GEOMETRICAL OPTICS

The branch of physics that deals with the phenomena of light is called optics. There are two branches of optics:
(a) ray optics and (b) wave optics.

SOME DEFINITIONS

(a) Ray: The ‘path’ along which the light travels is called a ray. The rays are represented by straight lines with
arrows directed towards the direction of travel of light.

(b) Beam: A bundle of rays is called a beam. A beam is parallel when its rays are parallel, it is divergent when its
rays spread out from a point, and it is convergent when its rays meet at a point.
 Object and image

If the rays from a point on an object actually diverge from it and fall on the mirror, then the object is the real object
of the mirror. If the rays incident on the mirror does not start from a point but appear to converge at a point, then
that point is the virtual object of the mirror. Examples:
If the rays converge at a point after an interaction with a surface, then a real image will be formed, and if the rays
diverge after an interaction with a surface, a virtual image will be formed.

Real object, virtual object, real image, virtual image:

In Fig.(a), the object is real, while the image is virtual.

In Fig.(b), the object is virtual, while the image is real.
 Reflection of Light
When a ray of light after incident on a boundary separating two media comes back into the same media, this phenomenon, is
called reflection of light.

The angle made by the incident ray with the normal to the reflecting surface is called the angle of incidence, and the angle made
by the reflected ray with normal is called the angle of reflection.

Laws of Reflection

(a) When the incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the reflectinsurface at the point of
incidence lie in the same plane, it is called the plane of incidence.

(b) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection ∠ i = ∠ r

Note:
After reflection velocity, wavelength and frequency of light remains same but
intensity decreases.
If light ray incident normally on a surface, after reflection it retraces the path.
 Real and virtual images

If light rays, after reflection or refraction, actually meets at a point then real image is formed
and if they appears to meet virtual image is formed.
 Plane Mirror.

The image formed by a plane mirror is virtual, erect, laterally inverted, equal in size that of
the object and at a distance equal to the distance of the object in front of the mirror.

These laws of reflection are applicable to all types of reflecting surfaces including spherical
surfaces.

Properties of the image formed in plane mirror:

Image formed by a plane mirror is always virtual and erect.

The size of the image is equal to that of the object.

The image formed is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front of it.

Further, the image is laterally inverted (The image is laterally inverted (left–right inversion).

The distance between the object and the mirror = the distance between the
image and the mirror.
Other important information related to plane mirror
 Curved Or spherical Mirror

It is a part of a transparent hollow sphere whose one surface is polished.

Concave mirror:
When the reflection takes place from the inner surface and outer surface is polished, the mirror is known as concave mirror.
Convex mirror:
When the reflection takes place from the outer surface and inner surface is polished, then the mirror is known as convex mirror.

Some definitions :

(i) Pole (P) : Mid point of the mirror

(ii) Centre of curvature (C) : Centre of the sphere of which the mirror is a part.
(iii) Radius of curvature (R) : Distance between pole and centre of curvature.
(R concave = +ve , R convex = -ve , R plane = infinity )
(iv) Principle axis : A line passing through P and C.
(v) Focus (F): An image point on principle axis for which object is at infinity
(vi) Focal length (f) : Distance between P and F.
 Vii. Aperture: Effective diameter of light reflecting area.

Uses of mirrors:

(i) Concave mirror : Used as a shaving mirror, In search light, in cinema projector, in
telescope, by E.N.T. specialists etc.

(ii) Convex mirror : In road lamps, side mirror in vehicles etc.

Note
: Field of view of convex mirror is more than that of concave mirror.
Representation of Images Formed by Spherical Mirrors Using Ray Diagrams:

The intersection of at least two reflected rays give the position of image
of the point object. Any two of the following rays can be considered for
locating the image.
1. A ray parallel to the principal axis, after reflection, will pass through the principal
focus in case of a concave mirror or appear to diverge from the principal focus in
case of a convex mirror. This is illustrated in Fig. (a) and (b).

2. A ray passing through the principal focus of a concave mirror or a ray which is directed
towards the principal focus of a convex mirror, after reflection, will emerge parallel to the
principal axis. This is illustrated in Fig. (a) and (b).
(iii) A ray passing through the center of curvature of a concave mirror or directed in the
direction of the center of curvature of a convex mirror, after reflection, is reflected back along
the same path. This is illustrated in Fig.(a) and (b). The light rays come back along the same
path because the incident rays fall on the mirror along the normal to the reflecting surface.

IV. A ray incident obliquely to the principal axis, towards a point P (pole of the mirror), on the
concave mirror [Fig. (a)] or a convex mirror [Fig. (b)], is reflected obliquely. The incident and
reflected rays follow the laws of reflection at the point of incidence (point P), making equal
angles with the principal axis.
 Image formation by Concave Mirror at Different Position of Object:

Object Beyond C
Object at infinity

Object Between C& F

Object At C

Object At F Object Between C & P

 Image formation by a Convex Mirror:

Nature, position and relative size of the image formed by a convex mirror
 ELECTROSTATICS :

Study of charges at rest (static) i.e. not moving, is called electrostatics.

There are two types of charges. +ve and –ve.

Properties of charge:

• Similar charges repel each other,

• Opposite charges attract each other.
• Benjamin Franklin made this nomenclature of charges being +ve and –
ve for mathematical calculations because adding them together cancel
each other.
• Any particle has vast amount of charges.
• The number of positive and negative charges are equal, hence matter is
basically neutral.
• Inequality of charges give the material a net charge which is equal to the
difference of the two type of charges.
Charge and Mass relation:

• Charge cannot exist without matter.

• One carrier of charge is electron which has mass as well.
• Hence if there is charge transfer, mass is also transferred.
• Logically, negatively charged body is heavier then positively
charged body.