binary: (1011100111011)₂
Padded Binary:
 For octal (3 bits): 001 011 100 111 011
 For hexadecimal (4 bits): 0001 0111 0011 1011
Step 2: Convert Groups to Octal and Hex
Binary to Octal (group of 3):
Binary Octal
001 1
011 3
100 4
111 7
011 3
Final Octal: (13473)₈
Binary to Hexadecimal (group of 4):
Binary Hex
0001 1
0111 7
0011 3
1011 B
Final Hex: (173B)₁₆
 Binary (1011100111011)₂
 Octal = (13473)₈
 Hex = (173B)₁₆
11. Analyze the function and role of an inverter in logic gates.

An inverter, also called a NOT gate, performs a logical negation operation.It takes
one input and produces one output.The output is the opposite (complement) of the
input.

Input Output
0 1
1 0

Symbolically:
If A is input, then output = A (A NOT)

Role in Logic Circuits:

1. Signal Inversion: Changes logic level (0 ↔ 1) for required conditions.

2. Building Block: Essential for forming universal gates, flip-flops, and control
circuits.
3. Complementing Conditions: Used in decision-making logic (e.g., turning ON
a light when input is OFF).

PART B&C(13/15 MARKS)

1. Identify and list the canonical Sum-of-Products (SOP) and Product-of-Sums (POS) forms of a
given Boolean expression AC′ + B′D + A′CD + ABCD
2. Design and implement a combinational circuit using basic logic gates to simplify the following
Boolean expression using both Boolean algebra and Karnaugh Map (K-map). Compare the
results and explain which method is more efficient and why.
Given Boolean Expression:
F(A, B, C, D) = A′B′CD + AB′CD + ABC′D′ + A′BCD
3. Explain how the basic logic gates (AND, OR, NOT) can be represented using only NAND and
NOR gates, providing suitable logic diagrams and truth tables.
4. Explain the conversion methods between different the following number systems with suitable
examples.
i) Decimal to binary and vice versa
ii) Octal to decimal and vice versa
iii) Hexadecimal to decimal and vice versa
5. Outline the methods to perform the following mathematical operations.
i) Convert (4562)10 to Hexadecimal Number
ii) Convert (213)8 to Binary Number.
iii)Convert the decimal number (0.39)10 to octal number in radix format.
iv) Find 9’s complement for 456
6. Analyze the foundational theorem and essential properties of Boolean algebra.

7. Apply Karnaugh Map (K-map) techniques to obtain the minimal Sum-of-Products (SOP)
expression for the given minterms
Σm (0, 1, 2, 4, 6, 9, 11, 12, 13).
8. For the following expressions, determine the maxterms and minterms, and then
express the terms using Karnaugh Maps (K-Maps):
i) F = AC' + ABC' + A'BC
ii) Y = AC + AB + BC
9. Examine the processes of addition and subtraction using 1’s and 2’s complement
methods, including detailed examples to demonstrate each step.
10. Analyze and design a logic circuit based on the following Boolean
 expression:
11. Evaluate and simplify the function using Karnaugh Map (K-map) and implement it
using the minimum number of logic gates.
F = (2, 9, 10,12, 13) + D (1, 5, 14)
Also list the limitations of Karnaugh map.

UNIT 2 – COMBINATIONAL AND SEQUENTIAL

CIRCUITS
PART A ( 2 Marks)
1. Apply the full adder logic to find the sum and carry for inputs A = 1, B = 0, Cin = 1.

A full adder adds three input bits: A, B, and Cin (carry-in), and produces:
 Sum (S) = A ⊕ B ⊕ Cin
 Carry-out (Cout) = (A ∧ B) ∨ (B ∧ Cin) ∨ (A ∧ Cin)

Given:
 A = 1, B = 0, Cin = 1

Step 1: Compute the Sum

S = A ⊕ B ⊕ Cin → S = 1 ⊕ 0 = 1 → S = 1 ⊕ 1 = 0

Step 2: Compute the Carry

Cout = (A ∧ B) ∨ (B ∧ Cin) ∨ (A ∧ Cin) → Cout = (1∧0) ∨ (0∧1) ∨ (1∧1) → Cout
=0∨0∨1=1

Final Output:
 Sum = 0
 Carry = 1

2. Implement a 4:1 multiplexer using basic gates and write its truth table.
3. Given a JK flip-flop with J = 1, K = 0 and the current state Q = 0, determine the next
state.

