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1. Product Life Cycle

In the context of a manufacturing industry, the product life cycle refers to the complete series
of stages a product goes through, from its initial conception to its eventual sale in the market.
Automation and control technologies play a crucial role in optimizing and shortening this entire
cycle, which is essential for a company's commercial success and profitability.

## Stages of the Product Life Cycle

The typical life cycle of an industrial product involves several distinct, sequential stages, as
illustrated in the diagram below:
1.​ Research and Development & Market Feedbacks: The cycle begins when a product is
conceived. This idea is based on feedback from the market as well as internal research
and development activities.
2.​ Product Design: Once the concept is established, the product is formally designed. This
stage often involves creating a prototype to test and prove the design's feasibility and
functionality.
3.​ Process Planning and Installation: After the design is finalized, the company must plan
for mass manufacturing. This includes ensuring that all necessary resources (like
machinery and raw materials) and production strategies are in place.
4.​ Production and Quality Control: This is the manufacturing phase where the product is
mass-produced. Quality control measures are implemented throughout this stage to
ensure consistency and reliability.
5.​ Commercial Activities: The final stage involves the commercial activities required to sell
the product in the market, such as marketing, sales, and distribution. The feedback from
this stage then informs the next cycle of research and development.

## Impact of Automation on the Product Life Cycle

Automation significantly impacts the product life cycle by drastically reducing the time required
to complete all its stages. This acceleration, or "shrinking the time to market," is a key driver for
commercial success, particularly in sectors like electronics where product cycles are extremely
short.
This relates directly to two key economic principles:
●​ Economy of Scale: This is the reduction in cost per unit that comes from increased
production volume. Automation enables efficient, large-scale production, thus facilitating
economy of scale.
●​ Economy of Scope: This is the efficiency gained from being able to manufacture multiple
different products simultaneously or in quick succession. Modern automation, with its
rapid programmability and reconfigurable machines, is the key enabler of the economy of
scope, allowing a factory to adapt to changing market demands and produce a wide
variety of products.
2. Control Technology
In industrial automation, control is defined as a set of technologies used to achieve desired
patterns of variations in the operational parameters and sequences for machines and systems
by providing the necessary input signals. Control systems are often essential components within
larger automation systems.

## Automation vs. Control

While the terms are related, they are not interchangeable. The key differences are:
●​ Scope: Automation systems may include control systems, but the reverse is not true.
Control systems are often a subset of automation systems.
●​ Functionality: The primary function of a control system is to ensure that a system's
output follows a desired set point. An automation system has broader functionality, which
can include computing the set points for control systems, monitoring performance,
managing plant startup/shutdown, and scheduling jobs and equipment.

## Types of Industrial Control Systems

Industrial control can be broadly classified into two main types:

### 1. Continuous Control

Also known as automatic or feedback control, this type is used for processes involving analog
variables that can take on a continuous range of values (e.g., temperature, pressure, flow).
●​ Objective: The goal is to provide inputs to the plant (the process being controlled) such
that its output y(t) follows the command or set point r(t) as closely as possible, despite
disturbances.
●​ Structure: A typical continuous control loop is a feedback system, as shown below.
○​ Process/Plant (G_p(t)): The machine or process being controlled.
○​ Sensor (G_s(t)): Measures the output variable and provides feedback.
○​ Controller (G_c(t)): Compares the command signal with the feedback signal to
determine the error and computes a corrective control signal (u_A). Common
controller algorithms include P, PI, and PID.
○​ Actuator (G_A(t)): Takes the controller's signal and converts it into a physical input
(u_p) that can influence the plant (e.g., a valve or heater).
●​ Challenges: Performance is affected by disturbances (like load variations), sensor noise,
and changes in the plant's own dynamics over time. This requires periodic controller
tuning (adjusting gains) to maintain optimal performance.

### 2. Sequence / Logic Control

This type of control is used for applications involving variables that have a finite set of discrete
values, most commonly binary variables (e.g., on/off, open/closed).
●​ Objective: To coordinate a series of actions or events by turning devices on and off in a
specific sequence based on operating conditions and time.
●​ Applications: It is essential in systems like automated transfer lines and assembly
 machines to coordinate part transfers, tool changes, and feeding operations.
●​ Key Device: The Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) is a special-purpose industrial
computer used extensively for sequence and logic control in automated systems.

