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Chapter

Utilization of Agro-Industrial
Wastes as Edible Coating and
Films for Food Packaging
Materials
Urmila Choudhary, Basant Kumar Bhinchhar,
Vinod Kumar Paswan, Sheela Kharkwal,
Satya Prakash Yadav and Prity Singh

Abstract

Mostly, food packaging employs synthetic materials obtained from nonrenew-

able sources. These packaging materials are based on petrochemicals and cause
substantial environmental problems by producing massive amounts of non-
biodegradable solid wastes. Edible coatings and films are considered as the potential
solution to these problems of non-biodegradable packaging solid wastes for main-
taining food-environment interactions, retaining food quality, and extending shelf
life. In addition, edible coatings and films offer prevention from microbial spoilage
of packed foods by controlling moisture and gas barrier characteristics. Increasing
environmental concerns and consumer demands for high-quality eco-friendly
packaging have fueled the advancement of innovative packaging technologies,
for instance, the development of biodegradable films from renewable agricultural
and food processing industry wastes. Therefore, the current chapter presents the
application of edible coatings and films as an alternative to conventional packaging,
emphasizing the fundamental characterization that these biodegradable packag-
ing should hold for specific applications such as food preservation and shelf life
enhancement. The primary employed components (e.g., biopolymers, bioactive,
and additives components), manufacturing processes (for edible films or coatings),
and their application to specific foods have all been given special consideration in
this chapter. Besides, a future vision for the use of edible films and coatings as qual-
ity indicators for perishable foods is presented.

Keywords: agro-industrial wastes, edible films, edible coatings, food packaging,

biopolymers

1. Introduction

Majority of food packaging are made of synthetic materials derived from

nonrenewable sources and based on petrochemicals, having advantages of being
available in large quantities at a low cost and having excellent barrier and resistance
properties. Nevertheless, these are causing serious environmental issues due to the

1
Food Processing – New Insights

production of large amounts of non-biodegradable solid wastes [1]. Apart from its
primary function of containing food, delaying deterioration, and extending shelf
life, packaging also plays a critical role in regulating food-environment interac-
tions [2, 3]. Environmental concerns and consumer demands for high-quality
eco-friendly products that are similar to those found in nature (natural products),
has prompted the development of technologies for novel packaging materials, such
as the production of biodegradable films from renewable polymers [1, 3, 4]. As a
result, consumer demand for packaging materials has switched to safe and environ-
ment friendly biodegradable materials, particularly from renewable agriculture
by-products and food processing industry wastes. Polysaccharides including
starch, cellulose, sodium alginate, pectin, chitosan, and gums, as well as proteins
like whey, soy, gluten, and gelatin, are among the most commonly used biopoly-
mers in the manufacture of biodegradable films [5]. Because of their abundance
in nature, biodegradability, and edibility, these natural biopolymers are widely
employed. Casting, pressing, and extrusion, followed by blowing, are some of the
procedures utilized in the production of these films [6]. Plant-derived bioactive
substances, such as essential oils, vitamins, minerals, polyphenols, and carotenoids,
are extensively distributed in nature in addition to biopolymers. Because of their
biological nature, different parts of plants, such as leaves, flowers, seeds, and roots,
can possibly be employed in the manufacture of environment friendly films with
functional features [7]. Some bioactive substances have antioxidant and antibacte-
rial properties [8–10]. Bioactive films with new and/or improved properties, such
as antioxidant [8, 9] and antimicrobial [10] effects, innovative colors [11, 12], and
customized barrier and mechanical properties, have been developed using biopoly-
mers and natural bioactive compounds [8, 11, 13]. Some of the techniques used for
their production include the use of inherently bioactive biopolymer-based materials
[14, 15], as well as the direct or sprinkling incorporation of free or encapsulated
bioactive compounds into the film-forming solutions [8, 12].
Some polymers generated from renewable agro-waste sources are edible and
have played important roles in food throughout history as well as in the food,
pharmaceutical, and other industries. Biopolymers can be used alone or in combi-
nation with other biopolymers to produce an edible coating or film material [16,
17]. In comparison to non-edible polymeric packaging, edible coatings and films
offer a number of advantages. They can simplify food packaging and, even if they
are not consumed with the packaged product, they can assist to environmental
pollution reduction due to their biodegradable nature. Material fragmentation and
subsequent mineralization are the mechanisms through which polymers degrade in
a bioactive environment. Outer temperature and moisture, as well as the enzyme
activity of microorganisms degrade polymer, resulting in fragmented polymer
residues. These polymer fragments are only considered biodegradable if they are
consumed as food and for energy by microorganisms and converted into carbon
dioxide (CO2), water (H2O), and biomass under aerobic conditions and hydrocar-
bons, methane, and biomass under anaerobic conditions at the end of the degrada-
tion process [18].