JK Flip-Flop State Transition Rule

J K Q (current) Q(next) Action
1 0 0 1 Set
When J = 1 and K = 0, the JK flip-flop sets the output, regardless of the current
state.
Given:
 J=1
 K=0
 Q=0
 Next State:
 Q(next) = 1
So, the flip-flop transitions from Q = 0 to Q = 1 on the next clock pulse.
4. Design a full adder using half adders.

5. Compare and contrast multiplexers and demultiplexers, and give their different types
and applications.

6. Discuss the use of BCD adder?

A BCD (Binary-Coded Decimal) adder is used to add two decimal numbers
represented in binary-coded decimal format.
Purpose:
 It ensures the result of addition stays in valid BCD form (0000 to 1001).
 If the binary sum exceeds 9 (1001), the adder adds 6 (0110) to correct the
result and carry over.
Applications:
 Widely used in digital clocks, calculators, and digital meters, where
decimal digit operations are required.
7. Discuss the working of flip flop. List its types.
A flip-flop is a bistable device that stores one bit of data. It has two stable states
(0 and 1) and can change state based on input signals and clock pulses.
 It is used in sequential circuits to store and maintain digital data.
 Changes in output occur based on control inputs and timing signals (like a
clock).

Types of Flip-Flops:
1. SR Flip-Flop (Set-Reset)
2. D Flip-Flop (Data or Delay)
3. JK Flip-Flop
4. T Flip-Flop (Toggle)
8. Analyze the purpose of sequential circuit.
Sequential circuits are used to perform operations where the output depends on
both current inputs and past states (i.e., they have memory).
 They store data using memory elements like flip-flops and latches.
 These circuits are essential for building counters, registers, finite state
machines, and timing-based systems.
 Unlike combinational circuits, they support step-by-step logical decisions
over time.
9. Analyze the functionality of an edge-triggered flip-flop.
An edge-triggered flip-flop is a memory element that changes its output only at
the edge (rising or falling) of the clock signal.
 It captures input data only at the clock transition (e.g., rising edge),
ensuring precise timing control.
 Unlike level-triggered circuits, it avoids multiple changes during the clock
pulse, improving stability and reliability.
 Common types include D, T, JK, and SR flip-flops, all using edge
triggering to store one bit of data.
10. Examine the design and operation of a master-slave flip-flop.
PART B&C(13/15 MARKS)

1. Construct the logic diagram and truth table for a half adder using basic logic gates
and design a full adder circuit using two half adders and an OR gate. Show the logic
diagram and truth table.
2. Simplify the Boolean function F together with don’t care condition D in
(i) Sum of product
(ii) Product of sum
3. Design a BCD adder using two 4-bit parallel binary adders and additional logic?
4. Analyze an 8 x 1 multiplexer to implement the following logic functions?
i) F(w,x,y,z)=∑m (0,1,2,3,4,10,11,14,15)
ii) F(A,B,C,D)= ∑m(1,3,4,11,12,13,14,15)
5. Design a BCD to Seven-Segment Decoder using a truth table, Karnaugh Map (K-Map),
and Boolean expressions?
6. How can you analyze an 8 x 1 and 4x1 multiplexers to implement the following logic
functions?
i) F=Σm (0,1,2,4,5,10,11,12,14)
ii) F (A, B, C, D) = ∑m (0, 2, 6, 10, 11, 12, 13) + ∑d (3, 8, 14)
7. In what ways can program counters be utilized to manage instruction sequencing and
branching in CPU operations? Explain.
8. Analyze how edge-triggered flip-flops affect timing and data storage in digital circuits, and
design a basic system to improve their performance.
9. Evaluate the functionality of universal shift registers
10. Evaluate the effectiveness and potential issues of converting a T flip-flop to a D flip-flop
using additional logic gates.
11. Design a 4-bit synchronous counter, ensuring all flip-flops are synchronized, and evaluate
its performance and reliability.
 UNIT 3 – COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS
PART A ( 2 Marks)
Explain how the functional units of a computer work together?
The functional units of a computer — Input Unit, Memory Unit, Control Unit,
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit), and Output Unit — work together to process data.
 The Input Unit feeds data to the system.
1.  The Control Unit directs operations.
 The Memory Unit stores data and instructions.
 The ALU performs calculations and logic operations.
 The Output Unit displays the result.

How would you describe an instruction set used by a CPU?