3. Hydraulic & Pneumatic Systems (as Robot Drive Systems)

The drive system provides the power for a robot to move its body, arm, and wrist. It is a critical
component that determines the robot's speed, strength (load-carrying capacity), and overall
dynamic performance. The main types of drive systems are hydraulic, electric, and pneumatic.

## Hydraulic Drive System

A hydraulic drive uses pressurized oil to actuate the robot's joints. It is typically associated with
larger, more powerful robots.
●​ Advantages:
○​ High Speed and Strength: Provides the robot with greater speed and a higher
load-carrying capacity compared to other systems.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ Large Footprint: The power unit requires significant floor space.
○​ Prone to Leaks: Hydraulic systems are inclined to leak oil, which can be a
nuisance in a production environment.
●​ Actuation Methods:
○​ Rotary Motion: Achieved using rotary vane actuators.
○​ Linear Motion: Achieved using hydraulic pistons to move sliding joints.

## Pneumatic Drive System

A pneumatic drive uses compressed air to power the robot's movements. This system is
generally reserved for smaller robots with fewer degrees of freedom (typically 2 to 4).
●​ Advantages:
○​ Low Cost and Simplicity: Pneumatic systems are often simpler and less
expensive for basic tasks.
○​ Fast Cycles: Well-suited for simple, rapid pick-and-place operations.
○​ Compliance: The compressibility of air gives the system a natural "give" or
compliance, allowing it to absorb shocks during contact.
○​ Safety: Can be used in environments where hydraulic oil or electricity would pose a
fire hazard.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ Low Precision: It is difficult to precisely control the position of a pneumatically
driven robot due to the compressibility of air.
○​ Limited Load: Suitable only for low load-carrying applications.
●​ Actuation Methods:
○​ Linear Motion: Piston devices are used for translational movement.
○​ Rotary Motion: Rotary actuators are used for rotational joints.

## Comparison of Robot Drive Systems

Feature Hydraulic Drive Pneumatic Drive Electric Drive
Power Source Pressurized Oil Compressed Air Electricity (DC
servo/stepper motors)
Typical Robot Size Large Small Small
Strength / Load High Low Low to Medium
Speed High High (for simple cycles) Lower than hydraulic
Accuracy Good Low Very High
Key Advantage High power-to-weight Simplicity, low cost, High precision, clean
ratio compliance operation
Key Disadvantage Leaks, large footprint Difficult to control Lower power than
precisely hydraulic
Common Use Heavy-duty tasks Pick-and-place Precision tasks
(assembly)
4. Industrial Automation System
Automation is a set of technologies that results in the operation of machines and systems
without significant human intervention, achieving performance superior to manual operation in
terms of power, precision, and speed. The word originates from the Greek Auto (self) and Matos
(moving).

## Role and Objectives in Industry

The fundamental objective of any industry is to make a profit. Profit can be expressed by the
equation: Profit = (Price/unit - Cost/unit) \times Production~Volume[span_79](end_span)
Industrial automation systems are essential because they directly address every component of
this equation:
1.​ Reduce Cost/Unit: Automation reduces costs by enabling more efficient use of energy,
manpower, and materials.
2.​ Increase Price/Unit: Automated processes achieve a level of precision and consistency
that improves product quality, which can command a higher price.
3.​ Increase Production Volume: Automation significantly reduces overall production time
by lowering individual process times, material handling times, and unproductive idle setup
times.

## Architecture: The Automation Pyramid

Industrial automation systems are complex and are therefore organized into a hierarchical
structure known as the Automation Pyramid. This structure organizes the various devices and
functions into distinct levels.
●​ Level 0: Field Level (Sensors & Actuators): This is the base of the pyramid, physically
connected to the process machines.
○​ Sensors: Measure physical variables (e.g., temperature, pressure) and convert
them into signals for the control system.
○​ Actuators: Receive signals from the control system and convert them into physical
actions (e.g., opening a valve, turning a motor).
●​ Level 1: Control Level (Automatic Control): This level consists of the devices that
make automated decisions.
 ○​ It includes Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) and PID controllers that execute
control logic to drive the actuators based on sensor inputs. This level operates on a
very fast timescale.
●​ Level 2: Supervisory Level (Supervisory Control): This level manages and monitors
the controllers at Level 1.
○​ Functions include setting the target set points for the controllers, monitoring
equipment performance, and handling startup/shutdown procedures.
○​ Human-Machine Interfaces (HMIs) and SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data
Acquisition) systems operate at this level.
●​ Level 3: Planning Level (Production Control): This level deals with the management of
the entire production process.
○​ Functions include production scheduling, resource and task allocation, maintenance
management, and inventory management. This is often handled by a Manufacturing
Execution System (MES).
●​ Level 4: Management Level (Enterprise Control): This is the top level of the pyramid,
focused on business-level activities.
○​ It deals with commercial aspects like managing supply and demand, finances, and
product marketing. This is typically handled by Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP)
software.
As one moves up the pyramid, the timescale slows down (from real-time control to weekly or
monthly planning), the scope becomes wider (from a single sensor to the entire enterprise), and
information becomes more aggregated and less technical.

