The Internet's history begins in the 1960s with the U.S.

Department of Defense's ARPANET,

a research network focused on packet switching. This evolved into the modern internet, with
the standardization of TCP/IP in the 1970s and commercialization in the 1990s with the rise
of the World Wide Web and user-friendly browsers.
Here's a more detailed breakdown:
Early Stages (1960s-1970s):

1. ARPANET:

The initial spark came from the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) of the U.S.
Department of Defense, which funded the development of ARPANET, the first operational
packet-switching network.

2. Packet Switching:
This technology, crucial for the internet's architecture, involved breaking data into packets for
efficient transmission and routing across networks.
3. TCP/IP:
Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn developed TCP/IP in the 1970s, a set of protocols that allowed
different networks to communicate with each other, laying the groundwork for the internet.

Commercialization and Growth (1980s-1990s):

1. From Research to Commercial Use: In the late 1980s, Internet Service Providers
(ISPs) began offering internet access to homes.

2. World Wide Web: Tim Berners-Lee's invention of the World Wide Web in 1989,
with its user-friendly web browsers, revolutionized internet access and usage,
especially for non-technical users.

3. Mosaic and Netscape: Mosaic, the first graphical web browser, and its successor,
Netscape Navigator, popularized the web by making it easier to view text and images
and navigate with hyperlinks.

4. E-commerce and Social Media: The 1990s saw the rise of e-commerce with
companies like Amazon and eBay. The 2000s brought the emergence of social media
platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram, transforming communication and
content sharing.
21st Century and Beyond:

1. Mobile Internet: Smartphones and mobile networks expanded internet access to a

massive global audience.
2. Web 2.0: The concept of Web 2.0 emerged, emphasizing user-generated content,
social networking, and cloud computing.
3. AI and Future Directions: The internet continues to evolve with advancements in
artificial intelligence, further shaping its applications and future directions.
Difference between Internet, Intranet and Extranet

Networks are crucial in today’s globalized world because they allow the acquisition,
exchange, and organization of knowledge. Of all the first order networks the Internet,
Intranet, and Extranet are commonly utilized for various applications. Every network type
meets specific roles that are required in connecting the global population, and internal
organization, and secure communication with external subjects. About these networks, this
article will aim at identifying their fundamental and specific applications.

What is the Internet?

The Internet is a huge network of millions of computers and related devices from all corners
of the globe through which users are able to communicate, exchange information, and partake
in general resources. Its mechanism is more decentralized and does not have a specific
owner; it works only as a common idea shared by various institutions, governments, and
users. The Internet is the tool that links people, companies, and organizations, offering
various opportunities for cooperation and development, as well as offering various
possibilities to find the necessary information, using Internet resources, such as websites and
services, research data, and social networks.

What is an Intranet?

An Intranet is a local area network that has been designed for use within an organization by
its employees to share information as well as work together. An Intranet is also constructed
from the technologies of the Internet from TCP/IP, HTTP, and web browsers but exist behind
a security firewall and has only a limited number of authorized users. Its use is to enhance the
cooperation internally, control the distribution of facilities and to work more effectively.
These include company news that include the latest updates posted internally to and including
personnel directories, project management applications and access to databases all of which
assist the organization in enhancing its efficiency.

What is Extranet ?

An Extranet is an extended form of an Intranet that enables secure communication and

collaboration between an organization and external entities, such as suppliers, partners, or
clients. While it uses Internet protocols to facilitate connectivity, an Extranet is controlled
and accessible only to authorized users with login credentials. The primary purpose of an
Extranet is to extend the reach of internal resources to trusted external users while
maintaining security through firewalls, encryption, and access control measures.

Difference between Internet, Intranet and Extranet

Point of
Internet Intranet Extranet
difference

Accessibility of
Public Private Private
network

To share information with

Specific to an suppliers and vendors it
Availability Global system.
organization. makes the use of public
network.

Restricted area upto an

Restricted area upto an
Coverage All over the world. organization and some of
organization.
its stakeholders or so.

Accessible only to the

Accessibility of It is accessible to It is accessible only to the members of organization
content everyone connected. members of organization. and external members with
logins.

No. of It is largest in The connected devices are

The minimal number of
computers number of more comparable with
devices are connected.
connected connected devices. Intranet.

Single/ Multiple
Owner No one. Single organization.
organization.

