ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION TECHNOLOGY

1. Introduction
'This module unit is designed to equip the trainee with the knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary to
carry out Electrical Installation work in domestic premises.

2. General Objectives
At the end of this module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) Appreciate the necessary safety precautions in electrical workshop and environs
b) Use and care for electrical tools appropriately
c) Understand the Methods of cable installation
d) Apply acquired knowledge to trace faults in domestic installations
e) Maintain and service wiring systems and equipment

3. Course Outline
1. Safety
• Workshop safety hazards
• Electrical safety
• First aid
2. Electrical Tools
• Tools used in Electrical
• Care and maintenance of tools
3. Electrical Power Supply
• Electrical power sources
• Typical layout for a hydro power generating plant
• Electrical power transmission and distribution systems
4. Electrical Instruments and Measurements
• Types of measuring instrument
• Instruments and their quantities of measurement
• Interpretation of instrument's scales
• Methods of performing electrical measurements
5. Conductors and Cable Joints
• Types of cables
• Sizes and ratings
• Definition of a joint
• Properties of joints
• Types of joints
• Methods of making permanent joints
• IEEE regulations on cables and cable joints
6. Wiring Systems and Accessories
 • Types of wiring systems
• Factors affecting choice
• Applications of given systems
• Types of accessories
7. Domestic Lighting and Power Circuits
• Final sub-circuits
• Sequence of control for domestic installations
• Ring and radial final sub-circuits
• Wiring methods for lighting final sub-circuits
• Cooker and water heater final circuits
8. Earthing and Protection
• Terms used in earthing
• Purpose for earthing
• Parts of an earthing systems
• Different methods of earth
• Over current protection
• Test for an earthing system
• Relevance IEE regulations
9. Battery Charging
• Charging methods
• Battery maintenance
10. Bell and Alarm Circuits
• Types of electrical bells
• Components of a bell circuit
• Bell indicators
• Burglar alarm circuits
• Fire alarm circuits
11. Tests and Inspection
• Need for testing
• Tests on completed installations and major extensions and alterations
• IEE regulations requirements for testing and inspection
12. Structured Cabling
• Structured cabling systems(SCS)
• Entrance facilities
• Types of cabling
• Types of topologies
• Types of installations
1. Safety
1.1. Workshop safety hazards
Electrocution is one of the most common hazards across construction sites. Identifying electrical
hazards can help raise awareness of the risks, their severity, and how it can harm workers.
Most common electrical hazards in the workshop include:
a) Damaged Tools and Equipment: Exposure to damaged electrical tools and equipment can be
very dangerous. Do not fix anything unless you are qualified to do so. Thoroughly check for
cracks, cuts or abrasions on cables, wires, and cords. In case of any defects, have them repaired
or replaced.
b) Inadequate Wiring and Overloaded Circuits: Using wires with inappropriate size for the
current can cause overheating and fires to occur. Use the correct wire suitable for the operation
and the electrical load to work on. Use the correct extension cord designed for heavy-duty use.
Also, do not overload an outlet and use proper circuit breakers.
c) Exposed Electrical Parts: Examples of exposed electrical parts include temporary lighting,
open power distribution units, and detached insulation parts on electrical cords. These hazards
can cause potential shocks and burns. Secure these items with proper guarding mechanisms and
always check for any exposed parts to be repaired immediately.
d) Improper Grounding: The most common electrical violation is the improper grounding of
equipment. Proper grounding can eliminate unwanted voltage and reduce the risk of
electrocution. Never remove the metallic ground pin as it is responsible for returning unwanted
voltage to the ground.
e) Damaged Insulation: Defective or inadequate insulation is a hazard. Be aware of damaged
insulation and report it immediately. Turn off all power sources before replacing damaged
insulation and never attempt to cover them with electrical tape.
f) Wet Conditions: Never operate electrical equipment in wet locations. Water greatly increases the
risk of electrocution especially if the equipment has damaged insulation. Have a qualified
electrician inspect electrical equipment that has gotten wet before energizing it.
g) Carelessness: This may be due to boredom, tiredness or laziness.
h) Ignorance: Accidents may occur due to lack of awareness or inexperience of workers

Knowing your limits and applying the best electrical safety practices can help reduce the risk of
electrical shock and death. It is safer to work within your scope of expertise instead of taking the risk of
working beyond your capacity. If you are not confident to do the job, don’t hesitate to call for help from
an authorized person.

1.2. Electrical safety

All systems which use electrical energy have the potential to cause serious harm. Electric current can
pass through the body when the body becomes part of the electric circuit. Electric current flowing
through the body can cause:
• electric shock
• electrocution
 • burns caused by electric current and arc flash

The severity of the injury depends on:

• Amount of current flowing through the body.
• Path of the current through the body.
• The moisture content of skin
• proximity of body to effective earth
• Length of time the body is in the circuit.
• The voltage of the current.

Precautions to be taken while working with electricity:

• Check for damage on power plugs, wire and other electrical fittings. If found damaged, repair or
replace damaged equipment immediately.
• Keep electrical wires of equipment away from hot surfaces to prevent damage of the insulation.
• Do not lay electric wires along passage. It can be a trip hazard. Further contact with sharp edges
can cause damage to insulation leading to short circuit.
• Know the location of switches/circuit breaker boxes for use in case of an emergency.
• All circuit breakers in the switch board must be clearly labeled for easy identification and easily
accessible.
• Do not handle electrical equipment when hands, feet or body are wet or perspiring, or when
standing on a wet floor.
• Consider all floors as conductive unless covered with insulating matting of suitable type for
electrical work.
• Do not wear rings, metallic watchbands, chains etc. when working with electrical equipment.
• Before connecting the tool to the power supply, switch the tool OFF.
• The tool must be properly grounded with a 3-wire cord with a 3-prong plug. Use double
insulated tools wherever possible.
• Do not use electrical tools in wet conditions or damp locations unless the tool is connected to an
Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker.
• Use the tool only for its designed purpose.
• Read the Owner’s Manual and follow manufacturer’s safety instructions.
• Use of electric-powered tools with a GFCI breakers will drastically reduce the possibility of
electric shock or electrocution.
• Always use appropriate PPE(Personal Protective Equipment).
• If an extension cord is required, make sure it is for the correct wattage and has the proper plugs.
• Ensure the power switch is “OFF” before plugging or unplugging tools.
• Never disconnect power by pulling on the cord – use the PLUG.
• Never carry a tool by the cord.
• Unplug the cord before making adjustments, changing/replacing parts/accessories.
• Inspect tool before each use. Replace tool if parts are worn or damaged. Remove from service
and tag “Danger, Do Not Operate.”
• Inspect the cord before each use. Replace the cord if worn or damaged. Remove from service
• and tag “Danger, Do Not Operate.”
• Make sure extension cord is for the correct amperage and has the proper plug.
 • Don’t overload electrical outlets.

Other sources of danger include:

• Unprotected electric heaters
• Falls: caused by fall either from a height or by worker tripping over equipment left lying about
• Ladders:
a) Should always be placed at reasonable angle to the vertical
b) Metal ladders should be used with great caution especially near bare conductors
c) Should be anchored on a non-slip surface or effectively wedged.
• Moving machinery: Alway clear object and debri form moving machinery. Never operate on a
moving machine, Let it be stationery first.
1.3. First aid
First aid is always a temporary measure until a skilled assistance arrives.

First-aid box: Every workshops and factories are legally bound to have a fully stocked first-aid box.
An industrial first-aid kit should contain:
• sterilized dressings
• cotton wool,
• adhesive plaster,
• rollers bandages,
• sal volatile,
• eye drops

Treatment for cuts: Do not wash the wound, just wash the skin around it, apply a sterilized dressing or
an adhesive wound dressing, as quickly as possible.

Treatment for burns: Cover the wound with sterilized dressing, do not apply adhesive dressing or
ointments. For chemical burns, flush with cold water immediately and apply sterilized dressing. Apply
antidote if available.

Treatment for electric shock: It is caused by current passing through the body causing a paralysis of
muscle, particularly the heart muscles. Speed is essential in treatment of electric shock.
Procedure:
i. Switch off current before attempting to remove the casualty or remove him with an insulation
material e.g dry wood or newspaper.
ii. Remove any obstruction to breathing e.g tight collar
iii. Commence artificial respiration using the Holger Nielson method.
a) Lay the patient in a prone position with elbows bent and projecting sideways.
b) The operator kneel in front of the casualty.
c) The operator now straightens out his arms and
places his palms, fingers outstretched, on the flat
of the casualty’s back.
d) Movements:
i. Press down on casualty back, counting
slowly(1 , 2)
 ii. Slide hands to the casualty’s elbows, continue counting (3)
iii. Raise the elbows counting (4, 5)
iv. Lower elbows and slide hands to the patient’s back counting (6)
v. Repeat the cycle of action until the patient recovers or a doctor certifies death

A victim may require Cardio-Pulmonary Resuscitation (CPR).