5. Adaptive Control (AC) System

Adaptive Control (AC) is an advanced control system for machining that measures one or
more process variables (e.g., cutting force, tool temperature, vibration) in real-time and
automatically manipulates machining variables (feed and speed) to compensate for undesirable
changes and optimize the process.

## Problem Solved by Adaptive Control

In conventional CNC systems, machining variables like speed and feed rate are
pre-programmed by a human operator. To avoid tool failure or damage to the part, the
programmer must use conservative values that account for the worst-case conditions (e.g., hard
spots in the material, tool wear). This leads to non-optimal performance and slower production
rates, as the machine runs inefficiently during easier parts of the cut. AC systems solve this by
making the machine intelligent enough to adapt to changing conditions on its own.

## Structure of an AC System

An AC system works as a feedback loop that sits on top of a standard CNC system, as shown in
the diagram below:
1.​ Sensors measure key process variables from the machining process.
2.​ The Adaptive Controller receives this data, compares it against programmed constraints
and a performance strategy, and calculates the optimal new feed and speed commands.
3.​ These commands are sent to the CNC System, which then adjusts the drive commands
for the Machine Tool.
## Types of Adaptive Control Systems

AC systems can be divided into three main categories based on their primary objective:
1.​ Adaptive Control with Optimization (ACO): This is the most advanced type. Its goal is
to optimize a specific performance index, such as minimizing cost or maximizing the
material removal rate (MRR), subject to constraints. The main obstacle to implementing
ACO is the lack of reliable sensors that can measure critical variables like tool wear in
real-time in a production environment.
2.​ Adaptive Control with Constraints (ACC): This is the most common type of AC system.
Its objective is to maximize the material removal rate (MRR) by running the machine at
the highest possible feed rate and/or speed, while staying within the limits of prescribed
constraints. The most common constraints are maximum allowable cutting force,
machining power, or cutting torque.
3.​ Geometric Adaptive Control (GAC): This type is typically used for finishing operations
where the primary goal is to achieve a high-quality surface finish and accurate part
dimensions. It compensates for factors like tool deflection or wear to maintain geometric
accuracy.

6. Configuration of Industrial Robot

Robot anatomy is the study of the physical construction of a robot's manipulator, which
consists of rigid bodies (links) connected by joints. A typical industrial robot is segmented into
four main components: a base, an arm, a wrist, and an end-effector. The physical arrangement
of the arm and wrist joints defines the robot's configuration.

## Arm Configuration

The arm subassembly is responsible for positioning the wrist and end-effector in 3D space. It
requires 3 degrees of freedom (DOF) and is designed to be mechanically robust to carry the
load of the wrist, end-effector, and workpiece. There are four basic arm configurations,
distinguished by their combination of revolute (R) and prismatic (P) joints.
Configuration Joints Workspace Shape Diagram Characteristics
Cartesian 3 Prismatic (PPP) Cuboidal Simplest
configuration, high
precision, easy to
program. Gantry
version used for
heavy loads.
Cylindrical 1 Revolute, 2 Hollow Cylinder Good mechanical
Prismatic (RPP) stiffness. Suitable
for
machine-loading
operations.
Polar (Spherical) 2 Revolute, 1 Partial Sphere More complex
Prismatic (RRP) than
Cartesian/Cylindric
Configuration Joints Workspace Shape Diagram Characteristics
al. Used for
machining and
spray painting.
Articulated 3 Revolute (RRR) Spherical Most dexterous,
simulates a human
arm
(anthropomorphic).
Wide range of
applications.
A notable special configuration is the SCARA (Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm),
which combines features of articulated and cylindrical arms. It is highly stiff in the vertical
direction but compliant horizontally, making it ideal for assembly tasks.