It's purpose is to It's purpose is to share

It's purpose is to share
Purpose of the share information information between
information throughout
network throughout the members and external,
the organization.
world. members.

It is dependent on
It is enforced via firewall
the user of the
Security It is enforced via firewall. that separates internet and
device connected to
extranet.
network.

Employees of the
Employees of the
Users General public. organization which are
organization.
connected.

Policies behind There is no hard and Policies of the Policies of the organization
setup fast rule for policies. organization are imposed. are imposed.

Maintenance It is maintained by It is maintained by CIO. It is maintained by CIO.

ISP. HR or communication HR or communication
department of an department of an
Point of
Internet Intranet Extranet
difference

organization. organization.

It is more
Economical It is less economical. It is also less economical.
economical to use.

It is the network of
Relation It is derived from Internet. It is derived from Intranet.
networks.

What we are WIPRO using internal DELL and Intel using

Example normally using is network for its business network for its business
internet. operations. operations.
The internet, intranet, and extranet are all networks, but they differ in their scope and
accessibility. The internet is a global, publicly accessible network. An intranet is a private
network, accessible only to authorized users within an organization. An extranet is a
controlled private network that extends access to selected external parties, like partners or
customers.
Here's a more detailed breakdown:
1. Internet:

 The internet is a vast, public network connecting billions of devices worldwide.

 It's accessible to anyone with an internet connection and a device.
 Examples include web browsing, email, and social media.

2. Intranet:

 An intranet is a private network used by an organization for internal communication

and information sharing.
 Access is restricted to employees or authorized members of the organization.
 It provides a secure environment for collaboration and access to internal resources.
 Examples include internal company websites, employee portals, and document
management systems

3. Extranet:

 An extranet is a controlled extension of an intranet, providing access to specific

resources to selected external parties.
 These parties could be partners, vendors, customers, or suppliers.
 It allows for secure collaboration and information sharing with trusted external
entities.
 Examples include online portals for clients to track project progress or for vendors to
access product information.

In essence, the internet is open, the intranet is closed, and the extranet is selectively open.

Internet service Provider(ISP)

An Internet Service Provider (ISP) is a company that provides transport of Internet traffic on
behalf of other ISPs, businesses or other non-ISP organizations, and individuals. ISPs are
classified into a 3-tier model that categorizes them depending on the type of Internet services
they provide.

Types of ISP Connections

There are several types of ISP connections available, each with its own set of advantages and
disadvantages. Here are some of the most common types:

1. DSL (Digital Subscriber Line): DSL connections use existing telephone lines to deliver
internet service. They are known for providing a reliable connection and typically offer
decent speeds for the price.

2. Cable: Cable connections use coaxial cables to deliver internet service. They are known
for their high speeds, making them a popular choice for households with multiple users who
engage in activities like streaming and online gaming.

3. Fiber-optic: Fiber-optic connections use fiber-optic cables to deliver internet service. They
are known for their incredibly fast speeds and reliability, making them an excellent choice for
businesses and individuals who require a lot of bandwidth.

4. Satellite: Satellite connections use satellite signals to deliver internet service. They are
often used in rural areas where traditional wired connections are not available. While satellite
connections can be slower and less reliable than other types, they provide internet access
where it would otherwise be impossible.

5. Wireless: Wireless connections use radio waves to deliver internet service. They are
commonly used in mobile devices like smartphones and tablets, as well as in homes and
businesses that require a flexible internet connection.

Benefits of Using an ISP

1. Reliability: ISPs invest in infrastructure and technology to provide a reliable internet

connection.

2.Speed: Different types of ISP connections offer varying speeds to suit different needs.

3.Customer support: ISPs typically offer customer support to help troubleshoot any issues
that may arise.

4.Security: ISPs often include security features to help protect users from online threats.

How to Buy ISP?

When looking to buy an internet service provider, there are a few key factors to consider:

1. Speed and Reliability: Make sure the ISP offers the speed and reliability you need for
your online activities.
2. Cost: Compare prices and packages from different ISPs to find the best value for your
budget.

3. Customer Service: Check reviews and ratings to ensure the ISP provides excellent
customer service and support.

How to Choose an ISP?

