DATA COMMUNICATION AND

COMPUTER NETWORKS
 DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire cable. For data communications to occur, the
communicating devices must be part of a communication system made up of a combination of
hardware (physical equipment) and software (programs). The effectiveness of a data
communications system depends on four fundamental characteristics: delivery, accuracy,
timeliness, and jitter.

1. Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by
the intended device or user and only by that device or user.
2. Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in
transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
3. Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are useless.
In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in the
same order that they are produced, and without significant delay. This kind of delivery is called
real-time transmission.
4. Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the
delivery of audio or video packets.

Components:
A data communications system has five components.

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1. Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of
information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2. Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message
travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire,
coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves
5. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an
agreement between the communicating devices.

DATA TRANSMISSION MODES

Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.

Simplex:
In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of the
two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive. Keyboards and traditional
monitors are examples of simplex devices. The keyboard can only introduce input; the monitor
can only accept output. The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data
in one direction.

Half-Duplex:
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When
one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. In a half-duplex transmission,
the entire capacity of a channel is taken over by whichever of the two devices is transmitting at
the time. Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are both half-duplex systems. The half-
duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for communication in both directions at the
same time; the entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction.

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Full-Duplex:
In full-duplex both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. The full-duplex mode is
like a two way street with traffic flowing in both directions at the same time. In full-duplex
mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link: with signals going in the other
direction. One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network. When
two people are communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time. The
full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required all the time. The
capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between the two directions.

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 NETWORKS

A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links. A

node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving data
generated by other nodes on the network.

Network Criteria
A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of these are
performance, reliability, and security.

Performance:
Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and response time. Transit
time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to another. Response
time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response. The performance of a network
depends on a number of factors, including the number of users, the type of transmission medium,
the capabilities of the connected hardware, and the efficiency of the software.

Reliability:
Network reliability is measured by the frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover
from a failure, and the network's robustness in a catastrophe.

Security:
Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting data from
damage and development, and implementing policies and procedures for recovery from breaches
and data losses.

PHYSICAL STRUCTURES

TYPES OF CONNECTIONS: A network is two or more devices connected through

links. A link is a communications pathway that transfers data from one device to another. There
are two possible types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint.

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Point-to-Point
A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire capacity
of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices. Most point-to-point
connections use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the two ends, but other options, such
as microwave or satellite links, are also possible. When you change television channels by
infrared remote control, you are establishing a point-to-point connection between the remote
control and the television's control system.

Multipoint
A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more than two specific devices
share a single link. In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either
spatially or temporally. If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared
connection. If users must take turns, it is a timeshared connection.

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PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY:
The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically. One or
more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology. The topology of a network is
the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually
called nodes) to one another. There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring.

1. Mesh: In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other
device. The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two devices it
connects. To find the number of physical links in a fully connected mesh network with n nodes,
we first consider that each node must be connected to every other node. Node 1 must be
connected to n - I nodes, node 2 must be connected to n – 1 nodes, and finally node n must be
connected to n - 1 nodes. We need n(n - 1) physical links. However, if each physical link allows
communication in both directions (duplex mode), we can divide the number of links by 2. In
other words, we can say that in a mesh topology, we need n(n -1) /2 duplex-mode links. To
accommodate that many links, every device on the network must have n – 1 input/output ports to
be connected to the other n - 1 stations.
Advantages:
1. The use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its own data load, thus
eliminating the traffic problems that can occur when links must be shared by multiple devices.

2. A mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not incapacitate the entire
system.

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3. There is the advantage of privacy or security. When every message travels along a dedicated
line, only the intended recipient sees it. Physical boundaries prevent other users from gaining
access to messages.
4. Point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy. Traffic can be routed to
avoid links with suspected problems. This facility enables the network manager to discover the
precise location of the fault and aids in finding its cause and solution.

Disadvantages:
1. Disadvantage of a mesh are related to the amount of cabling because every device must be
connected to every other device.

2. Installation and reconnection are difficult.

3. The sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the available space (in walls, ceilings, or
floors) can accommodate.
4. The hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports and cable) can be prohibitively
expensive.

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2. Star Topology: In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a
central controller, usually called a hub. The devices are not directly linked to one another. Unlike
a mesh topology, a star topology does not allow direct traffic between devices. The controller
acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send data to another, it sends the data to the
controller, which then relays the data to the other connected device .