## Wrist Configuration

The wrist subassembly is attached to the end of the arm and is responsible for orienting the
end-effector. To achieve arbitrary orientation in 3D space, a wrist typically requires 3 degrees of
freedom, provided by three rotary joints.
A common 3-DOF wrist is the Roll-Pitch-Yaw (RPY) wrist:
●​ Roll: Rotation about the arm's axis.
●​ Pitch: Up-and-down rotation.
●​ Yaw: Side-to-side rotation.
A wrist with the highest dexterity has its three joint axes intersecting at a single point, though
this complicates the mechanical design.

7. Robot Joint System and Degrees of Freedom (DOF)

A robot manipulator is a kinematic chain composed of rigid links connected by joints. The type
and arrangement of these joints define the robot's movement capabilities.

## Types of Joints

While many joint types exist, industrial robots primarily use two basic types:
1.​ Revolute (R) Joint: This is a rotary joint where a pin connects two links, allowing them to
rotate relative to each other about an axis. It is analogous to a human elbow or shoulder.
2.​ Prismatic (P) Joint: This is a linear or sliding joint where one link can slide along an axis
relative to another link. This is often implemented with a screw and nut or a rack and
pinion mechanism.
Other less common joints include the twist joint (a variant of the revolute joint), cylindrical, and
spherical joints.

## Degrees of Freedom (DOF)

The Degrees of Freedom (DOF) of an object is the number of independent movements it can
perform in space.
●​ DOF in 3D Space: A rigid body that is free in 3D space has a total of six degrees of
 freedom. These are:
○​ Three Translational DOFs: Linear motion along the three perpendicular axes (X, Y,
Z), which define the body's position.
○​ Three Rotational DOFs: Angular motion about the three axes, which define the
body's orientation.
●​ DOF of a Robot: For a standard open-chain manipulator, the total number of DOFs is
equal to the number of joints in the chain (assuming each joint provides one DOF). For
example, a robot with two joints has two degrees of freedom.
To completely position and orient an object anywhere in 3D space, a manipulator must have 6
DOFs. Such a robot is called a spatial manipulator. Typically, these DOFs are distributed as
follows:
●​ 3 DOFs for the Arm: To control the position of the end-effector.
●​ 3 DOFs for the Wrist: To control the orientation of the end-effector.
A robot with more than 6 DOFs is called a redundant manipulator. The extra joints can
increase its dexterity, allowing it to reach around obstacles, but also increase its control
complexity.

8. The 6-DOF Robot

A 6-DOF (Degrees of Freedom) Robot is a manipulator capable of moving and orienting its
end-effector to any arbitrary location in three-dimensional space. It is often referred to as a
spatial manipulator and represents the standard for achieving full flexibility in complex
industrial tasks.

## Why 6 Degrees of Freedom are Essential

To completely define the location of an object in 3D space, six independent variables are
required: three for its position and three for its orientation. A 6-DOF robot is designed to provide
exactly this capability.
1.​ Three DOFs for Positioning (The Arm): The robot's arm subassembly is responsible for
positioning the end-effector. It uses three joints to provide three independent movements,
allowing it to reach any (x, y, z) coordinate within its workspace. These joints can be any
combination of revolute (rotary) or prismatic (linear) types, defining the arm's configuration
(e.g., Cartesian, Articulated).
2.​ Three DOFs for Orientation (The Wrist): The robot's wrist subassembly is responsible
for orienting the end-effector. It uses three rotary joints to provide three independent
rotations, commonly known as Roll, Pitch, and Yaw. This allows the gripper or tool to be
angled in any direction required for the task.

## A Common 6-DOF Configuration

A very common and versatile 6-DOF robot combines two key subassemblies:
●​ An Articulated Arm (RRR) with 3 revolute joints.
●​ A Roll-Pitch-Yaw Wrist (RPY) with 3 revolute joints.
This results in a manipulator with a total of six revolute joints, giving it six degrees of freedom
and making it highly dexterous and human-arm-like (anthropomorphic).
## Significance and Applications

The ability to control both position and orientation makes 6-DOF robots essential for a wide
range of sophisticated applications that are impossible for robots with fewer degrees of freedom.
These tasks include:
●​ Welding
●​ Spray Painting
●​ Complex Assembly
●​ Machining and Deburring
In contrast, a robot with fewer than 6 DOFs has constrained motion and can only perform
simpler tasks, while a robot with more than 6 DOFs (redundant manipulator) offers enhanced
dexterity for avoiding obstacles but at the cost of more complex control.