When choosing an ISP, consider the following factors:
Speed: Determine how much speed you need based on your online activities.
Reliability: Look for an ISP with a reputation for reliable service and minimal downtime.
Customer Service: Choose an ISP that offers responsive customer support and assistance.
Price: Compare prices and packages from different ISPs to find the best value for your
budget.
Is 100 Mbps Speed Good?

Broadband Technologies
Broadband is the transmission of high-quality data of wide bandwidth. In its simplest
form, it is a high-speed internet connection that is always on. Broadband connections include
Wi-Fi, DSLs, fiber, and satellites.

Types.

1.Digital Subscriber Line (DSL): DSL uses existing copper telephone lines to transmit data.

(a)Asymmetrical DSL (ADSL): Typically used in residential settings, offering

faster download speeds than upload speeds.

(b)Symmetrical DSL (SDSL): Often used by businesses requiring similar upload

and download speeds.

2. Cable Broadband: Leverages the same coaxial cables used for cable television to deliver
internet.

3.Fiber Optic Broadband (Fiber): Utilizes fiber optic cables to transmit data as light
signals, offering very high speeds and reliability.

4.Wireless Broadband:

Includes technologies like:

o Wi-Fi: Connects devices to the internet via radio waves within a limited area.
o Satellite Broadband: Provides internet access via communication satellites,
often used in remote or rural areas.
o 4G/5G LTE: Mobile broadband technologies that offer high-speed internet
access over cellular networks.

5.Broadband over Power Lines (BPL):

 Transmits data over existing electrical wiring within buildings.

Broadband technology refers to high-speed, high-capacity data transmission techniques that

utilize a wide range of frequencies to enable simultaneous communication of voice, data, and
video. It encompasses various methods like DSL, cable, fiber optic, and wireless connections,
offering faster internet speeds than traditional dial-up. Broadband is essential for modern
digital activities, including streaming, gaming, and remote work.
Key aspects of broadband technology:

1. High-speed and high-capacity:

Broadband allows for the simultaneous transmission of multiple data streams, enabling faster
internet speeds and the ability to handle large amounts of data.

2. Multiple technologies:
Broadband is not a single technology but rather a concept implemented through various
methods, including DSL (using phone lines), cable (using cable TV infrastructure), fiber
optic (using light signals), and wireless (using radio waves).
3. Essential for modern life:
Broadband is fundamental for work, education, entertainment, and communication in today's
world.
4. Always-on connectivity:
Broadband provides a continuous, always-on internet connection, unlike dial-up which
requires a connection to be established each time.
5. Faster data transfer:
Broadband enables significantly faster data transfer rates than dial-up connections,
facilitating activities like streaming videos, downloading large files, and participating in
online gaming.
6. Meeting growing demands:
Broadband technology is crucial for supporting the increasing demands of modern digital
applications, such as remote work, online education, and multimedia content consumption.

What is an IP Address?

Imagine every device on the internet as a house. For you to send a letter to a friend living in
one of these houses, you need their home address. In the digital world, this home address is
what we call an IP (Internet Protocol) Address. It's a unique string of numbers separated by
periods (IPv4) or colons (IPv6) that identifies each device connected to the internet or a local
network.

An IP address, or Internet Protocol address, is a unique string of numbers assigned to each device
connected to a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. It serves as an
identifier that allows devices to send and receive data over the network, ensuring that this data
reaches the correct destination.

Types of IP Address

IP addresses can be classified in several ways based on their structure, purpose, and the type
of network they are used in. Here's a breakdown of the different classifications of IP
addresses:

1. Based on Addressing Scheme (IPv4 vs. IPv6)

IPv4:

This is the most common form of IP Address. It consists of four sets of numbers separated by
dots. For example, 192.158.1.38. Each set of numbers can range from 0 to 255. This format
can support over 4 billion unique addresses. Here's how the structure is broken down:

 Four Octets: Each octet represents eight bits, or a byte, and can take a value from 0 to 255.
This range is derived from the possible combinations of eight bits (2^8 = 256 combinations).

 Example of IPv4 Address: 192.168.1.1

o 192 is the first octet

o 168 is the second octet

o 1 is the third octet

o 1 is the fourth octet

Each part of the IP address can indicate various aspects of the network configuration, from
the network itself to the specific device within that network. In most cases, the network part
of the address is represented by the first one to three octets, while the remaining section
identifies the host (device).