2. Agro-waste based renewable sources used in development of edible

coatings and films

Bio-packaging films are made of materials derived from renewable resources that
degrade completely. These can be made directly by biological systems (for example,
plants, animals, algae, and microbes) or by polymerizing bio-based monomers (e.g.,

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Figure 1.
Life cycle of agro-waste based renewable sources used in the development of edible coatings or films with
modifications. (Adopted from Giosafatto et al. [19].)

polylactic acid). Classification and life cycle of various agro-waste based renewable
sources used in the development of edible coatings or films has been depicted in
Figure 1. These bio-polymer materials have been classified into four groups based on
their origin and manufacturing method [20]. Among the biopolymers utilized in the
packaging business include natural polysaccharides, proteins, and their derivatives
[21, 22]. Polysaccharides (e.g., cellulose, pectin, gum, starch, chitosan) and proteins
(e.g., collagen, casein, whey protein, egg protein, gluten) extracted from biomass,
polymers synthesized from bio-derived monomers (e.g., polylactic acid (PLA)), and
those produced directly by microorganisms (e.g., polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA),
pullulan, curdlan, bacterial cellulose) are examples of such materials based on
renewable resources that are commonly used for food packaging applications [21].
These bio-based materials have good barrier properties and can be mass-produced
on a large industrial scale for moderately low costs, making them a viable alternative
to petroleum-based plastics. However, due to considerable divergence in respect to
plastics, such as weak tensile strength, brittleness, thermal instability, and water
sensitivity, commercialization of polymers produced from biomass is still limited
[23–26]. As a result, various reinforcing materials and chemicals, such as plasticiz-
ers (e.g., glycerol, glycol, sorbitol), are combined with edible films and coatings to
enhance their quality [27–31]).
In most circumstances, one of the above-mentioned biomaterials can be used
alone or in combination with other biopolymers to create an edible coating or film
material [16, 17].

3. Preparation of edible coatings and films

Edible coatings and films can be liquid, semi-solid or solid matrix that is
wrapped around the surface of a food product and can be used as main packag-
ing without providing any sensory or nutritional benefits. These are intended to
be tasteless, colorless, non-toxic and unaffected by the sensory properties of the
food product [32]. Trinetta [33] reported that when edible coatings and films are
applied to cold or hot beverages, edible film dissolves and releases its contents,

3
Food Processing – New Insights

giving customers comfort portion control, and the elimination of solid waste.
Recently, consumer awareness of edible, biodegradable, and environment friendly
packaging materials has grown; edible films and coatings are increasingly being
employed in the food processing industry for a wide range of food products. A
comprehensive list of biopolymers used, their properties, functions and processing
methods employed for production of edible coatings and films for various food
products has been presented in Table 1. The coating method chosen has an impact
not only on the preservation effect of the coating generated on the food products,
but also on the cost of manufacturing and process efficiency. There are two types
of edible packagings: (i) edible coatings applied directly to the food products and
(ii) premade films wrapped around the food products. Two processes can be used to
create edible coatings [54]. Dry-process methods, such as thermoplastic extrusion,
rely on the thermoplastic characteristics of polymers when plasticized and heated
above their glass-transition temperature in low-water-content circumstances.
Extruded films have the drawback of not being able to cover uneven surfaces. On a
commercial scale, extrusion and spraying are the predominant procedures for film
creation and coating deposition, respectively. On the other hand, at a lab scale, the
casting method for film creation and dipping methods for coating deposition, are
simple to use and preferred methods.