9. CNC and DNC Systems

Numerical Control (NC) technology has evolved significantly with the integration of computers,
leading to Computer Numerical Control (CNC) and Direct Numerical Control (DNC) systems.

## From Conventional NC to CNC

Conventional Numerical Control (NC) systems suffered from several inherent problems that
limited their efficiency and reliability:
●​ Punched Tape: The use of paper or Mylar punched tape was problematic. The tape was
fragile and susceptible to wear, and the tape reader was one of the most unreliable
hardware components.
●​ Programming Errors: Manual preparation of tapes was prone to syntax and numerical
errors. Editing or correcting a tape was a tedious process.
●​ Lack of Flexibility: The controller unit was hardwired, meaning its control logic and
features could not be easily altered or improved.
●​ Non-Optimal Performance: There was no opportunity to easily change speeds and
feeds during the cutting process to optimize performance.

## Computer Numerical Control (CNC)

CNC involves replacing the hardwired NC controller with a dedicated small computer
(minicomputer or microcomputer) that executes a program stored in its memory. One computer
is used to control one machine tool.
●​ Key Features & Advantages:
○​ Stored Program: The part program is read once from tape (or another medium)
and stored in the computer's RAM. This eliminates the repeated use of the
unreliable tape reader.
○​ On-Site Editing: Programs can be easily modified and edited directly at the
machine, saving significant time.
○​ Greater Flexibility: Since control functions are performed by software, it's easier to
add new features and control options at a low cost.
○​ Reduced Non-Productive Time: Faster setup and editing increase the proportion
of time the machine is actively cutting.
## Direct Numerical Control (DNC)

DNC is a manufacturing system in which a number of machines (NC or CNC) are controlled by
a central computer through a direct connection and in real-time.
●​ Objective: The primary motivation for DNC was to completely eliminate the use of
punched tape and its reader, the least reliable part of the NC system. It also allows for
centralized management of part programs and data collection from the shop floor.
●​ Components and Structure: A DNC system consists of four main components, as
shown in the diagram below:
1.​ Central Computer
2.​ Bulk Memory: Stores the library of NC part programs.
3.​ Telecommunication Lines
4.​ Machine Tools
●​ Functions:
○​ Centralized Program Management: Stores, retrieves, distributes, and allows
editing of part programs from a central location.
○​ Data Collection and Reporting: Collects data from the machines (e.g., piece
counts, cycle times, tool usage) to monitor production performance in real-time.
This is a key part of shop floor control.

## Comparison Table: NC vs. CNC vs. DNC

Feature Conventional NC CNC (Computer DNC (Direct Numerical

Numerical Control) Control)
Controller Hardwired logic circuits Dedicated Central computer
minicomputer/microco controlling multiple
mputer machines
Program Input Punched tape, read for Stored in computer Transmitted directly
every part memory (tape used from central computer
once)
Program Editing Difficult (requires new Easy, at the machine Easy, at a central
tape) control unit terminal
Flexibility Low High (software-based) Very High (centralized
control & data)
Key Component Tape Reader Onboard Computer Central Computer &
Network
Scale One controller per One computer per One computer for many
machine machine machines
10. Measurement System Specifications
The performance of any measurement instrument or system is characterized by its
specifications. Understanding these specifications is crucial for selecting the right instrument
for an application. They are broadly classified into three categories: static, dynamic, and random
characteristics.
## 1. Static Characteristics