If the victim is breathing and has a heartbeat, give first aid for injuries and treat for shock. Ensure the
victim gets medical care as soon as possible.
Provide medical personnel with information on voltage level, shock duration & entry/exit points. The
treating/attending physician must have detailed specific information to properly diagnose and care for
the victim.

2. Electrical Tools
Having the proper tools is essential to getting the job done efficiently, correctly, and more
importantly, safely. The old saying, use the right tool for the job, couldn’t be more relevant, especially
when it comes to electrical work.
2.1. Tools used in Electrical
Pliers
Pliers are a hand tools used to hold objects firmly, for bending, or physical compression and shaping
wire. Generally, pliers consist of a pair of metal first-class levers joined at a fulcrum positioned closer
to one end of the levers, creating short jaws on one side of the fulcrum, and longer handles on the other
side. The jaws can also be used to manipulate objects too small or unwieldy to be manipulated with the
fingers.
Types of Pliers:
a) Transverse end cutting pliers:
• ideal for vertical cutting in tight spaces.

b) Diagonal cutting pliers (or wire cutters or diagonal cutting pliers or diagonal cutters)
• intended for the cutting of wire (they are generally not used to grab or turn anything).
• the plane defined by the cutting edges of the jaws intersects the joint rivet at an angle
• they cut by indenting and wedging the wire apart. The jaw edges are ground to a
symmetrical “V” shape;
• useful for cutting copper, brass, iron, aluminum and steel wire
 b) Long nose pliers with side cutter
• used to hold things in small, awkward areas where your fingers will not fit. Long nose pliers
are also used for bending, and stretching the lead of electronic component or connecting
wires.

c) Needle nose pliers (also known as pinch-nose pliers, or snipe-nose pliers)

• They are both cutting and gripping pliers
• used to bend, re-position and cut wire. Their namesake long gripping nose provides
excellent control and reach for fine work in small or crowded electrical areas.
• they are useful for reaching into cavities where cables (or other materials) have become
stuck or unreachable.

d) Round nose pliers

• round nose pliers because the bent jaws provide better access to tight areas.
• useful for “tucking in” wire ends in

Screwdriver
Screwdriver is a hand-tool used to turn, drive screws and sometimes bolts or other machine elements
with a mating drive system.
A typical screwdriver comprises:
- The handle: A part which a person holds when using screwdriver.
- The shaft: often called the shank. Narrow metal, often of cylindrical shape,
embedded in and protruding from the handle.
- The blade: The blade is located on the tip of the shank.
- The tip: Found at the end of the shaft, opposite the handle.

Types of screwdrivers

Regular or Flat-head screwdriver

Flat-head screwdrivers are used with large, heavy screws.
Tip is flared so it is wider than the driver bar.
not often used with power tools would be used because the power driver tends to slip out

Cross-slot / Phillips
A cross-recess screw driver has two slots, oriented
perpendicular to each other, in the fastener
head.
Phillips screwdriver was created by Henry F. Phillips.
designed purposely to to cam out when the stalled, to
prevent the fastener damaging the work or the head,

Frearson screwdriver
also known as the Reed and Prince screwdriver.
similar to a Phillips but the Frearson has a more
pointed75° V shape.
One advantage over the Phillips drive is that one
driver or bit fits all screw sizes. The tool recess is a
perfect, sharp cross, allowing for higher applied torque

Pozidriv
an improved version of the Phillips screwdriver.
It is jointly patented by the Phillips Screw Company and
American Screw Company.
Its advantage over Phillips drives is its decreased likelihood to
cam out, which allows greater torque to be applied.
The Pozidriv screws and drivers have straight sided flanks.
The design is intended to decrease the likelihood that the
Pozidriv screwdriver will slip out, pro-
vide a greater driving surface, and decrease wear.
The principal disadvantage of Pozidriv screws is that they are
visually quite similar to Phillips, thus many people are unaware
of the difference or do not own the correct drivers for them, and use incorrect screwdrivers.

Hexagon screwdriver
A hexagon screwdriver uses six-
sided fastener heads.
The fastener is known as a hex head
cap screw. It can be turned with an
adjustable wrench, combination
wrench, and 6- or 12-point sockets.

Torx screwdriver
Torx drive system provides six
lobular drive surfaces mated from lobes of the driving and driven
elements.
Drive surfaces have vertical sides that permit the maximum torque application to assure reliable
clamping force.

Multi-bit screwdrivers
Multi-bit screwdrivers allow the user to have a number of
different types of tips in one tool.
Offset screwdrivers are designed for removing and inserting
screws in places where it is impossible to use a straight-shank
screwdriver.
They are available in many combinations of slotted and Phillips-
head tips and with
ratchet-type mechanisms.

Wire stripper
Consist of a pair of opposing blades much like scissors or
wire cutters.
The addition of a center notch makes it easier to cut the
insulation without cutting the wire.
This type of wire stripper is used by rotating it around the
insulation while applying pressure in order to make a cut
around the insulation.
Another type of manual wire stripper is very similar to the simple design previously mentioned, except
this type has several notches of varying size. This allows the user to match the notch size to the wire
size, thereby eliminating the need for twisting. Once the device is clamped on, the remainder of the
wire can simply be pulled out, leaving the insulation behind.

Tweezers
Tweezers are tools used for picking up objects too small to be easily handled with the human
hands. Tweezers are also used to hold, remove, and/or maneuver objects that are too small to be
gripped with the hand.

Tweezers shapes and types

Tweezers come in a variety of tip shapes and sizes.

Flat tip tweezers

Flat-tip tweezers have larger, wider tips useful for gripping larger
electronic objects from circuit.
They have an angled tip which may be used for removing splinters.

long needle-like tip and curved tweezers

useful for reaching into small crevices.
Triangular tip tweezers
Triangular tip tweezers have an extremely small, pointed tip used for manipulating tiny electronic
components and the like.

Tweezers can be used whenever small objects have to be manipulated, including for example small,
particularly surface- mount, electronic parts, and small mechanical parts for models and precision
mechanisms.

Multimeter
A multimeter is an electronic measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions in
one unit and is also known as a multitester or VOM (Volt-Ohm meter).
A multimeter can be a hand-held device useful for basic fault finding and field service work, or a
bench instrument which can measure to a very high degree of accuracy. They can be used to
troubleshoot electrical problems in a wide array of industrial and household devices such as electronic
equipment, motor controls, domestic appliances, power supplies, and wiring systems.

Quantities measured by multimeter

Modern multimeters can measure many quantities. The common ones are:
• Voltage: alternating and direct, in volts.
• Current: alternating and direct, in amperes.
• Resistance, in ohms.

Additionally, some multimeters measure:

• Capacitance in farads. Duty cycle as a percentage.
• Conductance in siemens. Frequency in hertz.
• Decibels. Inductance in henrys.
Some digital multimeters may also include circuits for:
• Continuity tester; sounds when a circuit conducts
• Diodes (measuring forward drop of diode junctions), and transistors (measuring current gain
and other parameters)
• Battery checking for simple 1.5 volt and 9 volt batteries. This is a current loaded voltage scale
which simulates in-use voltage measurement.

Multimeter can be analog or digital.

Analog multimeter
Analog multimeters use a microammeter whose pointer moves over a scale calibrated for all
the different measurements that can be made. Resolution of analog multimeters is limited by the width
of the scale pointer, parallax, vibration of the pointer, the accuracy of printing of scales, zero
calibration, number of ranges, and errors due to non-horizontal use of the mechanical display.
Typically an analog meter will have a panel adjustment to set the zero-ohms calibration of the meter, to
compensate for the varying voltage of the meter battery.

Digital multimeters
Digital multimeters sometimes abbreviated (DMM or DVOM) display the measured value in numerals,
and may also display a bar of a length proportional to the quantity being measured.
Digital multimeters are now far more common than analog ones, but analog multimeters are still
preferable in some cases, for example when monitoring a rapidly-varying value.

