18/09/2025, 23:27 Bloom's taxonomy - Wikipedia
Bloom's taxonomy
Bloom's taxonomy is a framework for categorizing educational goals, developed by a committee of
educators chaired by Benjamin Bloom in 1956. It was first introduced in the publication Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goals. The taxonomy divides learning
objectives into three broad domains: cognitive (knowledge-based), affective (emotion-based), and
psychomotor (action-based), each with a hierarchy of skills and abilities. These domains are used by
educators to structure curricula, assessments, and teaching methods to foster different types of
learning.
The cognitive domain, the most widely recognized component of the taxonomy, was originally divided
into six levels: Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis, and Evaluation. In 2001,
this taxonomy was revised, renaming and reordering the levels as Remember, Understand, Apply,
Analyze, Evaluate, and Create. This domain focuses on intellectual skills and the development of
critical thinking and problem-solving abilities.
The affective domain addresses attitudes, emotions, and feelings, moving from basic awareness and
responsiveness to more complex values and beliefs. This domain outlines five levels: Receiving,
Responding, Valuing, Organizing, and Characterizing.
The psychomotor domain, less elaborated by Bloom's original team, pertains to physical skills and the
use of motor functions. Subsequent educators, such as Elizabeth Simpson, further developed this
domain, outlining levels of skill acquisition from simple perceptions to the origination of new
movements.
Bloom's taxonomy has become a widely adopted tool in education, influencing instructional design,
assessment strategies, and learning outcomes across various disciplines. Despite its broad application,
the taxonomy has also faced criticism, particularly regarding the hierarchical structure of cognitive
skills and its implications for teaching and assessment practices.
History
The publication of Taxonomy of Educational Objectives followed a series of conferences from 1949 to
1953, which were designed to improve communication between educators on the design of curricula
and examinations.[1] The models were named after Benjamin Bloom, who chaired the committee of
educators that devised the taxonomy. He also edited the first volume of the standard text, Taxonomy
of Educational Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goals.[2][3]
The first volume of the taxonomy, Handbook I: Cognitive[2] was published in 1956, and in 1964 the
second volume Handbook II: Affective was published.[4][5][6][7][8] A revised version of the taxonomy
for the cognitive domain was created in 2001.[9]
Domains
Cognitive (knowledge-based)
In the 1956 original version of the taxonomy, the cognitive domain is divided into six levels of
objectives.[10] In the 2001 revised edition of Bloom's taxonomy, the levels were renamed and
reordered: Remember, Understand, Apply, Analyze, Evaluate, and Create.[11]
Knowledge: Recognizing or recalling facts, terms, basic concepts, or answers without necessarily
understanding their meaning.
Comprehension: Demonstrating an understanding of facts and ideas by organizing and
summarizing information.
Application: Using acquired knowledge to solve problems in new or unfamiliar situations.
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Analysis: Breaking down information into parts to understand
relationships, motives, or causes.
Synthesis: Building a new whole by combining elements or
creating new meaning.
Evaluation: Making judgments about information, based on set
criteria or standards.
Affective (emotion-based)
Skills in the affective domain describe the way people react Bloom's taxonomy, prior to
2001
emotionally and their ability to feel other living things' pain or joy.
Affective objectives typically target the awareness and growth in
attitudes, emotion, and feelings.
There are five levels in the affective domain, moving through the
lowest-order processes to the highest:
Receiving: The lowest level; the student passively pays attention.
Without this level, no learning can occur. Receiving is about the
student's memory and recognition as well.
Responding: The student actively participates in the learning A scaffolding hierarchy of the
process. Not only attends to a stimulus, but the student also reacts affective domain related to
in some way. learning
Valuing: The student attaches a value to an object, phenomenon,
or piece of information. The student associates a value or some
values to the knowledge they acquired.
Organizing: The student can put together different values, information, and ideas and
accommodate them within their own schema. The student is comparing, relating, and elaborating
on what has been learned.
Characterizing: At this level, the student tries to build abstract knowledge.
Psychomotor (action-based)
Skills in the psychomotor domain describe the ability to physically
manipulate tools or instruments, such as using a hand or a hammer.
Objectives in this domain often focus on the development and change
of physical skills or behavior.
Although Bloom and his colleagues did not create subcategories for the
psychomotor domain, later educators, such as Elizabeth Simpson,
proposed a taxonomy for psychomotor skills. Simpson’s taxonomy,
introduced in 1972, categorizes psychomotor learning into seven
levels, each describing progressively complex physical skills and
A scaffolding hierarchy of the
behaviors.[12] These levels include: psychomotor domain related to
learning
Perception: Using sensory cues to guide motor activity (e.g.,
detecting non-verbal communication or adjusting tools based on
sensory feedback).
Set: Readiness to act, including mental, physical, and emotional preparedness.
Guided response: The early stages of skill acquisition, involving imitation and trial and error.
Mechanism: Intermediate skill proficiency, where movements become habitual.
Complex overt response: The skillful and accurate performance of complex tasks.
Adaptation: The ability to modify movements to fit specific circumstances.
Origination: Creating new movement patterns to address novel problems or situations.