Advantages:
1. A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology. In a star, each device needs only one
link and one I/O port to connect it to any number of others.
2. Easy to install and reconfigure.
3. Far less cabling needs to be housed, and additions, moves, and deletions involve only one
connection: between that device and the hub.
4. Other advantage include robustness. If one link fails, only that link is affected. All other links
remain active. This factor also lends itself to easy fault identification and fault isolation. As long
as the hub is working, it can be used to monitor link problems and bypass defective links.
Disadvantages:
One big disadvantage of a star topology is the dependency of the whole topology on one single point,
the hub. If the hub goes down, the whole system is dead. Although a star requires far less cable than a
mesh, each node must be linked to a central hub. For this reason, often more cabling is required in a
star than in some other topologies (such as ring or bus).

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3. BUS: A bus topology is multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices
in a network. Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A drop line is a
connection running between the device and the main cable. A tap is a connector that either
splices into the main cable or punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the
metallic core. As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its energy is transformed into heat.
Therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker as it travels farther and farther. For this reason there is
a limit on the number of taps a bus can support and on the distance between those taps.
Advantages:
Advantages of a bus topology include ease of installation. Backbone cable can be laid along the
most efficient path, then connected to the nodes by drop lines of various lengths. In this way, a
bus uses less cabling than mesh or star topologies. In a star, for example, four network devices in
the same room require four lengths of cable reaching all the way to the hub. In a bus, this
redundancy is eliminated. Only the backbone cable stretches through the entire facility. Each
drop line has to reach only as far as the nearest point on the backbone.
Disadvantages:
Disadvantages include difficult reconnection and fault isolation. A bus is usually designed to be
optimally efficient at installation. It can therefore be difficult to add new devices. Signal
reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality. This degradation can be controlled by
limiting the number and spacing of devices connected to a given length of cable. Adding new
devices may therefore require modification or replacement of the backbone. In addition, a fault
or break in the bus cable stops all transmission, even between devices on the same side of the
problem. The damaged area reflects signals back in the direction of origin, creating noise in both
directions.

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4. RING: In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only the
two devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to
device, until it reaches its destination. Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater. When a
device receives a signal intended for another device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes
them along.
Advantages:
A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure. Each device is linked to only its immediate
neighbors (either physically or logically). To add or delete a device requires changing only two
connections. The only constraints are media and traffic considerations (maximum ring length and
number of devices). In addition, fault isolation is simplified. Generally in a ring, a signal is
circulating at all times. If one device does not receive a signal within a specified period, it can
issue an alarm. The alarm alerts the network operator to the problem and its location.
Disadvantages:
Unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage. In a simple ring, a break in the ring (such as a
disabled station) can disable the entire network. This weakness can be solved by using a dual
ring or a switch capable of closing off the break. Ring topology was prevalent when IBM
introduced its local-area network Token Ring. Today, the need for higher-speed LANs has made
this topology less popular.

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 NETWORK CATEGORIES
Local Area Networks (LAN):
Local area networks, generally called LANs, are privately-owned networks within a single
building or campus of up to a few kilometers in size. They are widely used to connect personal
computers and workstations in company offices and factories to share resources (e.g., printers)
and exchange information. LANs are distinguished from other kinds of networks by three
characteristics:
(1) Their size,
(2) Their transmission technology, and
(3) Their topology.
LANs are restricted in size, which means that the worst-case transmission time is bounded and
known in advance. Knowing this bound makes it possible to use certain kinds of designs that
would not otherwise be possible. It also simplifies network management. LANs may use a
transmission technology consisting of a cable to which all the machines are attached, like the
telephone company party lines once used in rural areas. Traditional LANs run at speeds of 10
Mbps to 100 Mbps, have low delay (microseconds or nanoseconds), and make very few errors.
Newer LANs operate at up to 10 Gbps.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):
A metropolitan area network, or MAN, covers a city. The best-known example of a MAN is the
cable television network available in many cities. This system grew from earlier community
antenna systems used in areas with poor over-the-air television reception. In these early systems,
a large antenna was placed on top of a nearby hill and signal was then piped to the subscribers'
houses. At first, these were locally-designed, ad hoc systems. Then companies began jumping
into the business, getting contracts from city governments to wire up an entire city. The next step
was television programming and even entire channels designed for cable only. Often these
channels were highly specialized, such as all news, all sports, all cooking, all gardening, and so
on. But from their inception until the late 1990s, they were intended for television reception only.
Cable television is not the only MAN. Recent developments in high-speed wireless Internet
access resulted in another MAN, which has been standardized as IEEE 802.16.
Wide Area Network (WAN):
A wide area network, or WAN, spans a large geographical area, often a country or continent. It
contains a collection of machines intended for running user (i.e., application) programs. These