An instruction set is a collection of basic commands or operations that a processor
2.
(CPU) can understand and execute, such as data transfer, arithmetic, logic, and
control instructions.It defines how a program communicates with the hardware.
What are the key differences between basic instruction types?
1. Data Transfer Instructions – Move data between memory, registers, or I/O
devices (e.g., MOV, LOAD).
2. Arithmetic Instructions – Perform mathematical operations like addition,
subtraction (e.g., ADD, SUB).
3. 3. Logical Instructions – Carry out logical operations such as AND, OR, NOT (e.g.,
AND, OR).
4. Control Instructions – Change the sequence of execution (e.g., JMP, CALL, RET).
Each type serves a distinct role in program execution: data handling, calculation,
decision-making, and flow control.
What is the structure and purpose of the instruction format used in computer
architecture?
The structure of an instruction format includes fields like opcode, operands, and
4. addressing mode, which define the operation and data involved.Its purpose is to
provide a standard way for the CPU to decode and execute instructions, ensuring
correct operation and data handling.
Explain the purpose of the control unit in a computer system.
The Control Unit (CU) directs the operation of the processor.
5. It fetches instructions from memory, decodes them, and controls the flow of data between the
CPU, memory, and I/O devices.
It ensures all parts of the computer work in coordination to execute instructions correctly.
Discuss the terms response time and throughput.
 Response Time is the time taken by the system to start responding after a request
6. is made. It indicates how fast a system reacts to user input.
 Throughput is the number of tasks a system can complete in a specific time
period. It shows the efficiency
Analyzse the purpose of Operands in computer hardware instructions.

Operands are the data values or addresses on which the instruction operates. Their
main purposes are:
1. Specify the Data: Operands indicate what data the instruction should use either a
7.
constant value, a register, or a memory address.
2. Support Different Addressing Modes: They help the CPU determine how and
where to access the required data (e.g., direct, indirect, or immediate addressing).
3. Enable Execution of Operations: Operands work with opcodes to carry out tasks
like arithmetic, logic, data movement, or control.
 Evaluate the impact of instruction sequencing on program execution in a computer
system
Instruction sequencing determines the order in which instructions are executed by
the CPU. Its impact includes:
8. 1. Correct Program Flow: Proper sequencing ensures that the program follows
the intended logic, including loops, branches, and function calls.
2. Performance and Efficiency: Efficient sequencing reduces delays and
improves CPU utilization, especially in pipelining and parallel execution.
Analyze the various types of addressing modes and their impact on instruction
execution.

Addressing modes define how and where the CPU accesses data for instructions.
Common types and their impact:
1. Immediate Addressing – Operand is part of the instruction itself.
Fast execution but fixed data.
2. Direct Addressing – Address field directly gives memory location.
Simple and quick access.
9.
3. Indirect Addressing – Address field points to another memory location
containing the operand.
Supports dynamic and flexible memory usage but takes more time.
4. Register Addressing – Operand is in a register.
Very fast due to access from CPU's internal storage.
5. Indexed Addressing – Uses base address + index for arrays.
Efficient for accessing elements in loops or arrays.

Analyze the impact of Instruction Set Architecture (ISA) on the performance and
functionality of a computer system.
The Instruction Set Architecture (ISA) significantly affects a computer system’s
performance and functionality. It defines the set of instructions the CPU can
10. execute, impacting speed, efficiency, and hardware utilization. A well-designed
ISA allows faster execution, supports features like pipelining and parallelism, and
ensures efficient interaction between hardware and software. It also influences
system capabilities, including supported data types, addressing modes, and portability
across platforms.
PART B&C(13/15 MARKS)
1. Describe the Von Neumann8. Architecture and explain the purpose of its components.9.