IPv6:

IPv6 addresses were created to deal with the shortage of IPv4 addresses. They use 128 bits
instead of 32, offering a vastly greater number of possible addresses. These addresses are
expressed as eight groups of four hexadecimal digits, each group representing 16 bits. The
groups are separated by colons.

 Example of IPv6 Address: 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334

o Each group (like 2001, 0db8, 85a3, etc.) represents a 16-bit block of the address.

2. Based on Usage (Public vs. Private)

Public IP Addresses

A Public IP address is assigned to every device that directly accesses the internet. This
address is unique across the entire internet. Here are the key characteristics and uses of public
IP addresses:

 Uniqueness: Each public IP address is globally unique. No two devices on the internet can
have the same public IP address at the same time.

 Accessibility: Devices with a public IP address can be accessed directly from anywhere on
the internet, assuming no firewall or security settings block the access.

 Assigned by ISPs: Public IP addresses are assigned by Internet Service Providers (ISPs).
When you connect to the internet through an ISP, your device or router receives a public IP
address.

 Types: Public IP addresses can be static (permanently assigned to a device) or dynamic

(temporarily assigned and can change over time).

Example Use: Public IP addresses are typically used for servers hosting websites, email
servers, or any device that needs to be accessible from the internet. For instance, if you host a
website on your own server at home, your ISP must assign a public IP address to your server
so users around the world can access your site.

Private IP Addresses

Private IP addresses are used within private networks (such as home networks, office
networks, etc.) and are not routable on the internet. This means that devices with private IP
addresses cannot directly communicate with devices on the internet without a translating
mechanism like a router performing Network Address Translation (NAT). Key features
include:

 Not globally unique: Private IP addresses are only required to be unique within their own
network. Different private networks can use the same range of IP addresses without conflict.

 Local communication: These addresses are used for communication between devices within
the same network. They cannot be used to communicate directly with devices on the internet.

 Defined ranges: The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) has reserved specific IP
address ranges for private use:

o IPv4: 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255, 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255, 192.168.0.0 to

192.168.255.255
 o IPv6: Addresses starting with FD or FC

Example Use: In a typical home network, the router assigns private IP addresses to each
device (like smartphones, laptops, smart TVs) from the reserved ranges. These devices use
their private IPs to communicate with each other and with the router. The router uses NAT to
allow these devices to access the internet using its public IP address.

3. Based on Assignment Method (Static vs. Dynamic)

Static IP Addresses:

 These are permanently assigned to a device, typically important for servers or devices that
need a constant address.

 Reliable for network services that require regular access such as websites, remote
management.

Dynamic IP Addresses:

 Temporarily assigned from a pool of available addresses by the Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol (DHCP).

 Cost-effective and efficient for providers, perfect for consumer devices that do not require
permanent addresses.

How Do IP Addresses Work?

Here's how IP addresses work:

1. Unique Identification

Every device connected to a network, such as computers, smartphones, and servers, is

assigned an IP address. This address is used to identify the device on the network, similar to
how a home address identifies a specific location.

2. Communication Protocol

The Internet Protocol (IP), part of the broader suite of internet protocols, uses these addresses
to facilitate the routing of data packets between devices. Each piece of data sent over a
network is broken into smaller units called packets. Each packet includes both the sender's
and the recipient's IP addresses.

3. Data Routing

When a device sends information to another device over the internet:

 The data is divided into packets.

 Each packet contains the IP address of the device it is destined for.

 Routers within the network read the destination IP address on each packet and determine the
best path for the packet to travel. Routers communicate with each other to update and
maintain records of the fastest, most efficient routes for data.

4. Local Area Networks (LAN) and Wide Area Networks (WAN)

 LAN: On local networks, IP addresses can be assigned manually by an administrator (static

IP) or automatically by a DHCP server. Devices within the same network communicate
directly using their local IP addresses.

 WAN: For devices on different networks, the data must travel through multiple routers across
the internet. Each router makes independent decisions about the best route for the packets
based on the destination IP address.

5. Network Address Translation (NAT)

Most devices on a home or small business network share a single public IP address when
accessing the internet, even though each device has its own private IP address within the local
network. NAT is a process where multiple local IP addresses are mapped to a single public IP
address. This conserves IP addresses and adds a layer of security by hiding internal IP
addresses from the external network.