Oscilloscope
Oscilloscope is an electronic test instrument for measuring and observing of constantly varying signal
voltages.
The oscilloscope is basically a graph-displaying device that traces a graph of measured electrical signal
on its screen.
It shows how signal changes over time.
The vertical axis of the display screen represents voltage
and the horizontal axis represents time.
It can measure amplitude, period, and frequency of a
signal using oscilloscope.
Also, you can determine the pulse width, duty cycle,
rise time and fall time of a pulse waveform.
Soldering irons
T he most fundamental skill needed to assemble any electronic project is that of soldering.
Used to join electrical parts together to form an electrical connection, using a molten tin alloy and tin
with a soldering iron. A large range of soldering irons is available. Some factors to consider include:
wattage, voltage ratting, temperature control, anti-static protection, types of bits, and availability of
spare parts.
Other accessories include solder suckers, solder iron holders and flux.

2.2. Care and maintenance of tools

➔ Always clean tools after each use before you return them to storage.
➔ Wipe them down with a rag or old towel and be sure they are free of dust, grease and debris
before you put them into their proper places.
➔ Always keep your tools in a dry place to avoid rusting.
➔ Also look for any damage or defects. Check your tools' handles for splinters, breaks and cracks.
➔ Make sure that metal parts show no signs of corrosion or rust. Repair or replace any tools that
show signs of damage.
➔ After cleaning, use an all-purpose oil to lubricate tools with adjustable parts. Lightly spray other
metal tool parts as well (avoid getting oil on handles), such as screwdrivers. Wipe away any
excess with a rag before storing. This will help fight corrosion and rust.
➔ Smooth weathered, rough wooden handles with a medium-grit emery cloth. Handles should be
smooth enough to slide your hand along.
➔ Bladed tools should be sharpened once per season. Use files to sharpen the tools and to sharpen
nicked or dull cutting tools.
➔ Power tools such as electric drills, need routine maintenance just like your hand tools. Because
of their mechanical and electrical parts, power tools are more susceptible to problems caused by
poor maintenance, dust and debris accumulation and general malfunction. Maintain power tools
as follows:
• Keep power tools clean
• Store power tools correctly, preferably in their original cases
• Inspect for wear or damage and frayed insulation or exposed wires
• Lubricate moving parts
• Keep batteries in shape

3. ELECTRICAL POWER SUPPLY

Power systems are divide into three parts; power generation, transmission and distribution. Power is the
conversion of energy from one form into electrical energy. Electrical energy is produce from natural
sources. These sources are classified into two types: renewable sources and non-renewable sources. In
present power system, most of the electrical energy gets generated from non-renewable sources like
coal, oil and natural gases. But these sources are limitedly available. So, we have to use these sources
carefully and always to find an alternate source or move on renewable sources. The renewable sources
include the solar, wind, water, tidal and biomass. These sources are the environment-friendly, free and
infinite.

Several fundamental methods exist to convert other forms of energy into electrical energy:
Generators
Electric generators transform kinetic energy into electricity. This is the most used form for generating
electricity and is based on Faraday's law. Almost all commercial electrical generation is done using
electromagnetic induction, in which mechanical energy forces a generator to rotate.
Electro-chemistry
Electro-chemistry is the direct transformation of chemical energy into electricity, as in a battery.
Electrochemical electricity generation is important in portable and mobile applications. Currently, most
electrochemical power comes from batteries.
Photovoltaic effect
The photovoltaic effect is the transformation of light into electrical energy, as in solar cells.
Photovoltaic panels convert sunlight directly to electricity.

3.1. Electrical power sources

i. Hydro-electric power sources
Hydro power plants works based on the gravitational effects. Water stored in a dam or reservoir
is allowed to flows downstream towards the pen stock causing kinetic energy that rotates the
turbines. It utilizes the potential energy of water at a high level for the generation of electrical
energy.
It consists of mainly 5 parts:

• Da
m
or

Reservoir
Sufficient water storage at some height. The height of the water level (called a water
head) in the reservoir determines how much potential energy is stored in it.
 • Control Gate
Used to control the flow of water through the pen stock to the turbine.
• Pen stock
The potential energy of the water is converted into kinetic energy as it flows down
through the Pen stock due to gravity.
• Water Turbine
Water from the pen stock is taken into the water turbine which is mechanically coupled
to an electric generator. The kinetic energy of the water drives the turbine and
consequently, rotating the generator. This converts kinetic energy to rotational
mechanical energy.
• Generator
The turbine drives the generator, which produces electricity through electromagnetic
induction.
• Surge Tank
A surge tank is a small reservoir or tank which is open at the top. It is fitted between the
reservoir and the powerhouse. The water level in the surge tank rises or falls to reduce
the pressure swings in the pen stock.

Advantages of Hydro Energy System

• It can be used in the service instantly.
• After this process, water can be used for domestic, irrigation and other purposes.
• Dams are designed for an extended period and so it can contribute to the generation of
electrical energy for many years.
• Running and maintenance costs are low.
• The environmental pollution system is negligible here.
• No fuel transportation is required.
Disadvantages of Hydro Energy System
• The initial cost of a hydro-power plant is high.
• Hydro power plants are located in the hilly area, and it is very far from the road. So, they
require long transmission line.
• The main disadvantages are that It can develop at only a few sites or place where a good
amount of water is available.
• It is also weather dependent.

ii. Thermal power plant

Thermal power plant produces electricity by burning coal or gas in the boiler. Heat is used to
convert water into steam. This high pressure and high-temperature steam flowing into the
turbine which spins a generator to produce electrical energy. After it passes through the turbine,
the steam gets cooled in a condenser and reuse in the boiler to generate steam again.

Advantages of Thermal power plant

Coal is cheap.
It has less initial cost compared to renewable power plants.
It requires less space than a hydro plant.
 We can construct a thermal power plant at any place because coal can be transport to the
plant irrespective of its location.
Construction and commissioning of thermal power plant take lesser time than a hydro plant.

Disadvantages of Thermal power plant

Coal is a non-renewable energy source.
Operating cost high and variable according to the price of fuel.
It pollutes the atmosphere due to smoke and fumes.
It requires huge quantity of water.

iii. Nuclear Energy System

Working of nuclear power is almost same as a thermal power plant. In a thermal power plant,
coal is used in the boiler to produce heat. In a nuclear power plant, uranium is used in the
nuclear reactor to generate heat. In both power plants, heat energy gets converted into electrical
energy. However, 1kg of uranium can produce energy same as the energy produced by burning
of 4500 tonnes of coal or 2000 tonnes of oil.

Advantages of Nuclear Energy System

It requires less space than a thermal power plant and a hydro power plant.
It can produce an unusually high amount of electrical energy from the single plant.
It does not emit CO2.
A nuclear power plant needs a small quantity of fuel.

Disadvantages of Nuclear Energy System

It has high initial construction cost.
It has high operating and maintenance cost.
It has radioactive waste.
It has a high risk of radio-activity and explosion.

iv. Diesel Power plants

Diesel engine is used as the prime mover. The diesel burns inside the engine and the products of
this combustion act as the working fluid to produce mechanical energy. The diesel engine drives
the generator which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. They are mainly used
when:
Demand of power is less
Sufficient quantity of coal and water is not available
Transportation facilities are inadequate

Advantages
• The design and layout of the plant are quite simple.
• It occupies less space as the number and size of the auxiliaries is small.
• It can be located at any place.
• It can be started quickly and it can pickup load in a short time.
• There are no standby losses.
• It requires less quantity of water for cooling.
• The overall cost is much less than that of steam power station of same capacity.
 • The thermal efficiency of the plant is higher than that of a steam power station.
• It requires less operating staff.

Disadvantages
• The plant has high running charges as the fuel (diesel) used is costly.
• The plant doesn’t work satisfactorily under overload conditions for a longer period.
• The plant can only generate small power.
• The maintenances charges are generally high.

v. Solar energy power plant

It is a best alternative source for power generation. There are two ways, to generate electrical
energy from sunlight.
• We can create electricity directly by using photovoltaic (PV) cell. The photovoltaic cell is
made up of silicon. Many cells are connected in series or parallel to make a solar panel.
• We can produce heat (solar thermal) with the help of mirrors in the sunlight, and we use this
heat to convert water into steam. This high-temperature steam rotates the turbines which in
turn rotate th generator to produce electricity.

Advantages of Solar Energy System

Transmission cost is zero for a stand-alone solar system.
Solar electricity generation system is environment-friendly.
Maintenance cost is low.
It is an ideal source for remote locations that cannot link to the grid.