Bio-polymers Properties Functions in Food product Processing References

edible coatings methods
and films
Starch Thickeners They form base Mango, Apple, Extrusion [34–40]
Cellulose Gellants structure of a Tomato, Solvent casting,
Pectin Stabilizers solid polymer Strawberries, co-extrusion,
Gums Coatings matrix. They Green chilies, Dipping
Chitosan control physical Sausage,
Agar changes, Water melon,
Alginate microbial Plums, Bell
Dextran growth, pepper, Brinjal,
nutritional Potatoes, Taro
qualities and corms
shelf-life.
Gelatin Gellants They help in Soybean oil Solvent casting, [5, 41–48]
Pea protein isolate Thickeners transport of Cheese slice, Extrusion,
Casein Stabilizers antimicrobials Sausage, Meat Panning,
Collagen Emulsifiers and antioxidants. slice, Soluble Spraying,
Blood protein Foaming They control coffee, Walnut Dipping,
Fish protein transport of kernels, Apple, Compression,
Whey protein gases (mainly Blood Injection
O2) hake, Beef Molding,
tenderloins, Electrospinning,
Pork loins, 3D-printing
Salmon fillets
Chicken breasts,
Rice crisp balls
Waxes Protectors They help to Strawberry, Solvent casting, [49, 50]
Pullulan esters Coatings avoid drying or Fresh-cut apples Spreading,
Chocolates Milk dehydration of Dipping
butter the edible films
Oils (Olive oil and and provide
sunflower oil) flexibility. They
Paraffin show anti-aging
Glycerides effects.

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Bio-polymers Properties Functions in Food product Processing References

edible coatings methods
and films
Additives Viscosity They Pear, Mango, Solvent casting, [49, 51–53]
(Glycerol, Resins, resistance decrease the Quail eggs, Spreading,
Polyglycerol Flexibility intermolecular Fresh- cut Dipping
Polyricinoleate, Antioxidants force, melting apples
Lecithin, Ascorbic Stabilizers temperature in
acid, Bioactive Anti-fungal the mixture and
compounds) Herbicides modify viscosity
Fertilizers and rheological
Antimicrobial properties.
Anti- They increase
inflammatory the solubility
of polymers in
water and work
as stabilizers
as well as
protection for
the products.

Table 1.
List of biopolymers used, their properties, functions and processing methods employed for production of edible
coatings and films for various food products.

4. Classification of edible coatings and films

Edible coatings and edible films are not the same; edible coatings can be
applied directly to the surface of fruits, vegetables, and other food products in liq-
uid form, usually by immersing the product in an edible material solution. Whilst
edible films are molded as solid sheets and then utilized to wrap and package the
food products [55]. The edible coating and film components are biodegradable
and non-toxic. Biopolymer matrixes such as polysaccharides, proteins, lipids,
and composite materials are used to create edible materials (Table 1). These
coatings and films are thin layers created as a coating on a food surface or put
(pre-made) between food components. Their goal is to enhance the shelf life of
the food product while simultaneously acting as a safety barrier. They can retard
moisture migration and the loss of volatile chemicals, as well as inhibit respiration
and delay textural changes. In addition, as compared to typical synthetic films,
they are good fat and oil barriers and have a high selective gas permeability ratio
CO2/O2 [56]. They can also serve as carriers for food additives like antioxidants
[57] and/or antimicrobial agents [10], as well as improve the product’s mechani-
cal integrity and handling properties. For some applications, stand-alone edible
films with strong mechanical qualities could replace synthetic packaging films.
Composition of biopolymers, their concentration, drainage time, viscosity, and
other factors influence the mechanical and barrier properties of edible films and
coatings [58].