The major differences between IPv4 and IPv6 are:

IPv4 (Internet Protocol Version 4) IPv6 (Internet Protocol Version 6)

Encryption and authentication is
Encryption and authentication is not provided in
provided in IPv6 (Internet Protocol
IPv4 (Internet Protocol Version 4).
Version 6)
Header of IPv4 is 20 – 60 bytes. Header of IPv6 is fixed at 40 bytes
Checksumfield is available in IPv4. Checksumfield is not available in IPv6.
Packet flow identification is available in
Packet flow identification is not available in IPv4
IPv6. Flow label field is available in the
(Internet Protocol Version 4).
header.
IPv4 addresses are usually represented in dot-
An IPv6 address is represented as eight
decimal notation, consisting of four decimal
groups of four hexadecimal digits, each
numbers, each ranging from 0 to 255, separated by
group representing 16 bits.
dots.
Sender and forwarding routers performs Fragmentation is performed only by the
fragmentation in IPv4 sender in IPv6.
 In IPv6, there is an inbuilt security
In IPv4, security features relies on application
feature named IPSEC.
End to end connection integrity cannot be achieved End to end connection integrity can be
in IPv4. done in IPv6.
IPv4 supports DHCP and Manual address IPv6 supports renumbering and auto
configuration address configuration.
IPv4 addresses are 32-bit long IPv6 addresses are 128 bits long.
The address space in IPv4 is 4.29 ×109 The address space in IPv6 is 3.4 ×1038
Multicast and Anycast message
IPv4 has a broadcast message transmission scheme. transmission scheme is available in
IPv6.

Domain Name Server

DNS (Domain Name System) and domain names are fundamental to how the internet works.
DNS translates human-readable domain names (like google.com) into the numerical IP
addresses that computers use to identify each other. It acts as a phonebook for the internet,
allowing users to access websites and other online resources using memorable names instead
of complex IP addresses.
What is a Domain Name?

 A domain name is a user-friendly label that identifies a website or online resource

(e.g., google.com, wikipedia.org).
 It's what people type into their web browsers to access a specific site.

What is DNS?

 DNS is the system that translates these human-readable domain names into the IP
addresses that computers use to communicate.
 When you type a domain name into your browser, your computer sends a request to a
DNS server, which then looks up the corresponding IP address.
 This IP address is then used to locate and connect to the website's server.

Why are they important?

 User-friendly:

DNS makes it easy for humans to navigate the internet without needing to memorize
complex IP addresses.

 Efficient:

It allows for a hierarchical and distributed system of servers to efficiently resolve

domain names.

 Flexibility:
 DNS enables websites to change IP addresses without needing to change their domain
name, making the internet more flexible and manageable.

In essence, DNS is the invisible infrastructure that makes the internet's naming system work,
allowing users to easily access online resources through memorable domain names.

What Is a Computer Network?

A computer network is a connection between two or more network devices, like computers,
routers, and switches, to share network resources.

The establishment of a computer network depends on the requirements of the communication

channel, i.e., the network can be wired or wireless.

Types of Networks

According to the communication requirements, multiple types of network connections are

available. The most basic type of network classification depends on the network's
geographical coverage.

Below mentioned are different types of networks:

 PAN (Personal Area Network)

 LAN (Local Area Network)
 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
 WAN (Wide Area Network)
What Is Local Area Network (LAN)?

The Local Area Network (LAN) is designed to connect multiple network devices and systems
within a limited geographical distance. The devices are connected using multiple protocols
for properly and efficiently exchanging data and services.

Attributes of LAN Network:

 The data transmit speed in the LAN network is relatively higher than the other network types,
MAN and WAN.
 LAN uses private network addresses for network connectivity for data and service exchange,
and it uses cable for network connection, decreasing error and maintaining data security.

Advantages and Disadvantages of LAN Network

Advantages Disadvantages
Transmission of data and services is relatively Need constant administration of
higher than other network connections. experienced engineers for functioning.
The Network Server acts as a central unit for the Probability of leak of sensitive data by
whole network. LAN administration.

What Is Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)?

The Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a network type that covers the network connection
of an entire city or connection of a small area. The area covered by the network is connected
using a wired network, like data cables.
Attributes of MAN Network:

 Network covers an entire town area or a portion of a city.

 Data transmission speed is relatively high due to the installation of optical cables and wired
connections.