Disadvantages of Solar Energy System

Initial expenses are high.
Require large area for bulk production.
Solar electricity generation system is weather dependent.
Solar energy storage (battery) is costly.

vi. Geothermal power plant

It uses geothermal energy hydrothermal resources to produce electricity and this plant requires
high temperature (300ᵒF
to 700ᵒF).
Geo (earth) and thermal
(heat) which means that
we use drilling wells to
pipe hot water or steam
from the earth to pass
through the turbine which
turns the generator to
produce the electric
power.
 Advantages of geothermal energy:
• It’s economically-friendly as it only gives off few amounts of greenhouse gases because it
doesn’t involve any combustion.
• Geothermal is a renewable power source which means it’s available 24/7 despite weather
changing.
• Maintenance required and costs are low.
• We don’t need fossil fuels to operate the plant so it minimizes the dependence of fossil fuel
sources.
• Geothermal systems use the same principle as a refrigerator, it operates quietly without any
noise.
• Also, geothermal heat pumps are high efficiency as they use 25% to 50% electric power for
heating and cooling.

Disadvantages of geothermal energy:

• Geothermal plants can cause earthquakes.
• The geothermal power becomes only sustainable when we properly manage the reservoirs.
• And the initial costs required for construction are high.
• Sometimes geothermal energy releases some harmful and poisonous gases escaping through
holes drilled during construction.
• The construction of the plant may affect the stability of the land around it.
• There are only handful areas around the world able to benefit from the placement of highly
efficient geothermal plants.

Batteries
Batteries are form of electrochemical electricity generation in which there is direct transformation of
chemical energy into electricity. They are mainly used in portable and mobile applications.

3.2. Electrical power transmission and distribution systems

Electric power transmission is the bulk
movement of electrical energyfrom a
generating site, such as a power plant, to
an electrical substation. The
interconnected lines which facilitate this
movement are known as a transmission
network. This network is divided in to:
(a) The Transmission System Illustration 1: Diagram of an electric power system;
(b) The Distribution System transmission system is in blue
These groups are further divided in to:
(a) Primary Transmission
(b) Secondary Transmission
and
(a) Primary Distribution
(b) Secondary Distribution

Generating Station where we can

produce electric power by three-phase
alternator operating in parallel. The most
common generating voltage is 11KV.
But sometime 3.3KV or 6.6KV are used
for industrial captive power generation.

Electrical power is normally generated

at 11kV in a power station. While in
some cases, power may be generated at
33 kV. This generating voltage is then
stepped up to 132kV, 220kV, 400kV
or
765kV etc. Stepping up the voltage level
depends upon the distance at which
power is to be transmitted. Longer the
distance, higher will be the voltage
level. Stepping up of voltage is to reduce
the I2R losses in transmitting the power
(when voltage is stepped up, the current
reduces by a relative amount so that the
power remains constant, and hence I2R
loss also reduces). This stage is called as
primary transmission.

The voltage is the stepped down at a

receiving station to 33kV or 66kV.
Secondary transmission lines emerge from this receiving station to connect substations located near
load centers (cities etc.).
The voltage is further stepped down again to 11kV at a substation. Large industrial consumers can be
supplied at 11kV directly from these substations. Feeders emerge from these substations. This stage is
called as primary distribution.
Feeders are either overhead lines or underground cables which carry power close to the load points
(end consumers) up to a couple of kilometers. Finally, the voltage is stepped down to 220V or 240V or
415V by a pole-mounted distribution transformer and delivered to the distributors. End consumers are
supplied through a service mains line from distributors. The secondary distribution system consists of
feeders, distributors and service mains.

Different types of transmission systems

a) Single phase AC system
 • single phase, two wires
• single phase, two wires with midpoint earthed
• single phase, three
wires b) Two phase AC system
• two-phase, three wires
• two-phase, four
wires c) Three phase AC
system
• three-phase, three wires
• three-phase, four
wires d) DC system
• DC two wires
• DC two wires with midpoint earthed
• DC three wires

Classification of power distribution systems

a) According to nature of current:
• DC distribution system
• AC distribution system
b) According to type of construction:
• Overhead distribution system
• Underground distribution system
c) On the basis of scheme of connection:
• Radial distribution system
• Ring main distribution system
• Inter-connected distribution system

Main elements of a transmission line

Due to the economic considerations, three-phase three-wire overhead system is widely used for electric
power transmission. Following are the main elements of a typical power system.
a) Conductors: three for a single circuit line and six for a double circuit line. Conductors must be
of proper size (i.e. cross-sectional area). This depends upon its current capacity. Usually,
ACSR (Aluminium-core Steel-reinforced) conductors are used.
b) Transformers: Step-up transformers are used for stepping up the voltage level and step-down
transformers are used for stepping it down. Transformers permit power to be transmitted at
higher efficiency.
c) Line insulators: to mechanically support the line conductors while electrically isolating them
from the support towers.
d) Support towers: to support the line conductors suspending in the air overhead.
e) Protective devices: to protect the transmission system and to ensure reliable operation. These
include ground wires, lightening arrestors, circuit breakers, relays etc.
f) Voltage regulators: to keep the voltage within permissible limits at the receiving end.
4. ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENTS
An instrument is a device in which we can determine the magnitude or value of the quantity to be
measured. The measuring quantity can be voltage, current, power and energy etc.
Generally instruments are classified in to two categories.
(a) Absolute instrument
An absolute instrument determines the magnitude of the quantity to be measured in terms of
the instrument parameter. This instrument is really used, because each time the value of the
measuring quantities varies. So we have to calculate the magnitude of the measuring
quantity, analytically which is time consuming. These types of instruments are suitable for
laboratory use. Example: Tangent galvanometer.
(b) Secondary instrument
This instrument determines the value of the quantity to be measured directly. Generally
these instruments are calibrated by comparing with another standard secondary instrument.
Examples of such instruments are voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter etc. Practically
secondary instruments are suitable for measurement.
4.1. Types of measuring instrument
Voltmeters: measures voltage. In order to measure the potential difference between two terminals or
nodes of a circuit, a voltmeter is connected across these two points. A practical voltmeter can usually be
modeled as a parallel combination of an ideal voltmeter (through which no current flows) and a shunt
resistance. There are what are known as DC voltmeters and AC voltmeters. An ac voltmeter usually
measures the RMS(Root Mean Square) value of the time-varying voltage.

Voltmeter meter is always connected in parallel with circuit or direct to the terminals of the battery.
Internal resistance is large to avoid changing the behavior of the measured circuit. Digital voltmeters
have a fixed impedance, typically ~10MΩ.

Ammeters: Ammeter is an electronic test meter used to measure the current. The ammeter has a very
low internal resistance. It is connected in series within the circuit otherwise it can be destroyed. An ac
ammeter usually measures the RMS value of the time-varying current. Note that for the ammeter to be
inserted for measuring current, the circuit has to be broken, whereas for the voltmeter to be connected
for measuring voltage, the circuit need not be disassembled. Care has to be taken when measuring high
current circuits:
a) Current is always measured in series with the circuit
b) Determine if it is an AC or a DC voltage to measure.
c) Set the meter to the highest AC or DC Amp range supported. If the circuit to be tested is
AC but the meter will only measure the DC amps (or vice-versa), you have to leave it.

Ohmmeters: Ohmmeter is an electronics instrument used to measure electrical resistance. The

property that allows material to oppose to the flow of current is called resistance while the specific
device for such task is called resistor. The ohmmeter quantifies how much a resistor restricts the follow
of current in a given circuit.

Wattmeters: Wattmeter is an instrument

used in laboratories for measurement of
power in various ranges. The traditional
analog wattmeter is an electrodynamic
instrument. It consists of two coils as shown
on the left.
(a) Current coil (CC): connected in
series with circuit and carries the
load current. It is designed such that
it is wound with 2 to 3 turns of thick
wire and hence it has a very low
resistance.
(b) Voltage or Pressure or Potential coil (PC): connected across the load circuit and hence carries a
current proportional to the load current. The total load voltage appears across the PC. It is
designed such that it is wound with several turns of thin wire and hence it has a very high
resistance. Also, on analog wattmeters, the potential coil carries a needle that moves over a
scale to indicate the measurement. A current flowing through the current coil generates an
electromagnetic field around the coil. The strength of this field is proportional to the line current
and in phase with it. The potential coil has, as a general rule, a high-value resistor connected in
 series with it to reduce the current that flows through it. The result of this arrangement is that on
a DC circuit, the deflection of the needle is proportional to both the current(I) and the voltage
(V), thus conforming to the equation P=VI. For AC power, current and voltage may not be in
phase, so the deflection is proportional to the average instantaneous product of voltage and
current, thus measuring active power, P=VIcosφ.

