CHAPTER – I

INTRODUCTION OF MATRIX THEORY

Matrix theory is a part of mathematics that focuses on matrices, which are

rectangular arrangements of numbers in rows and columns. It helps in solving
systems of linear equation performing calculations and representing data in various
fields. Basic concepts include matrix addition, multiplication and finding inverse,
while more advanced topics involve determinants and eigenvalues.

Matrix

Definition 1.1

A matrix consists of a set of 𝑚𝑛 numbers ,real or complex ,arranged in a

rectangular array of 𝑚 rows and 𝑛 columns such as denoted by 𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 )𝑚×𝑛 and

known as a matrix 𝐴 of order m by 𝑛

The coefficients 𝑎𝑖𝑗 , 𝑖 = 1,2, … … , 𝑚 , 𝑗 = 1,2,3, … . . , 𝑛 are known as the elements

of 𝐴

𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑛

𝑎21 𝑎22 … 𝑎2𝑛
𝐴=[ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ]
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 … 𝑎𝑚𝑛

Example :1.1

2 4 6
𝐴=[ ]
1 3 5

𝐴 is a 2 × 3 matrix
Definition : 1.2

A sub-matrix is obtained by deleting any number of rows and any number

of columns from a given matrix.

Example : 1.2

1 2 3
𝐴 = [4 5 6]
7 8 9

4 5
If we remove the 1𝑠𝑡 row and 3𝑟𝑑 column , we get sub matrix of A as [ ]
7 8

Definition : 1.3

A matrix will all its elements as zero is a null matrix , denoted by 0.

Example : 1.3

0 0 0
0=[ ] is a null matrix.
0 0 0

Definition : 1.4

A square matrix of order 𝑛 having all its diagonal elements unity and all
other elements zero is called a unit matrix or an identity matrix and is denoted by
In .

Example : 1.4

1 0 0
𝐼3 = [0 1 0] is a unit matrix of order 3.
0 0 1

Definition : 1.5

A square matrix in which all the elements outside the main diagonal are zero
is called diagonal matrix.

Example :1.5

6 0 0
[0 8 0] is a diagonal matrix of order 3
0 0 3

Definition :1.6

A square matrix which is either upper triangular and lower triangular is called
triangular matrix .

Example: 1.6

1 4 5 1 0 0
[0 2 6] and [4 2 0]both are called triangular matrix
0 0 3 5 6 3

Definition : 1.7

A matrix containing only one row ( 1 × 𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 ) is called a row matrix.

Example : 1.7

𝐴 = (1 6 9 3) is a row matrix

Definition:1.8

A matrix that consists of only one column (𝑚 × 1) is called a column matrix.

Example:1.8

1
𝐵 = [0] is a column matrix.
2

Definition:1.9

A symmetric matrix is a square matrix that is equal to its transpose. In other

words the matrix 𝐴 is symmetric.

Example:1.9

1 2 3
𝐴 = (2 4 5)
3 5 6
1 2 3
𝑇
then 𝐴 = (2 4 5) is a symmetric matrix.
3 5 6

Definition:1.10

The transpose of a matrix is obtained by interchanging rows and columns of

A and is denoted by 𝐴𝑇 or 𝐴′ . If A is 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix then 𝐴𝑇 is a 𝑛 × 𝑚 matrix.

Example:1.10

3 4 3
𝐴 = (2 9 2)
1 6 9
3 2 1
𝑇
Then 𝐴 = (4 9 6) is a transpose of matrix.
3 2 9

Definition:1.11

A square matrix is said to be an upper triangular matrix if all the element

below the main diagonal are zero.

Example:1.11

4 3 2
(0 3 1) is a upper triangular matrix.
0 0 9
Definition:1.12

A square matrix is said to be an lower triangular matrix if all the element

above the main diagonal are zero.

Example:1.12

4 0 0
(5 9 0) is a lower triangular matrix.
6 2 1

Determinant of a matrix

For a square matrix 𝐴, the determinant denoted as 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴) or |𝐴| is a value

calculated using a specific formula that varies depending on the size of the matrix.