5. Incorporation of bioactive compounds into edible coatings and films

Bioactive chemicals are generally secondary metabolites of plants that have both
nutritional value and other functions in their metabolism, such as growth stimulant
and protection against biotic and abiotic stress [59]. They are widely distributed in

5
Food Processing – New Insights

nature. Fruits and vegetables [11], leaves, blossoms [2], grains, seeds [60], rhi-
zomes and roots [61], of different sorts of plants are important sources of bioactive
components including phenols, proteins, essential oils, terpenoids and flavonoids.
Plant-determined bioactive compounds are being viewed as fascinating elements
for the creation of biodegradable and bioactive films because of their usefulness and
natural origin [7]. Plant extracts and fruit pulps as sources of bioactive compounds
or isolated bioactive compounds in film-forming solutions have been demonstrated
to have antioxidant and antibacterial effects on the subsequent films, prolonging
their utility in bioactive and biodegradable films or packaging [2, 3, 24, 62]. Plant
derived naturally bioactive compounds are incorporated directly into agro-based
polymers or the encapsulated plant-derived bioactive chemicals are integrated into
the biopolymers by spraying during the production process [63]. Some edible coat-
ings obtained from plant-derived bioactive compounds along with their methods of
incorporation into the coatings, method of development of the edible coatings and
films from these phytochemicals and the functional properties of these coatings
and films are enlisted in Table 2.

Plant-derived Methods for Methods of Functional properties References

bioactive incorporation development of
compounds edible coatings
and films

Blackberry pulp Directly by sprinkling Casting Increased water vapor [8, 12]
into the film-forming permeability and
solution solubility in water;
Reduced tensile
strength; Antioxidant
properties

Curcumin Directly into the film Casting Antioxidant and [64]

forming solution antimicrobial activity
Cranberry extract Directly into the film Casting Antioxidant [65]
forming solution

Vitamin E Directly into the film Solution casting Antioxidant; [66]

(α-tocopherol forming solution Decreased water vapor
encapsulated in permeability and tensile
carboxy methyl strength
cellulose)

Tea Polyphenols Directly into the film Casting Antioxidant and [67, 68]
forming solution antimicrobial
properties;
Improved water barrier
properties and tensile
strength
Babassu Producing the film Casting Antioxidant [15]
using inherently
bioactive biopolymeric
materials from
agricultural
by-products

Essential oils Directly into the film- Casting Improved barrier [2]
forming solution properties

Table 2.
List of some edible coatings obtained from plant-derived bioactive compounds, their methods of incorporation,
method of development of the edible coatings and films and their functional properties.

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6. Properties of edible coatings and films from agro-waste based

polymers

In the food processing industry, edible coating/film provides a consistent

quality for food items with market safety, nutritional value, and low manufac-
turing costs [69]. Control of mass transfers, mechanical protection, and sensory
appeal are the most significant functions of an edible film or coating. Preventing
desiccation of foods, regulating microenvironments of gases around foods, and
controlling migration of ingredients and additives in food systems are all part of
mass transfer control. Edible coatings on fresh foods can reduce quality changes
and quantity losses by modifying and controlling the internal atmosphere of
particular foods, which is an alternative to modified atmosphere storage. Even
while penetration of oxygen may degrade food quality due to oxidation of the
fragrance components in the food, modification of the internal atmosphere by
the application of edible coatings can aggravate disorders associated with high
carbon dioxide or low oxygen concentration. For fresh items, edible films with
high water vapor permeability is also desired to extend the shelf life, while
extremely high water vapor permeability is not, as it might cause significant
moisture loss in the fruits during storage. The mechanical strength of an edible
film must be sufficient to safeguard the packaging’s integrity during distribu-
tion. The sensory qualities of an edible coating or film are critical aspects in final
product approval.
The selection of ingredients is one of the most crucial aspects of making edible
films. Polysaccharide-based edible coatings and films, a type of natural macro-
molecule with a high bioactivity, are often generated from agricultural feedstock
or crustacean shell wastes. Polysaccharides that may form gels in water are found
all over the plant kingdom. Some of them have been thoroughly explored, such as
pectins in higher plants, carrageenans and agarose in algae, algal and bacterial algi-
nates, and xanthans. Mucilages are heteropolysaccharides derived from plant stems,
such as cactus stems. Food, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and other businesses may
benefit from cactus mucilage [70]. The complex polysaccharide is a type of dietary
fiber that can absorb adequate water before dissolving and dispersing and generat-
ing viscous or gelatinous colloids. The low cost of cactus mucilage as a coating is an
important desirable consideration.
On the other hand, proteins such as casein, whey proteins, and maize zein, have
been employed as a moisture barrier in edible coatings since they are numerous,
abundant, inexpensive, and readily available. Corn zein, soy protein, wheat pro-
teins (gluten, gliadin), peanut protein, gelatin, casein, and milk whey proteins have
all been used in the production of protein-based films [5]. Food protein may act
as natural vehicles, adapted to carry vital micronutrients (e.g. calcium and phos-
phate), building blocks (e.g. amino acids), as well as immune system components
(e.g. immunoglobulins and lactoferrin) [71]. Furthermore, food proteins can be
employed in coating formulations to create environment friendly packagings that
are easily degradable and can be applied to a variety of foods such as vegetables,
fruits, poultry, and fish items [72]. Protein-based edible films are appealing
because, when compared to lipid- and polysaccharide-based edible films, they have
superior gas barrier properties. Protein films’ poor water vapor resistance and lower
mechanical strength when compared to synthetic polymers, however, limit their use
in food packaging.
Further, despite multifunctional potential of polysaccharides and proteins, the
hydrophilic nature of these biopolymers limits their capacity to offer the desired
edible film capabilities. Incorporation of hydrophobic chemicals, adjustment of