These describe the instrument's performance when the input is constant or changing very
slowly.
●​ Range (Span): The minimum and maximum values of the input (or output) for which the
instrument is designed to operate. Ex: A thermometer with a range of 100-500°C.
●​ Sensitivity: The ratio of the change in output to the change in input (\DeltaOutput /
\DeltaInput). It represents the slope of the input-output curve.
●​ Linearity: A measure of how close the instrument's calibration curve is to a straight line. It
is specified as the maximum deviation from linearity, expressed as a percentage of the
full-scale output.
●​ Hysteresis: The difference in the output reading for the same input value, depending on
whether the input is increasing or decreasing. It is also expressed as a percentage of the
full-scale reading.
●​ Resolution: The smallest change in the input variable that can be detected by the
instrument. For a digital instrument, this is determined by the least significant digit.
●​ Accuracy: How close the measured value is to the true or actual value. It is typically
expressed as a percentage of the full-scale reading. Ex: A 0-500°C indicator with ±0.5%
accuracy has a maximum error of ±2.5°C anywhere in its range.
●​ Precision: The ability of an instrument to reproduce the same reading for the same input
over multiple measurements; it indicates repeatability. An instrument can be precise
without being accurate (e.g., consistently giving the same wrong reading). However, an
accurate instrument must also be precise.

## 2. Dynamic Characteristics

These describe the instrument's performance when the input variable is changing rapidly over
time. The dynamic behavior is often modeled by a linear differential equation or a transfer
function, G(s).
●​ Order of the System: Instruments are classified by the order of their differential equation.
○​ Zeroth-Order: The output responds instantaneously to the input (e.g., a
potentiometer).
○​ First-Order: The output response is characterized by a time constant, \tau (e.g., a
bare thermocouple).
○​ Second-Order: The output response may be oscillatory, characterized by a natural
frequency and damping ratio (e.g., a seismic sensor/accelerometer).
●​ Step Response Performance: Describes the output when the input changes suddenly.
○​ Rise Time (t_r): Time for the response to go from 10% to 90% of its final value.
○​ Peak Overshoot (M_p): The maximum amount by which the response exceeds its
final steady-state value.
○​ Settling Time (t_s): The time it takes for the response to settle within a certain
percentage (e.g., ±2%) of its final value.
●​ Frequency Response Performance: Describes the output when the input is a sine wave
of varying frequency.
○​ Bandwidth: The range of frequencies over which the instrument provides a
reasonably constant output amplitude (specifically, where the amplitude ratio does
not drop below 0.707 or -3dB of its low-frequency value).
## 3. Random Characteristics

These describe the unpredictable variations that occur in repeated measurements of the same
quantity. These are often caused by inherent noise sources within the instrument.
●​ Mean: The average of a set of readings, which is considered the most accurate estimate
of the true value.
●​ Standard Deviation (\sigma): A measure of the spread or dispersion of the readings. A
small standard deviation indicates high precision (high repeatability).

11. Pressure & Force Measurement

Pressure and force are fundamental physical quantities in industrial processes, and their
measurement relies on various transduction principles.

## Pressure Measurement

In industrial settings, pressure is often measured using elastic transducers. These are devices
that deform mechanically when subjected to pressure, and this deformation is then measured to
determine the pressure.

### Elastic Pressure Transducers

1.​ Diaphragms: A diaphragm is a flexible circular plate that deflects when pressure is
applied to one side. The deflection at the center can be measured.
○​ Types:
■​ Thin Plate: Machined from a solid block, used for higher pressures.
■​ Membrane: A thinner sensing section glued between solid blocks, giving
larger displacement.
■​ Corrugated Diaphragm: Has concentric ripples to provide even greater
deflection and sensitivity, though often with reduced linearity.
2.​ Bellows: These are thin-walled, convoluted cylinders that expand or contract axially when
pressure is applied. One end is fixed, and the displacement of the free end is measured.
An opposing spring is often used to achieve a more linear relationship between pressure
and displacement.
3.​ Bourdon Tube: This is one of the most common and extensively used pressure gauges
for local indication.
○​ Construction: It consists of a C-shaped hollow tube with an elliptical cross-section.
One end is fixed to the pressure source, and the other end is sealed and free to
move.
○​ Principle: When pressure is applied inside the tube, its cross-section tries to
become more circular. This change in shape causes the C-shaped tube to
straighten out, moving the free end. This movement is mechanically amplified by a
linkage and gear system to rotate a pointer on a calibrated scale.

## Force Measurement

The most popular and versatile method for measuring force in industrial applications is by using
strain gages.