2. Identify and de10.scribe the operation and operands of computer hardware instructions.

3. Explain instructions and their notations in computer systems.

4. Describe the basic types of computer instructions and their functions.

5. Outline the types of addressing modes used in computer architecture.

6. Illustrate how ISA, addressing modes, and machine instructions are used in computer systems
to facilitate efficient processing.
7. Demonstrate instruction formats with examples and explain how they are used in computer
systems.
8. Analyze the process of encoding machine instructions and its impact on instruction execution
and system performance.
9. Evaluate the method in which machine instructions and assembly language interact.
10. Design the instruction formats with suitable example.
 UNIT 4 - PROCESSORS
PART A ( 2 Marks)
When does a race condition occur in digital circuits?
A race condition occurs in digital circuits when two or more signals change at the
same time, and the circuit's output depends on which signal changes first.
 It happens mainly in sequential circuits when signals compete to affect the
1. output.
 Race conditions can cause unpredictable or unstable outputs, especially if the
circuit is not properly synchronized.
Example: In flip-flops or latches, improper timing of inputs like clock and data can
lead to race conditions.
Write the purpose of a merger graph?
A merger graph is used to represent and visualize the merging of states in finite
automata (usually during minimization).
2.  It helps in identifying equivalent states that can be combined to simplify the
automaton.
 The graph shows conflicts and safe merges between states to aid in creating a
minimal state machine.
What is the major limitation of the pipelining technique?
The major limitation of pipelining is the occurrence of pipeline hazards, which can
delay or disrupt the smooth execution of instructions.
These include:
3.  Data Hazards – When instructions depend on the results of previous ones.
 Control Hazards – Due to branches or jumps that change instruction flow.
 Structural Hazards – When hardware resources are insufficient for
simultaneous operations.

How can data hazards be prevented in pipelining?

Data hazards can be prevented using the following techniques:
1. Forwarding (Data Bypassing):
Sends the output of one pipeline stage directly to a previous stage that needs it,
avoiding waiting for write-back.
4. 2. Stalling (Pipeline Interlock):
Temporarily pauses the pipeline until the required data is available, ensuring
correct execution.
3. Instruction Reordering:
Rearranges instructions at compile time to avoid conflicts without changing the
program's outcome.
Explain shared row state assignment in digital circuit design with a short note.
Shared Row State Assignment is a technique used in finite state machine (FSM)
design to assign binary codes to states in such a way that states sharing the same
next-state transitions are given similar binary values.
Purpose:
 To reduce logic complexity and minimize gate usage in digital circuit
5. implementation.
 Helps in designing more optimized and efficient state tables for hardware
realization.
Key Idea:
 Rows with similar patterns in the state transition table are assigned similar
binary codes, allowing simpler logic expressions.
How would you define a data hazard and describe its impact on the execution of
6. instructions in a pipeline?
 A data hazard occurs in pipelining when an instruction depends on the result of a
previous instruction that has not yet completed its execution.
Impact:
 It can lead to incorrect results if not handled properly.
 Causes pipeline stalls or delays, reducing the overall efficiency and speed of
the CPU.
 Without proper handling (like forwarding or stalling), data hazards can break the
flow of instruction execution.
Analyze the two steps involved in executing an instruction.
1. Instruction Fetch (IF):
o In this step, the CPU retrieves the instruction from memory using the
Program Counter (PC).
o The PC is then updated to point to the next instruction.
This step ensures the correct instruction is ready for execution.
7.
2. Instruction Execute (EX):
o The CPU decodes and performs the operation defined by the instruction
(e.g., arithmetic, data movement, branching).
o It may involve the ALU, memory access, or register updates.
This step carries out the actual processing task specified by the instruction.

Analyze the five stages involved in the execution of an instruction in a typical processor.
A typical processor executes instructions in five stages:
1. Instruction Fetch (IF): Gets the instruction from memory.
2. Instruction Decode (ID): Understands the instruction and identifies the
8. operands.
3. Execute (EX): Performs the required operation using the ALU.
4. Memory Access (MEM): Reads or writes data from/to memory if needed.
5. Write Back (WB): Stores the result in the register.

Analyze the concept of pipelining and its impact on processor performance.

Pipelining is a method where the CPU works on multiple instructions at the same
time, with each step done in a different stage (like fetch, decode, execute).
Impact:
9.
 It makes the processor work faster by increasing the number of instructions
completed in a short time.
 It improves performance but may slow down if instructions depend on each
other.

Examine the effects of instruction and control hazards on the efficiency of a pipelined
processor.
Instruction and control hazards can reduce the efficiency of a pipelined processor by
causing delays or stalls in execution.
Instruction Hazards (mainly Data Hazards):
10.  Occur when an instruction depends on the result of a previous one.
 Can lead to pipeline stalls, delaying the next instructions.
Control Hazards (Branch Hazards):
 Happen due to branch or jump instructions that change the instruction flow.
 Cause the pipeline to fetch wrong instructions, leading to flushes or wasted
cycles.
PART B&C(13/15 MARKS)
1. What are the steps to create a single or combined data path, and can you provide a suitable
diagram?
2. Illustrate the MIPS data path for:
i) Fetching the instruction and incrementing the PC
ii) Executing arithmetic and logic instructions
iii) Executing a memory-reference instruction
3. Explain how to design the Control Unit for a MIPS data path.