A modern digital wattmeter samples the voltage and current thousands of times a second. For each
sample, the voltage is multiplied by the current at the same instant; the average over at least one cycle
is the real power. The real power divided by the apparent volt-amperes (VA) is the power factor. A
computer circuit uses the sampled values to calculate RMS voltage, RMS current, VA, power (watts),
power factor, and kilowatt-hours.

Energy Meter
The induction energy meter measures energy in kilowatt- hours(kWh). It consist of an aluminum disc
which rotates between two electromagnetic fields:
a) the magnetic field produced by the voltage oil
b) the magnetic field produced by the current coil.
These two field produce a resultant flux which induces eddy currents in to the dics. The interaction
between the resultant field and the field due to eddy currents flowing in the disc cause the disc to rotate.
This meter is used to measure energy consumption in domestic and industrial installations.

Multimeters:
A multimeter is an electronic measuring instrument that combines several measurement func-
tions in one unit and is also known as a multitester or VOM (Volt-Ohm meter). A typical multi-
meter would include basic features such as the ability to measure voltage, current, and resistance.
Multimeter can be analog or digital.

4.2. Methods of performing electrical measurements

Measuring AC signals (Both current and voltage)
Oscilloscopes are the best instruments to use to measure AC signals (i.e., signals that vary over time,
like a sine wave). However, multimeters can also be used. The difference is that an oscilloscope shows
the actual waveform (so that you can extract details like the amplitude A or the peak-to-peak (2A)
voltage of a signal), whereas a multimeter will show just the RMS value. The RMS value is the
effective value of an AC signal. It is given by: Vrms = 0.707A, where A is the amplitude.
So, for example if a sinusoidal voltage of amplitude A = 1 V is input into the multimeter, the displayed
RMS voltage will read 0.707 V. If it is input into the oscilloscope, Vpp will be 2 V.
5. CONDUCTORS AND CABLES
A conductor is a material which offer a low resistance to flow of current. Conductors for electrical use
must be:
• relatively cheap
• of low electrical resistance
• be mechanically strong and flexible
Electrical conductor are usually made of copper or aluminum. Copper conductor are usually trated with
molten tin to
protect the copper if the wirw is to be insulated with vulcanized rubber as it contains sulphur which
attacks copper
make the copper easier to solder.

Comparison between copper and aluminum as conductors

Aluminium Copper
Smaller weight for similar resistances and current Better electrical and thermal conductivity,
carrying capacity therefore lower CSA required for the same
Easier to machinery Greater current density voltages
because of larger heating radiating surfaces Greater mechanic strength
Slightly higher resistivity that copper Corrosion resistance
Practically similar temperature coefficients High scrap value
Much easier to joint\Lower resistivity

The determining factor in the selection of material for use as a conductor is usually cost.

Stranding of Conductors:
Conductors are stranded to make a compounded cable more flexible. A set number of cables are used:
1, 3, 7, 19, 37, 61, 91 and 27. The size of a stranded conductor is given by the number of strands and
the number of individual strands.
Bare metal conductors: Copper and aluminum are also formed in to a variety of sections for bare
conductor(not insulated) systems. These are used in extra low voltage electroplating and sub-station
work.
Insulator: It is a material which offers a very high resistance to a flow of current. They should:
• have high resistance.
• be capable of withstanding mechanical stresses such as compression
• have the following physical properties:
• non-absorbent
• capable of withstanding high temperatures
• capable of withstanding the corrosive effect of chemicals

The type of insulation used is selected based on a particular application. For example porcelain is
relatively good insulators, but could not be used for covering conductors forming a cable because they
are not flexible, PVC is also a good insulator, but cannot be used in conditions where there are high
temperatures such as furnaces.
Examples include: porcelain, fireclay, PVC, mica, wood and paper

5.1. Definition of cables

A cable as per the IEEE regulation, is a length of insulated single conductor (solid or stranded), or
two or more such conductors each provided with its own insulation, which are laid up together

5.2. Construction of cables

Electrical cable derive their name from the type of insulation used.

Types of Cables

Vulcanized Rubber Insulation (VRI) Cable:

These are made as follows:
• Tinned conductor are stranded and passed through a high speed extrusion machine to cover the
strand with a coating of rubber.
• The vulcanizing process is done to toughen the rubber sheath.
• The cable is the covered with two layers of cotton to pe

Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Cable:

This is termed as a thermo plastic cable as the insulation is formed from a synthetic resin which softens
when heated. It is the simplest and least expensive cable. The conductors are covered with a color
coded PVC insulation and then contained singly or with others in a PVC outer sheath.

Fig a: Stranded Multi-core PVC cable

Multi-core Cable
This is a cable made up of two or more insulated conductors. They are
sheathed in a protective covering

Tough Rubber Sheathed (t.r.s) Cable

This is made of specially toughened rubber which is resistant to acids
and alkalies. It is a type of cable which normally consists of a black
outer sheath of rubber with several conductors inside. The rubber
provides an abrasion-resistant, corrosion-resistant, waterproof,
Fig b: Cross section of a
t.r.s cable
protective covering for an insulated electric cable. Though obsoleted for domestic use, it is used for
flexible cables when greater mechanical toughness than PVC is required

Polychloroprene (PCP of Neoprene) Cable

Its insulation is similar to t.r.s, but capable of withstanding most weather conditions particularly direct
sunlight.

Heat resistant, Oil resistant, Flame retardant (HOFR) cable

These are used in condition damaging to PVC cable such as high temperature and oil. HOFR is usually
a highly flexible and mechanically tough synthetic rubber sheath. Their resistant qualities are
developed by a vulcanizing process which forms a elastomer capable of withstanding tough conditions
and still maintain its flexibility. Example include chlorosulphonated polythene (c.s.p), butyl rubber,
ethylene propylene rubber (e.p.r).

Flexible Cable and Cords

A flexible cable is defined as: A cable consisting of one or more cores, each containing a group of
wire, with the diameter of the wire and the construction of the cable being such as to afford flexibility
A cord is defined as a flexible cable whose cross-sectional area does not exceed 4mm2

Twisted Twin flex cable: it is made up of multi-strand tinned copper conductor with silicon rubber
insulation.

Circular Flex:Consist of rubber insulated cores formed in to a circular cross section with cotton
worming or jute and contained in a cotton braiding: Applications: mainly in connections to house hold
appliance such as iron ad kettles. Some circular flex cable are rubber sheathed instead of cotton
branding.

PVC/SWA Cable
PVC insulated steel wire Armour cables are used for wiring underground between buildings, for main
supplies to dwellings, rising sub-mains and industrial installations. They are used where some
mechanical protection of the cable conductors is required. The conductors are covered with color-coded
PVC insulation and then contained either singly or with others in a PVC sheath. Around this sheath is
placed an armour protection of steel wires twisted along the length of the cable, and a final PVC sheath
covering the steel wires protects them from corrosion. The armour sheath also provides the circuit
protective conductor (CPC).

Mineral Insulated (MI) Cable

A mineral insulated (MI) cable has a seamless copper sheath which makes it waterproof and fire and
corrosion-resistant. These characteristics often make it the only cable choice for hazardous or high-
temperature installations such as oil refineries and chemical works, boiler-houses and furnaces, petrol
pump and fire alarm installations. The cable has a small overall diameter when compared to alternative
cables and may be supplied as bare copper or with a PVC oversheath.

Lead covered paper insulated steel(PILC SWA): It is a type of amoured cable.This consists of:
• An inner heart of jute used to keep the cable circular
 • Copper or aluminum conductors insulated with mineral oil impregnated paper
• lead sheath which contains the insulation and is also used as an earth continuity conductors.
• Jute bedding tape impregnated with bitumen to protect the lead against armouring
• Galvanized steel wire or steel tape
• Bitumen-impregnated jute serving.

Mineral insulated Metal Sheathed (MIMS)

It consist of 3 parts:
• Copper or aluminium conductors
• Insulation: the insulation between the cores is magnesium oxide as it can withstand high
temperature and it is absorbent to moisture.
• Outer sheath: a seamless copper or aluminum tube.
Advantages:
Heat resistant: it can with stand temperatures of up to 250oC
The sheath provided an exellent earth continuity conductors
It is mechanically strong.
It has high current density
It does not deterioate with age.
Disadvantages:
It is expensive
Terminations take time and must be done by an expertiseThey have greater voltage drop per foor run at
specified current rating.