### Strain Gage Principle

A strain gage is a sensor whose resistance changes in proportion to the amount of strain
(deformation) it experiences.
●​ Gage Factor (G): This is the key specification of a strain gage. It is defined as the ratio of
the fractional change in electrical resistance (\Delta R/R) to the fractional change in
length, or strain (\epsilon = \Delta l/l). G = \frac{\Delta R / R}{\Delta l / l} = \frac{\Delta R /
R}{\epsilon}[span_282](end_span) The change in resistance is due to changes in the
conductor's length and cross-sectional area, as well as a change in its intrinsic resistivity
(the piezo-resistive effect).
●​ Types:
○​ Metallic Strain Gages: Made from metal alloys like Advance or Nichrome. They
have a Gage Factor of around 2.
○​ Semiconductor Strain Gages: Made from silicon. They are much more sensitive,
with Gage Factors of 100-150, but can be nonlinear and are more sensitive to
temperature.

### Force Measurement Devices using Strain Gages

To measure force, strain gages are mounted on an elastic element that deforms when a force is
applied. Four gages are typically used in a Wheatstone bridge circuit to maximize sensitivity
and provide temperature compensation.
1.​ Load Cell: A precisely machined block or cylinder of metal. When a compressive or
tensile force is applied, the block deforms. Two strain gages are mounted to measure the
primary (longitudinal) strain, and two are mounted transversely to measure the secondary
(Poisson's) strain. This "push-pull" arrangement maximizes the bridge output.
2.​ Proving Ring: A circular ring used to measure both tensile and compressive forces.
When force is applied across its diameter, the ring deforms. Gages on the inner surface
experience tension, while gages on the outer surface experience compression. This
configuration provides high strain for a given force, making it very sensitive.
3.​ Cantilever Beam: A simple beam fixed at one end. When a force is applied to the free
end, the top surface goes into tension and the bottom surface goes into compression.
Strain gages mounted on the top and bottom surfaces near the fixed end measure these
strains to determine the force.

12. Information Systems in Industrial Automation

Industrial Information Technology (IT) is the backbone of modern industrial automation, but it
has several distinguishing features that separate it from the IT used in office or business
environments. It serves as the nervous system connecting the different levels of the automation
pyramid.

## Key Characteristics of Industrial IT

1.​ Reactive: Industrial information systems are fundamentally reactive. They receive stimuli
(data from sensors, inputs from operators) from their environment and, in turn, produce
 responses (commands to actuators, display updates) that act upon that environment.
2.​ Real-Time: This is a crucial characteristic. In an industrial system, a computation is only
correct if it is both accurate and produced in time. A late result, even if perfectly
accurate, can be useless or even dangerous. Therefore, systems must be designed to
meet strict computing deadlines.
3.​ Mission-Critical: The malfunction of an industrial information system can have
catastrophic consequences, including loss of human life, damage to expensive
equipment, or significant financial loss. This requires extraordinary care in design to make
them flawless, with built-in fault-tolerance and predictable behavior even under
unforeseen circumstances.

## Functions of an Information System in an Automated Plant

The information system is responsible for the flow, processing, storage, and visualization of data
across all levels of the automation hierarchy. Key functions include:
●​ Data Acquisition and Visualization (HMI/MMI):
○​ The system acquires data directly from sensors and controllers.
○​ This data is presented to operators through a Man-Machine Interface (MMI), also
known as a Human-Machine Interface (HMI).
○​ Visualizations include:
■​ Process Mimics: Animated diagrams of the plant showing the real-time
status of drives, valves, and other equipment.
■​ Trend Displays: Graphs showing the history of important process variables
over time.
■​ Bar Graphs: For dynamic indication of reference vs. actual values.
●​ Networking and Communication:
○​ The system uses Local Area Networks (LANs) and data buses to connect all
controllers and computers at a given automation level.
○​ It facilitates data exchange between different levels of the automation pyramid, for
example, linking the basic control level with the supervisory and production control
levels.
●​ Data Management and Reporting:
○​ Data Logging and Storage: Logged information is stored for an adequate period
to create a historical data record for analysis and troubleshooting.
○​ Fault and Event Logging: The system captures fault signals from across the plant,
displaying and printing them as clear text messages for maintenance personnel.
○​ Report Generation: Generates production logs and performance reports, either at
preset times or triggered by specific events.
●​ Data Integrity and Security:
○​ The system performs checks on captured data for validity and plausibility to ensure
its integrity.
○​ Access to the system is protected through passwords or keylocks to prevent
unauthorized entry or changes.
○​ Essential data is protected against corruption in case of power failure.