7
Food Processing – New Insights

polymer interaction, and production of cross-links are some of the ways to increase
the water barrier and mechanical properties of these films. Lipid molecules used in
edible coatings include neutral lipids of glycerides, which are esters of glycerol and
fatty acids, and waxes, which are esters of long-chain monohydric alcohols and fatty
acids. They are used to give hydrophobicity to food coatings [73]. Although protein
films have good oxygen barrier and mechanical properties at low and intermediate
relative humidity due to their large number of polar groups and extensive polymer
inter-chain, the hydrophilic nature of proteins prevents edible protein films from
acting as an effective water vapor barrier. However, lipid films have limited water
vapor permeability due to their hydrophobic nature, but they are extremely brittle
because of their monomeric structure. Furthermore, lipids generate opaque films
or coatings and are susceptible to oxidation. These characteristics may affect the
organoleptic characteristics of food and reduce their marketability. Natural anti-
oxidants and antibacterial agents have also been added to the edible film to help
prevent autoxidation of high-fat foods and boost oil resistance in fried foods
[74, 75]. During storage, edible materials acts as barrier against moisture and gases
from fresh produce, slowing enzymatic oxidation and protecting the food from
browning and texture softening. These may also have the capacity to preserve
natural volatile flavor compounds and prevent color components from discolor-
ation [76]. Edible coatings and films aid to preserve phytochemical (phenolic,
antioxidants, color) and physicochemical (total soluble solids, weight loss, pH, and
respiration rate) attributes in fresh and minimally processed fruits and vegetables
over time [77].

7. Physiochemical and morphological characterization of edible coatings

and films

The main attributes and techniques for characterization of edible coatings and
films are given below:

7.1 Physicochemical characterization

• Mechanical properties

• Solubility

• Color and transparency

• Thermal properties

• Microscopy

• Barrier properties

7.2 Performance evaluation

• Moisture loss, color, film thickness, microbial test

• Sensory properties

• Barrier properties (O2 permeability, CO2 permeability, water vapor

permeability)

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7.3 Morphological characterization