5.3. Cable sizes

IEEE Regulations contain a comprehensive information regarding the current carrying capacity of
cables under certain conditions through supply tables. These tables include:
• cross- sectional area, number and diameter of conductors
• type of insulation
• length of run of the conductor for 1V drop
• current ratting for both AC and DC
• Single or bunched

The following terms are used in the IEEE tables:

Ambient Temperature: It is the temperature of the air surrounding the conductor. The current
ratting of a cable is decreased as the temperature of the surrounding air increases and this changed
current- carrying capacity can be calculated by using the rating factor.
Rating factor: It is the number which is multiplied with the current to find the new current carrying
capacity as the operating conditions of the cable change. It is also dependent on the type of excess
current protection. In addition bunching or grouping cables decreases the current carrying capacity.
Therefore ratting factors for grouped cables is supplied.
• Example : A 10mm2 twin core PVC cable will carry a maximum temperature of 40A at 25oC,
but if the temperature is raised to 65oC the maximum current allowed is given by:
•
 40 A x0.44 (rating factor)=17.6 A

Permissible voltage drop in a cable: the maximum voltage drop allowed between the consumer’s
terminal and any point in the installation is 2.5% of the voltage supplied by the electricity board. This is
defined by IEEE rule B-23: at any point between power supply terminal and installation, voltage drop
should not increase above 2.5% of the provided (supply) voltage.
IEEE table states the voltage drop across a section of a cable when maximum current is flowing
through it. If the current is halved, the voltage drop is also halved
Example:
A 4mm2 twin core cable has a current carrying rating of 24A and a voltage rating of 10mV per
ampere per meter. If current is halved (12A) the voltage will drop to 5mV per ampere per meter.
Current density and cable sizes: Current density is given by amount of current which a conductor can
carry safely without undue heating per unit cross-sectional area. The current carrrying capacity of a
conductor is given by:
Current−carrying capacity=Current density xCross−sectional
area

Example:Calculate the current-carrying capacity of a 0.1cm2 conductor if the current density of the
conductor is 400A/cm2.
Current- carrying capacity = 400A/cm2 x 0.1cm2 = 40A

Resistance of a conductor:
Resistance of conductor is determined by:
Length of the conductors: The length in directlypropotional to resisance
its cross-sectinal area: Cross-sectional area is inversely proportional to resistance.
type of material used i.e its resistivity: Resistivity is dependent on the type of material used and is the
resistance of a unit of cube of the material measured across opposite side of the cube.
ρl
R=
A

Where R is the resistance(Ω), ρ = resistivity, l = length, and A = cross-sectional area

Example:
Calculate the minimum allowable cross-sectional area of a PVC twin copper cable which will supply a
240V distribution fuse board 100m from the supply point. The total load current is 50A.
Maximum allowable voltage drop is 2.5%
2.5% of 240V = 6V

resistance, R = Voltage drop/current = 6V/50A = 0.12Ω

ρl
Since R=
A
A = ρl/R
= 1.7x10-6 x (100x2x100)/ 0.12
=0.2833cm2 = 28.33mm2
The nearest cable size would be a 35mm2(19/1.53mm)

Effect of heat on a conductor

In general, as current passes through a conductor, the temperature of that conductor rises. The effect of
this heat on resistance of the conductor depends on the composition of the conductor. In pure metal
such as copper, increase in temperature leads to increase in resistance. This is referred to as a positive
temperature coefficient.
In other material such as carbon and electrolytes resistance decrease with increase in temperature,
which is referrd to as a negative temperature coefficient.
Temperature coefficient of a material is defined as the change in resistance of 1Ω of that material
when it is subjected to a rise in temperature of 1oC .The symbol for temperature coefficient is α
Thus, if some copper wire of resistance 1Ω is heated through 1oC and its resistance is then measured as
1.0043Ω, then α = 0.0043Ω/ Ω oC for copper. The units are usually expressed only as ‘per oC’, i.e. α =
0.0043/ oC for copper. There are two method of calculating change in resistance due to heat:
temperature increase from 0oC:
Rt =Ro (1+αt)

Where Ro = resistance at 0oC, Rt = final temperature α = temperature coefficient, and t = rise in

temperature.
Example:
The risistance of a coil of cpper wire at 0oC is 100Ω.Calculate the resistance of the coil at 30oC.The
temperature coefficient of copper is 0.004Ω/ΩoC
Rt =Ro (1+αt)
=100x 1.12 = 112Ω
temperature change between intermediate temperatures.
R2 1 +α
t
= 2
R1 1+αt1
Example: Some copper wire has a resistance of 200Ω at 20 oC. A current is passed through the wire and
the temperature rises to 90 ◦ C. Determine the resistance of the wire at 90 oC, correct to the nearest ohm,
assuming that the temperature coefficient of resistance is 0.004/ oC at 0 oC.
R20 = 200Ω, α0 = 0.004/oC
R20 1 +α 0 (20 )
=
R90 1+α0 (90)
R (1+α 0 (90))
R90= 20
1+α0(20)
200(1+90 (0.004))=251.82Ω
R90=
1+20 (0.004)

So the resistance of the wire at 90oC is 252Ω, correct to the nearest ohm

5.4. Joining of Cables

A joint is a term usually applied where two (or more) cables are joined together, in a way which is
intended to reflect the construction of the cable itself; a "connector" is usually a mechanical device for
connecting conductors.

Basic electrical and mechanical requirements for joints and terminations

 • There must be sufficient contact area between the two current carrying surfaces (e.g. between
wire and terminal) this is ensures that heat is not generated on such surfaces on account of
increased resistance
• There must be adequate mechanical strength this will avoid cables form being pulled apart.
• Should be easy to connect and disconnect electrical joints are made permanent by crimping or
soldering.

IEE regulations on joints &terminations

• All joints must be durable, adequate for their purpose, and mechanically strong.
• They must be constructed to take account of the conductor material and insulation, as well as
temperature: e.g., a soldered joint must not be used where the temperature may cause the solder
to melt or to weaken. Very large expansion forces are not uncommon in terminal boxes situated
at the end of straight runs of large cables when subjected to overload or to fault currents.
• All joints and connections must be made in an enclosure complying with the appropriate British
Standard.
• Where sheathed cables are used, the sheath must be continuous into the joint enclosure.
• All joints must be accessible for inspection and testing unless they are buried in compound or
encapsulated, are between the cold tail and element of a heater such as a pipe tracer or under
floor heating system, or are made by soldering, welding, brazing or compression.

There are two method of joining electrical conductors:

Mechanical joining:
This is done using connector blocks. This consist of one-way or multi-way brass terminal blocks
enshrouded with porcelain or plastic insulation. For large cable mechanical crimpling is done by
placing a sleeve over the conductor to be jointed and crimping the connection with amanual or
hydraulic operated crimping jack.
Soldered joints:
There are two types of solder used in electrical work
• Fine solder(tin mans solder): It has 60% tin and 40% lead. It has a low melting point due to high
amount of tin. Commonly used in electrical joints.
• Plumbers metal: It has 30% tin and 70% lead. It is used for plumbing joints in armored cables
as it remains in a plastic shape allowing it to be shaped longer than fine solder.

Methods of soldering:
Soldering Bit:In this method the conductors to be joined are first smeared with resinous flux. The
tinned bit is then applied under the joint until the heat penetrates it. The stick of solder is then applied
to the joint until solder flows through it freely.
Stick Method(blow Lamp): In this method the joint is first heated with a blow lamp, flux being
applied. The solder is then applied by pressing the stick of solder against the heated joint until it
penetrates the joint . Care should be taken to protect insulation against blow lamp flame
Pot And Ladle: This method is commonly used by jointers when jointing heavy conductors. A solder
pot is heated until the solder is running freely. The solder should not be overheated as this will burn the
tin and form a dross on the surface of the solder. When the solder has reached working temperature it is
taken from the pot with a ladle. The solder is then poured over the prepared joint and is caught with
another ladle placed under the joint. This action is repeated until the solder penetrates the joint
Types of joints

Married joint:The married joint is an electrical joint

used for joining multi-strand cables. The wires are
unstranded, then interlaced with the wires of the other
cable, and then married (twisted) together before finally
being soldered.

Tee joint: An electrical connection used for joining

a branch conductor to a main conductor where the
main conductor continues beyond the branch. When
a tee joint is to be made in single wires, about 2
inches of the main cable and 2 inches of the branch
cable are bared, the insulating material being treated
as before described. The wires are cleaned, and
about 1 inch of the branch is wound round the main
cable, and soldered to it at the extreme end. It is
found that if the whole coil of wire is soldered it
becomes too stiff and brittle to permit the rubber
strip to be bound round it or to enable the wires to
be drawn into casing.
To join stranded cables in the tee form, about 5 inches of the main cable and 7 inches of the branch
cable are bared. About 2 inches of the branch cable is twisted up, and the remainder of the exposed
strands are divided into the form of a Y and laid side by side so as to form two flat strips.