Example:1.13

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝐴 = [𝑑 𝑒 𝑓 ] 3 × 3 matrix
𝑔 ℎ 𝑖

|𝐴| = 𝑎(𝑒𝑖 − 𝑓ℎ) − 𝑏(𝑑𝑖 − 𝑓𝑔) + 𝑐(𝑑ℎ − 𝑒𝑔)

Note:

❖ Determinants are defined only for square matrices.

❖ A square matrix is said to be singular if its determinant is zero.
❖ A square matrix is said to be non-singular if its determinant is not equal to
zero.

Definition:1.13
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
Let 𝐴 = [𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ] the adjoint of 𝐴 is defined to be the transpose of
𝑎31 𝑎23 𝑎33
the co-factor matrix of 𝐴 and is denoted by 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴
 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = (𝐴𝑖𝑗 )T

Definition:1.14

If 𝐴 is a square matrix then its inverse, denoted by 𝐴−1 , is the matrix that
satisfies

𝐴𝐴−1 = 𝐴−1 𝐴 = 𝐼

where 𝐼 is the identity matrix of the same size as 𝐴.

Conditions for the inverse

• The matrix must be square.

• The matrix must be non-singular.

Properties for inverse

➢ Not all square matrices have an inverse.

➢ If an inverse exists, it is unique.
➢ If 𝐴−1 exists, then (𝐴−1 )−1 = 𝐴.

Example:1.14

𝑎 𝑏
𝐴=[ ]
𝑐 𝑑

|𝐴| = 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐

≠0

1 𝑑 −𝑏
𝐴−1 = [ ]
𝑎𝑑−𝑏𝑐 −𝑐 𝑎

Definition:1.15

The minor determinant of an element in a square matrix is the determinant of

the submatrix formed by deleting the row and column that contains that element.

Types of Minor Determinant

Definition:1.16

The first-order minor of an element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 in a square matrix is determinant of

the submatrix obtained by removing the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ row and the 𝑗𝑡ℎ column from the original
matrix.

Definition:1.17

A second-order minor of a matrix is the determinant of 2 × 2 submatrix

obtained by selecting any 2 rows and 2 column from the original matrix.

Definition:1.18

A third-order minor of a matrix is the determinant of a 3 × 3 submatrix

obtained by choosing any 3 rows and 3 columns from a large matrix.
𝑎𝑖1 𝑗1 𝑎𝑖1 𝑗2 𝑎𝑖1𝑗3
𝑖 𝑖2 𝑖3
𝑀1 = 𝑑𝑒𝑡 [𝑎𝑖2 𝑗1 𝑎𝑖2 𝑗2 𝑎𝑖2𝑗3 ]
𝑗1 𝑗2 𝑗3 𝑎 𝑎𝑖3 𝑗2 𝑎𝑖3𝑗3
𝑖3 𝑗1

Example:1.15

1 2 3 4
5 6 7 8
𝐴=[ ]
9 10 11 12
13 14 15 16

pick row 1,2 and 4 and columns 1,3 and 4

1 3 4
[5 7 8 ] 3×3 sub matrix
13 15 16

Compute its determinants

 =1(7×16-8×15)-3(5×16-8×13)+4(5×15-7×13)

=1(112-120)-3(80-104)+4(75-91)

=1(-8)-3(-24)+4(-16)

=-8+72-64=0

Definition:1.19

The cofactor is a signed minor. The cofactor of 𝑎𝑖𝑗 is usually denoted by

𝐴𝑖𝑗 = (−1)𝑖+𝑗 𝑀𝑖𝑗 .

Example:1.16
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐴 = (𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 )
𝑎31 𝑎23 𝑎33
𝑎22 𝑎23
Minor of 𝑎11 is 𝑀11 =(𝑎 𝑎33 )
32

=𝑎22 𝑎33 -𝑎23 𝑎32

Cofactor of 𝑎11 is 𝐴11 =(−1)1+1 𝑀11

𝑎22 𝑎23
=(−1)2 [𝑎 𝑎33 ]
32

=(−1)2 (𝑎22 𝑎33 -𝑎23 𝑎32 )

=𝑎22 𝑎33 -𝑎23 𝑎32