Advantages and Disadvantages of MAN Network:

Advantages Disadvantages
Provides Full-Duplex data transmission in the High probability of attack from hackers and
network channel for devices. cybercriminals due to large networks.
The network connection area covers an entire The need for good quality hardware and the
city or some parts using the optic cables. installation cost is very high.

What Is Wide Area Network (WAN)?

The Wide Area Network (WAN) is designed to connect devices over large distances like
states or between countries. The connection is wireless in most cases and uses radio towers
for communication.

The WAN network can be made up of multiple LAN and MAN networks.

Attributes of WAN Network:

 The speed of the WAN data transfer is lower than in comparison to LAN and MAN networks
due to the large distance covered.
 The WAN network uses a satellite medium to transmit data between multiple locations and
network towers.

Advantages and Disadvantages of WAN Network:

Advantages Disadvantages
This network covers a high geographical High cost to set up the network and the Support of
area and is used for large-distance experienced technicians is needed to maintain the
connections. network.
They also use radio towers and connect It is difficult to prevent hacking and debug a large
channels for users. network.
Difference Between LAN, MAN, and WAN
Basis LAN MAN WAN
LAN is a network that enables
Several computers can
the communication between be connected to MAN in The WAN network
many linked devices. It is in
the same city or extends to a much
Meaning charge of establishing separately. It greater area. It can
connections among encompasses a greater link multiple
neighborhood units, including
region, including minor countries together.
universities and schools. towns and cities.
MAN can be either
A single company
LAN is a private and secured public or private. A lot
Network may not own
network. Hospitals, schools, of businesses and
Authority WAN. It can be
offices, etc., can own it. telephone companies
private or public.
could own them.
MAN provides a modest WAN provides a
The Internet speed provided
Speed Internet connection slow Internet
through LAN is fast.
speed. connection.
MAN's maintenance is
WAN maintenance
Maintenance LAN maintenance is very easy. easier compared to
is very difficult.
LAN.
Congestion is more
Congestion is less in the LAN in WAN when
Congestion It is more in MAN.
network. compared to LAN
and MAN.
The bandwidth in LAN is very In MAN, bandwidth is WAN bandwidth is
Bandwidth
high. less. quite limited.
It is very easy to design a LAN It isn't easy to design a It is complicated to
Designing
network. MAN network. design WAN.

What Is the OSI Model?

The OSI model and TCP/IP model are fundamental frameworks for understanding how
networks operate. The OSI model is a conceptual, layered model providing a guideline for
network communication, while TCP/IP is a practical, protocol-based model that underpins
the internet. Essentially, TCP/IP is a concrete implementation of networking principles, while
the OSI model is a more abstract reference for understanding those principles.
OSI Model:

Purpose: Provides a layered reference model for understanding network communication,

enabling interoperability between different network systems.

Layers: Divides network communication into seven layers: Physical, Data Link, Network,
Transport, Session, Presentation, and Application.

Protocol Independence: Designed to be protocol-independent, meaning it can be used to

describe any network communication, regardless of the specific protocols used.
 Theoretical Framework: Primarily used for education, analysis, and troubleshooting,
offering a clear conceptual structure for network architecture.
TCP/IP Model:

Purpose: A practical model that forms the basis of the internet and other networks, defining
how data is transmitted and received.

Layers: Divides network communication into four layers: Network Access, Internet,
Transport, and Application.
Protocol Dependence: Focuses on specific protocols used for internetworking, such as TCP
and IP, which are essential for data transmission.
Practical Implementation: Implemented in real-world systems and is the foundation of
nearly all modern networks.
Key Differences:

 Abstraction: OSI is a theoretical, layered model, while TCP/IP is a practical,

protocol-based model.
 Layering: OSI has seven layers, while TCP/IP has four.
 Protocol Focus: OSI is protocol-independent, while TCP/IP is protocol-dependent.
 Real-World Application: TCP/IP is the model used for actual network
communication, while OSI is more of a reference and teaching tool.

Similarities:

 Both models aim to standardize network communication.

 Both models divide network communication into layers to better understand the
process.
 Both models are essential for understanding how networks function and how data is
transmitted.

In essence, the TCP/IP model is the practical implementation of the concepts outlined in the
OSI model. While OSI provides a comprehensive framework for understanding network
communication, TCP/IP is the actual model used for internetworking
We’ll describe OSI layers “top down” from the application layer that directly serves the end
user, down to the physical layer.