Telegraph joint: This joint is not strong and is generally used for single core insulated conductors.
Method:
i. Remove the insulation from each end for
a distance of about 100mm
ii. Clean and tin the ends
iii. If VRI cable, strip off the braiding and a
tape for a further 12mm on each
conductor
iv. Cross the conductors about 30mm from
the insulation keeping the left-hand
conductor in front
v. Using pliers grip the crossed conductors together
vi. Twist the left hand end and the right hand main portion together. This turns need not to be
sharp vii. Twist the right-hand end and the left hand main portion together.
viii. Cut off surplus conductor ends on the bevel with side cutter smooth over with pliers
ix. Solder the joint. Wipe off any excess solder with a fluxed cloth pad
x. Make good the insulation removed
Outline of regulations relating to conductors and cables
➢ Correct voltage rating must be used in all cables
➢ Voltage drop on a consumer’s installation must not exceed 2.5% of the supplied voltagesEvery
conductor must be identified by; color, sleeves, numbers or discs
➢ The current rating given by IEEE regulations must not be exceeded
➢ All cable terminations must be:
• electrically and mechanically sound
• Accessible for inspection(unless buried)
• free of mechanical strain
• capable of containing all the strands of the conductor
➢ Joints between two different metals for example copper and aluminum should be protected
against corrosion
➢ Insulation remove from a conductor should during the making of a joint should be replace by a
suitable tape.
➢ Joints in MIMS must be protected against moisture
➢ Fluxes containing acids must not be used for electrical joining
➢ Termination in a sheathed cable system must only be made at an enclosed position.
➢ Flameproof fitting must be used when cables are terminated under conditions where
inflammables material or gases are present.
➢ Cable installed under floors or above ceilings should be positioned so that they do not damage
by contact with the floor or ceiling or any fixings e.g nails or screws
➢ All non sheathed cables should be mechanically protected e.g inserted in conduit, trunking or
ducting.

Exercises:
a) What are the essential requirement of:
i. conductor
ii. insulator.
b) Define resistivity and temperature coefficient of resistance.
c) List factors that affect a cable’s current rating.
d) Outline properties of a good electrical joint.
e) List 10 relevant IEEE regulations in regard to cables and conductors
f) A coil of coper wire has a resistance of 150Ω at 20oC. Calculate the resistance of the coil at
45oC. The temperature coefficient of copper is 0.004Ω/ΩoC

6. WIRING SYSTEMS
Electrical Wiring is a process of connecting cables and wires to the related devices such as fuse,
switches, sockets, lights, fans etc to the main distribution board.

6.1. Types of Electrical Wiring Systems

The state electricity board provides the electric supply up to the outside the consumer’s premises. The
consumer has to take the connection from that point to the main switchboard at home.
From the main switchboard, various types of electrical loads such as fans, lights, room coolers, and
refrigerators are connected through the wires. There are different types of wirings used for connecting
the loads to the mains which can be used for house electrical wiring as well as industrial electrical
wiring.

Cleat Wiring
A porcelain, wood or plastic cleats are fixed to walls or
ceilings at regular intervals, i.e., 0.6 m between each cleat.
PVC insulated cables are taken through the holes of each cleat
and hence cleat support and holds wire.
This is an inexpensive method of wiring and is used for
temporary installations. Therefore, it is not suitable for home
electrical wiring and also it is an outdated method.

Casing and Capping Wiring

A cable is run through a wood casing having grooves. The
wood casing is prepared in such a way that it is of a required fixed length with parallel grooves that
accommodates the cables. The wooden casing is fixed to the walls or ceiling with screws.
After placing the cables inside the grooves of casing, a wooden cap with grooves is placed on it to
cover the cables. This is also a cheap wiring system, but there is a high risk of fire in case of short
circuits.

Batten Wiring
Insulated wires are run through the straight teak wooden battens. The
wooden battens are fixed on the ceilings or walls by plugs and
screws. The cables are fitted onto the battens by using tinned brass
link clips.
These clips are fixed to the battens with rust-resistant nails. This
wiring installation is simple and cheap as compared to other
electrical wiring systems also takes less time to install. These are
mainly used for indoor installations.

Conduit Wiring
The PVC cables are taken through either PVC conduit pipes
or through steel conduit pipes. This conduit wiring can be
either surface conduit wiring or concealed conduit wiring.
If the conduit pipes are run on surface of the walls and
ceilings, it is called a surface conduit wiring. If the conduits
are run inside the surface of the walls and ceilings and are
covered with plastering, it is called as concealed conduit
wiring.
Surface conduit wiring is used in industries to connect the
heavy motors. On the other hand, concealed wiring is the
most popular and common method of wiring the residential
buildings. The conduit wiring is the safest method of wiring
and also looks beautiful (concealed conduit wiring).
6.2. Conduits
A conduit is a tube, channel or pipe in which insulated conductors are contained. The conduit in effect
replaces the PVC outer sheath of a cable, providing mechanical protection for the insulated conductors.
A conduit installation can be rewired easily or altered at any time and this flexibility, coupled with
mechanical protection, makes conduit installations popular for commercial and industrial applications.
There are two main types of conduits:
➢ Light gauge
➢ Heavy gauge

Light gauge
It is produced from strips of steel formed in to tubes. It is used
for small installations at below 250V. Its light construction
make it unsuitable for bending, but it can be set.
Fittings: There are two types of fitting for light gauge conduits.
• Lug Grip: Paint is cleaned off the end of the conduit to
ensure conductivity. The fitting is connected to the
conduit by tightening two brass screws.
• Pin grip: Continuity is obtained by tightening a
hardened steel screw into the cleaned conduit at each
fitting.
Heavy Gauge Conduits
There are two types of heavy gauge conduit:
• Heavy Gauge Welded Conduits: Formed from strips of
heavy gauge sheet steel. It is the most common type of conduit.
• Solid Drawn Conduits: produced by drawing a heated bar over a ram forming a heavy gauge
seamless tube. It is more expensive than welded conduit.

Finishing: Metallic conduit has two types of finish:

• Enamel paint
• Galvanized: zinc coated for wet or humid conditions

Other types of conduit

Flexible metallic conduit

Flexible conduit is made of interlinked metal spirals often covered with a PVC sleeving. Flexible
conduit is used for the final connection to machinery or in situations where is likely to be movement
and vibrations. The tubing must not be relied upon to provide a continuous earth path (Regulation
543–02–01)
Non-metallic conduit
It is made of PVC. It can be threaded with stocks and dies. PVC boxes are used at junctions and
terminations.
Advantages
• Absence of moisture in the tube
• Non-corrosive(rust free).
• Easier to install
Disadvantages
• Lacks the mechanical strength of steel conduit.
• it cannot be used as the CPC and a separate earth conductor must be run to every outlet.
• It is not suitable for installations subjected to temperatures below -5°C or above 60°C.

Installing a conductors
Good conduit work can only be achieved by systematic approach, constant practice and attention to
details. For a successful installation the following points are made to assist the electricians:
➢ Planning the layout
➢ Mark out all positions and pathways for the various devices and conduits
➢ For large installations, practice sub-division of work.
➢ Prepare the conduits through cutting, threading and bending.
➢ Termination of conduits must always be done at an incombustible outlet, preferably a metal
box.
➢ Conduits runs and terminations must be electrically and mechanically continuous throughout
the installation.

The size and placing of boxes must always be chosen to allow easy drawing-in of cables. The number
of cables in a conduit is determined by the space factor which is given by:

Total outer cross− sectional area ot the cable

x100
Internalcross−sectional area of the conduit

Space factor for a conduit should be 40%

In case where two conduits are to be joined, a running coupler is used.

Fixing conduits
IEEE regulations state that a conduit must be securely fixed. The following are basic method of fixing
conduits:
Crampets: used to secure conduits in situations where the conduit is to be covered e.g in concrete or
plaster
Clips: The most common type is the saddle. It is basically a clip with two fixing holes
Space bar saddles : It consists of two parts: a saddle and a 3mm thick base plate. The saddle is fixed to
the base plate by screws. The saddles are used to hold the conduit away from damp plaster, concrete etc
Distance Saddles: used to keep dust from collecting between the wall and the conduit. The use of these
saddle obviates the need for setting conduits at surface boxes
Multiple saddles: used to fasten multiple conduits runs. They consist of one large saddle or a flat bar
drilled to support several saddles.
Girder Clips: This consist of J-bolt. It supports the girder clip without any need for drilling the
conduit.