• Atomic force microscopy

• Transmission electron microscopy

• Scanning electron microscopy

• Universal tensile machine

• Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy

• Thermal methods

• Differential scanning calorimetry

• Thermogravimetric analysis

• Differential thermal analysis

• Dynamic mechanical analysis

• X-Ray diffraction

• Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy analysis

• Dynamic light scattering

• Rheological analysis

• Zeta potential analysis

8. Application of edible coatings and films

Edible coatings and films produced from a variety of biopolymers can effectively
preserve the nutritional and organoleptic qualities of various foods (Figure 2).
Edible coatings and films are known as eco-friendly packaging materials, as they
replace synthetic or plastic packaging materials and lower the post-harvest losses
of fruits and vegetables [78–81]. The edible coating extends shelf life [76, 82–84],
prevent microbiological contamination [85], minimizes lipid oxidation [86], and
lowers their degradation effect [87].
Biopolymers-based edible coatings operate as barrier layers against gas diffu-
sion, fragrance alterations, water migration, and various volatile exchange [88, 89].
Because of their great selective permeability to oxygen and carbon dioxide, poly-
saccharides have mostly been employed for food wrapping. The majority of these
low-cost films are made from cellulose and its derivatives, such as ethers and esters,
starch, pectins, and gums, which are used in food preservation. Fresh fruit products
such as tomatoes, cherries, fresh beans, strawberries, mangoes, and bananas have
all been coated with cellulose-based edible coatings to prevent quality loss. Chitosan
is a polysaccharide that is commonly used to prevent post-harvest deterioration in
fresh fruits and vegetables. Chitosan is made up of chitin, which is found in nature
just next to cellulose in quantity [90]. Tahir et al. [91] investigated the efficiency of

9
Food Processing – New Insights

Figure 2.
Application of edible coating and films.

a gum arabic edible coating for increasing total antioxidant content in strawberry
fruits during cold storage, with an increase in anthocyanin and phenolic contents.
Furthermore, edible coatings containing chitosan and essential oils of oregano
or thyme can inhibit the growth of spoilage and pathogen microorganisms while
also improving the sensory quality of peeled shrimp [92]. Edible coatings are good
transporter of functional ingredients and additives such color, flavor, minerals,
vitamins, and antioxidant agents to improve the nutritional value, durability, and
functionality of foods [77]. Ebrahimi and Rastegar [93] reported that a guar-based
edible coating coated with A. vera and Spirulina platensis was effective in preserv-
ing the ascorbic acid content, total phenol, and antioxidant activity of mango
maintained at room temperature. In addition, the coating extended the shelf life of
mango fruit by reducing respiration and weight loss. Active films offer promising
approach for slowly delivering the functional additives to the food surface, which
could help to prevent food spoilage. Active packaging – a novel offshoot of the
family of edible films - is quite encouraging as it can be carrier for a wide range of
food additives, such as vitamins, antioxidants, minerals, colorants, fragrances, and
antibacterial agents for the packaged food products [94].

9. Conclusions and future prospects

Starch, pectin, collagen, sodium alginate, gelatin, chitin, whey protein, chitosan,
soy protein, gluten proteins and lipids are all examples of agro-industrial leftovers
based biopolymers that have been widely used in the manufacturing of environ-
ment friendly food coatings and films. However, limited mechanical strengths and
moisture barrier properties of most biopolymers-based edible coatings and films
are the notable drawbacks. Combining agro- industrial leftovers based biopolymers
with plant-derived bioactive substances (vitamins, carotenoids, phenolic com-
pounds and phytochemicals, among others) permit the formation of bioactive films
with antioxidants, antibacterial action. It is feasible to improve the mechanical and
moisture barrier and physical properties of films by combining proteins (e.g., milk
proteins, soy protein, collagen, and gelatin) with polysaccharides (e.g., starches,
alginates, cellulose, and chitosan) or other polymers and hydrophobic compounds
(lipids). Crosslinking procedures, on the other hand, could be a fascinating pro-
cess that take into consideration chemical, enzymatic, and physical processes to
produce biodegradable packaging materials with improved qualities from agro-
industrial wastes.

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Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Author details

Urmila Choudhary1, Basant Kumar Bhinchhar2, Vinod Kumar Paswan3*,

Sheela Kharkwal4, Satya Prakash Yadav3 and Prity Singh3

1 Department of Food and Biotechnology, Faculty of Agriculture and Veterinary

Science, Jayoti Vidyapeeth Women’s University, Jaipur, India

2 Department of Livestock Production Management, Krishi Vigyan Kendra -

Bharatpur, Sri Karan Narendra Agriculture University, Jobner, Jaipur, India

3 Department of Dairy Science and Food Technology, Institute of Agricultural

Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, UP, India

4 Department of Agriculture Economics, Sri Karan Narendra Agriculture

University, Jobner, Jaipur, India

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms
of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.

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Food Processing – New Insights

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