4. Describe the methods of pipelined execution.

5. Discuss the methods employed to manage data hazards.

6. Write a detailed note on Control hazards

7. Illustrate with a detailed example how instruction execution works.
8. Analyze the concept of microprogrammed control and its components in detail.
9. Examine how the design of a data path and control unit influences the efficiency of instruction
execution.
10. Evaluate how integrating data path design, control units, and pipelining optimizes processor
performance and addresses data and control hazards.

UNIT- V -MEMORY AND I/O

PART A ( 2 Marks)
1. What is ROM (Read-Only Memory), and what are its different types?
ROM (Read-Only Memory) is a type of permanent memory used to store
data that doesn’t change, like the startup instructions in a computer. It keeps
data even when the power is off.
Types of ROM:
1. Masked ROM – Data is written during manufacturing and can't be changed.
2. PROM – Can be programmed once by the user.
3. EPROM – Can be erased with UV light and reprogrammed.
4. EEPROM – Can be erased and reprogrammed using electricity.
2. Identify the terms 'address' and 'word' in the context of computer memory.
 Address:
An address is the unique location number assigned to each memory cell in a
computer. It is used to access or store data in that specific memory location.
 Word:
A word is a fixed-sized group of bits (e.g., 8, 16, 32, or 64 bits) that the
processor handles as a single unit of data.
3. What are the major differences between PLA (Programmable Logic Array) and
PAL (Programmable Array Logic)?

4. Calculate the total number of words a 16x8 memory can store, and explain
 the significance of the dimensions in digital memory systems.
A 16×8 memory can store 16 words, each 8 bits long.
 The "16" represents the total number of memory locations (words).
 The "8" shows that each word is 8 bits wide.
So, it stores 16 words in total, and the dimensions help define the capacity and
word size of the memory system.

5. Discuss the term "volatile" as applied to RAM (Random Access Memory).

The term "volatile" means that the data stored is lost when power is turned
off.
In the case of RAM (Random Access Memory):
 It is volatile memory, meaning it temporarily holds data that is being used
by the CPU.
 When the computer is shut down or restarted, all the data in RAM is erased.
6. How would you define memory access time, and what factors influence it in
a digital memory system?
 Memory access time is the time taken to read or write data from memory
after it is requested by the processor.
 It is influenced by factors such as the type of memory (e.g., SRAM,
DRAM), bus speed, system clock, and the technology used in the memory.
7. Explain the concept of memory cycle time and its significance in the performance
of a memory system.
 Memory cycle time is the total time needed to complete one read or write
operation and get the memory ready for the next access.
 It affects system performance because shorter cycle times allow faster and
more frequent memory operations, leading to better overall speed of the
memory system.
8. Analyze the functions of a Memory Management Unit (MMU) and how it
enhances the efficiency of a computer system.
 The Memory Management Unit (MMU) translates virtual addresses to
physical addresses, provides memory protection, and manages paging or
segmentation.
 It improves system efficiency by enabling safe multitasking, preventing
memory errors, and allowing better RAM usage through virtual memory.
9. Evaluate the concepts of memory latency and bandwidth, and discuss their impact
on system performance.
 Memory latency is the time it takes to access data from memory, while
memory bandwidth is the amount of data that can be transferred in a given
time.
 Both are important for system performance — low latency means faster
access, and high bandwidth allows more data to move quickly, making the
system run faster and more efficiently.
10. Analyze the definition of Direct Memory Access (DMA) and its role in
optimizing data transfer within computer systems.
Direct Memory Access (DMA) allows data to be transferred directly
between memory and I/O devices without using the CPU for each step. This
makes data transfer faster and reduces CPU load, improving the overall
efficiency and performance of the computer system.
PART B&C(13/15 MARKS)
1. What is the memory hierarchy? Explain in detail.

2. What are the types of cache memory?

3. Explain the different cache replacement strategies.

4. Describe the process of virtual to physical address translation.

5. Write a detailed note on interrupts and describe the steps involved in handling them.

6. Illustrate and explain the DMA controller with a block diagram, and describe its
role in data transfer between memory and I/O devices.
7. Analyze the concepts and techniques involved in memory management,
including memory allocation, paging, and segmentation, and their impact on
system performance.
8. Discuss how mapping and replacement techniques in cache memory contribute to
efficient memory management.
9. Discuss the interaction between DMA and memory management techniques.

10. Evaluate how interrupt-driven I/O enhances data transfer efficiency and its integration
with memory management and I/O systems