This taxonomy helps educators frame psychomotor objectives in contexts such as vocational training,
sports, and performing arts, where physical dexterity is central to learning outcomes.[13]
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Significance
Theory of knowledge
In the appendix to Handbook I, knowledge is defined as involving the recall of specifics, methods, and
structures. This definition is a cornerstone of the taxonomy of educational goals, widely applied
beyond education, notably in knowledge management. Knowledge is categorized into specific
domains: the recall of terminology and facts, understanding methods and conventions, and
recognizing patterns and principles in various fields. This framework highlights the complexity of
knowledge, spanning from concrete specifics to abstract theories.[14]
Criticism of the taxonomy
Richard W. Morshead criticized the original taxonomy, noting that it was not a properly constructed
taxonomy as it lacked a systematic rationale of construction.[15] This was later acknowledged in the
2001 revision, where the taxonomy was restructured on more systematic lines.[9]
Some critiques of the taxonomy's cognitive domain accept the six categories but question the
existence of a sequential, hierarchical link.[16] Often, educators may see the taxonomy as a hierarchy
and mistakenly dismiss the lower levels as less important for teaching.[17][18] In response, others have
argued that the learning of lower levels supports the development of skills at higher levels, and in
certain fields, the most critical skills may reside in the lower levels, such as species identification in
natural history.[17][18] Instructional scaffolding from lower-level to higher-level skills is an application
of Vygotskian constructivism.[19][20]
While some consider the three lower levels hierarchically ordered and the three higher levels
parallel,[9] others argue that it can be beneficial to move to application before introducing concepts,
particularly in problem-based learning environments where real-world contexts precede theoretical
understanding.
The distinction between categories can be seen as artificial, since cognitive tasks often involve
multiple processes.[21] Categorizing mental processes into distinct classifications may undermine the
interconnected nature of cognition, a critique commonly directed at taxonomies of mental processes.
Despite this, the taxonomy is widely used in educational settings to structure learning outcomes,
though a 2020 study revealed inconsistencies between institutions in the mapping of action verbs to
the taxonomy's levels.[22]
Implications
Bloom's taxonomy serves as the backbone of many teaching philosophies, in particular, those that
lean more towards skills rather than content.[8][9] These educators view content as a vessel for
teaching skills. The emphasis on higher-order thinking inherent in such philosophies is based on the
top levels of the taxonomy including application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Bloom's
taxonomy can be used as a teaching tool to help balance evaluative and assessment-based questions in
assignments, texts, and class engagements to ensure that all orders of thinking are exercised in
students' learning, including aspects of information searching.[23]
Connections between disciplines
Bloom's taxonomy is a source of inspiration for educational philosophy and for developing new
teaching strategies, particularly in light of trends in developing global focus on multiple literacies and
modalities in learning and the emerging field of integrated disciplines.[24] For example, ability to
interface with and create media draws upon skills from both higher and lower-order thinking
skills.[25][26]
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Gallery
Bloom's taxonomy Bloom's revised Bloom's taxonomy Bloom's cognitive
organized radially taxonomy organized verbs portrayed as a domain organized as
as a pyramid of light bulb an inverted pyramid
learning levels with
explanations of each
See also
DIKW pyramid – Data, information, knowledge, wisdom hierarchy
Educational psychology – Branch of psychology concerned with the scientific study of human
learning
Educational technology – Use of technology in education to improve learning and teaching
Fluid and crystallized intelligence – Factors of general intelligence
Higher-order thinking – Concept in education and education reform
In Over Our Heads – Book on psychological development by Robert Kegan
Integrative complexity – Research psychometric
Know-how – Knowledge of how to perform a task
Ladder of inference – Metaphorical model of cognition and action by Chris Argyris
Learning cycle – How people learn from experience
Mastery learning – Instructional strategy and educational philosophy
Metacognition – Self-awareness about thinking, higher-order thinking skills
Model of hierarchical complexity – Framework for scoring a behavior's complexity
Pedagogy – Theory and practice of education
Physical education – Educational course related to the physique and care of the body
Reflective practice – Ability to reflect on one's actions so as to engage in a process of continuous
learning
Rubric (academic) – Scoring guide for assessment
Structure of observed learning outcome – Model of levels of increasing complexity in
understanding
Wisdom – Ability to apply knowledge with good judgment
References
1. Bloom et al. 1956, p. 4: "The idea for this classification system was formed at an informal meeting
of college examiners attending the 1948 American Psychological Association Convention in
Boston. At this meeting, interest was expressed in a theoretical framework which could be used to
facilitate communication among examiners.
2. Bloom, B. S.; Engelhart, M. D.; Furst, E. J.; Hill, W. H.; Krathwohl, D. R. (1956). Taxonomy of
educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. Vol. Handbook I: Cognitive domain.
New York: David McKay Company.
3. Shane, Harold G. (1981). "Significant writings that have influenced the curriculum: 1906–1981".
Phi Delta Kappan. 62 (5): 311–314.
4. Simpson, Elizabeth J. (1966). "The classification of educational objectives: Psychomotor domain".
Illinois Journal of Home Economics. 10 (4): 110–144.
5. Harrow, Anita J. (1972). A taxonomy of the psychomotor domain: A guide for developing
behavioral objectives. New York: David McKay Company.
6. Dave, R. H. (1975). Armstrong, R. J. (ed.). Developing and writing behavioral objectives. Tucson:
Educational Innovators Press.
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