Drawing Cables in to a Conduit system

All conduits MUST be completed before cables are drawn in.
Points to note;
a) When drawing in large runs, start at the center of the cable drawing both sides separately.
b) When drawing in a long lengths on a bunch of small cables, a reel stand should be used.
c) Chalk may be used to ease the drawing in of cables at difficult point but tallow must not be used
d) Use of a drawing tape; it is used to draw the actual draw-in wire.

Advantages of metallic Conduits

➢ Provide protection against mechanical damage
➢ Provides earth return pathways
➢ Durability: it can last for year without damage
➢ can be easily extended
➢ Offer low fire risk.
Disadvantages
➢ Liable to corrosion
➢ More expensive than PVC systems
➢ Difficult to conceal

IEEE regulations for conduits

• All conduits for an installation must be completed before cables are drawn in and boxes of
ample capacity should be provided.
• All boxes must be accessible
• A space factor of 40% is allowed which is based on a maximum of two 90o bends per draw-in
length
• The radius of a bend should not be greater than 21/2 times the outside diameter of the conduits
• The end of the conduit must be filled or reamed to prevent damage to the cable.
• Conduit installed in damp and humid situations must have a water-resistant finish .eg
galvanized
• Substantial boxes must be supplied at every junction where connection is required in metallic
and no-metallic conduits.
 • All unused conduit entries must be blanked off with secured removable covers.
• Drainage points should be provide at the lowest point in a conduit and in conditions where
condensed moisture is likely to collect.
• All metal conduits must be effectively earthed and all joints must be mechanically and
electrically continuous.
• All conduits must be securely fixed and protected from mechanical damage.
• Extra low voltage and low voltage cables must not be run in the same conduit.
• Metal conduit should be kept separate from gas and water services.

Trunking

It is used in conditions where a considerable number of cables are required in an installation or

where cables are too large for drawing in to a conduit. It is manufactured from plastic or steel sheets
with a larges range of terminations and connections.

Type of trunking

• Segregation Trunks: Some trunking contains two or

more compartments. These are used where extra low
voltage(30V) cables are drawn in the low voltage(250)
or medium voltage cables(650V).
• Metal bus-bar systems: These consist of trunking in
which the conductors are supplied fitted inside the
trunking. They are of two basic types:
a) Bus-bar trunking: Conductors are already fitted
inside the trunking. It is usually used on raising
mains(power) i.e supplying mains to each floor of a
multi-floor building. It is generally mounted
vertically.
b) Tap-on trunking: its used in industrial
installation, where a considerable degree of
flexibility is required. It similar to bus-bar, but the
conductors are constructed so that tap-on boxes
may be plugged in at regular intervals along the
length of
the trunk. The tap-on boxes contain a set of contacts
for plugging into the bus-bar and fuses for protecting the outgoing circuit.

Consideration while installing bus-bar trunking:

• Must not be installed in conditions where inflammable vapours are present.
• Fire barrier should be installed inside the trunking.
• Allowance should be made for expansion in long sections
• All bus-bar trunking should be labeled “DANGER” and the voltage stated.
• All rids must be securely fitted.
Ducting
Ducting is used to provide mechanical protection for cable run in the ground or under concrete. There
are three main types:
(a) Concrete ducts: These are formed in the ground by erecting shuttering in a channel and pouring
concrete mix around the shuttering. They are suitable for cables possessing mechanical
protection such as armoured cables.
(b) Steel underground ducting: It is a form of closed heavy gauge steel trunking which is supplied
with removable outlets. Its placed in position before the concrete floor is formed. Its terminated
at heavy steel boxes and can be tapped into with conduit fittings.
(c) Fibre Underfloor ducting: It consist of a semi-circular open bottom section which is sealed with
bitumen. Intersection boxes are supplied. Its also laid before the floors are formed. Its free from
corrosion. Allows for easy terminations through its length. A separate earth continuity
conductor is fitted in the ducting for earthing intersection boxes and outlets.

Space factor: The space factor for trunking is 45%, but is only 35% for ducting.

Outline of IEEE regulations for trunking and ducting

• They must be securely be fixed and adequately protected against corrosion and mechanical
damage.
• All joint outlets in a duct system must be mechanically sound and free of abrasives surfaces.
• A maximum space factor of 45% is required in trunking.
• A continuous partition must be used in conditions where low voltage and mains voltage are run
in the same trunking.

Catenary Systems
A catenary wire is a multi-strand steel wire used to support conductors suspended between buildings.
There are three basic types of catenary:
a) catenary used for short lengths of cable: A stranded steel wire is connected between two
building and the sheathed conductors are tapped to it. They do not require to be earthed.
b) catenary for long runs: It consists of a series of leather or plastics hangers fastened round the
cables and fixed to the catenary wire with a steel wire loop.
c) proprietary suspension: use a composite cable of circular cross-section which contained a
flexible steel core and a set of conductors covered with impregnated jute or metal braiding.
Terminal are made at special boxes which contain an anchoring device for the catenary wire and
where necessary a set of fuses. It can be completed at the floor before begin suspended. It
provide a cheap method of spanning large distances and is often used in shipyards, steel-works
and good yards.

Factors affecting the choice of an appropriate wiring system:

• Cost of wiring: The initial cost of the wiring system to be chosen or selected is one of the
paramount factors to be considered. It should be economical and safe.
• Durability: When making choices for wiring system, the wiring type should be durable (long
lasting) and should also be of proper specifications and in accordance with assessed life and
type of building to be wired.
 • Permanency: The wiring should not deteriorate by the action of weather, fumes, dampness etc.
the cables should be resistant to harsh weather and chemical attacks.
• Accessibility: Facilities used in the wiring should be available (within range) and accessible
when the need for alteration, extension or renewal arises.
• Appearance: The wiring should provide a good look after its installation. If cleat or casing –
capping wiring is used in a modern building, it will spoil the outlook of that building. Conduit
wiring is preferred mostly for modern buildings except that it’s expensive. PVC wiring system
is also good for modern buildings. PVC wiring is very popular.
• Mechanical Protection: The wiring should be protected from mechanical damage during its use.
• Safety: When it comes to wiring, safety is one of the most paramount factors to be considered
because electrocution is one thing you won’t have the time to give it a second thought. Where
there is possibility of fire hazard, conduit wiring should be used.
• Maintenance Cost: Wiring system employed should have low maintenance cost.
• Load: The types of loads consuming the electrical energy in a building will determine the kinds
of cables to be used. You cannot use a cable with small diameter for heavy loads. The cables
will damage. Voltage to be employed and fire hazard and insurance standards should also be
kept in mind in case of large factories.

Exercises
a) Describe four types of conduit support. Illustrate your answer with drawings. Under what
conditions would each type be used?
b) Draw, in outline the following types of circular conduits boxes: termination, tangent-tee, H-box,
4-way box with back outlet, adaptable box. State one application of each.
c) Outline the relevant IEEE regulations relating to the following points in a metallic conduit
installation: space factor, bends, drawing-in of cables, condensation.
d) Explain factors that affect the choice of wiring systems.
DOMESTIC LIGHTING AND POWER CIRCUITS
There are three main set of regulations that an electrician should familiarize with:
a) Electricity(factories Act) Special regulations 1908 and 1944
These cover the generation, transmission, distribution and use of electric energy in factories
and workshops
b) Electricity supply regulations(1937)
The purpose of these regulations is to secure the safety of the public and for ensuring a proper
and sufficient supply of electrical energy. The regulations or statutes have the force of the law,
disregarding them could lead to legal action being taken against them.
c) Regulations for Electrical Equipment of buildings
These have been devised by the Wiring committee of the Institution of Electrical Engineers to
ensure safety in utilization of electricity in and about buildings. They are not legally binding,
but are generally accepted as an efficiency standards.

Supply system

Fig c: Simplified diagram of the distribution of electricity from power station to

consumer
Control of supply at consumer’s premises
It is essential that the consumer’s supply should be effectively controlled and also that all switch gear
should be accessible.

The main switchgear in an installation must contain:

• Mean of isolating the supply.
• Protection against excess current.
• Means of cutting-off the current if a serious earth fault occurs.

A main switch containing a fuse fulfills these conditions as the switch isolates the supply and the fuse
protects the circuit against excess current.

Fig d: Simplified diagram of connections and equipment at a domestic service

position