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machines are called as hosts. The hosts are connected by a communication subnet, or just subnet
for short. The hosts are owned by the customers (e.g., people's personal computers), whereas the
communication subnet is typically owned and operated by a telephone company or Internet
service provider. The job of the subnet is to carry messages from host to host, just as the
telephone system carries words from speaker to listener. Separation of the pure communication
aspects of the network (the subnet) from the application aspects (the hosts), greatly simplifies the
complete network design. In most wide area networks, the subnet consists of two distinct
components: transmission lines and switching elements. Transmission lines move bits between
machines. They can be made of copper wire, optical fiber, or even radio links. In most WANs,
the network contains numerous transmission lines, each one connecting a pair of routers. If two
routers that do not share a transmission line wish to communicate, they must do this indirectly,
via other routers. When a packet is sent from one router to another via one or more intermediate
routers, the packet is received at each intermediate router in its entirety, stored there until the
required output line is free, and then forwarded. A subnet organized according to this principle is
called a store-and-forward or packet-switched subnet. Nearly all wide area networks (except
those using satellites) have store-and-forward subnets. When the packets are small and all the
same size, they are often called cells. The principle of a packet-switched WAN is so important.
Generally, when a process on some host has a message to be sent to a process on some other
host, the sending host first cuts the message into packets, each one bearing its number in the
sequence. These packets are then injected into the network one at a time in quick succession. The
packets are transported individually over the network and deposited at the receiving host, where
they are reassembled into the original message and delivered to the receiving process. Not all
WANs are packet switched. A second possibility for a WAN is a satellite system. Each router
has an antenna through which it can send and receive. All routers can hear the output from the
satellite, and in some cases they can also hear the upward transmissions of their fellow routers to
the satellite as well. Sometimes the routers are connected to a substantial point-to-point subnet,
with only some of them having a satellite antenna. Satellite networks are inherently broadcast
and are most useful when the broadcast property is important.

ANALOG AND DIGITAL

Analog Data: The term analog data refers to information that is continuous; For example, an
analog clock that has hour, minute, and second hands gives information in a continuous form; the

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movements of the hands are continuous. Analog data, such as the sounds made by a human
voice, take on continuous values. When someone speaks, an analog wave is created in the air.
This can be captured by a microphone and converted to an analog signal or sampled and
converted to a digital signal.
Digital Data:
Digital data refers to information that has discrete states. For example, a digital clock that
reports the hours and the minutes will change suddenly from 8:05 to 8:06. Digital data takes on
discrete values. For example, data are stored in computer memory in the form of Os and 1s. They
can be converted to a digital signal or modulated into an analog signal for transmission across a
medium.
Analog and Digital Signals:
Like the data they represent, signals can be either analog or digital. An analog signal has
infinitely many levels of intensity over a period of time. As the wave moves from value A to
value B, it passes through and includes an infinite number of values along its path. A digital
signal, on the other hand, can have only a limited number of defined values. Although each value
can be any number, it is often as simple as 1 and O. The simplest way to show signals is by
plotting them on a pair of perpendicular axes. The vertical axis represents the value or strength of
a signal. The horizontal axis represents time. Figure below illustrates an analog signal and a
digital signal. The curve representing the analog signal passes through an infinite number of
points. The vertical lines of the digital signal, however, demonstrate the sudden jump that the
signal makes from value to value.

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Periodic and Nonperiodic Signals:
A periodic signal completes a pattern within a measurable time frame, called a period, and
repeats that pattern over subsequent identical periods. The completion of one full pattern is
called a cycle. A nonperiodic signal changes without exhibiting a pattern or cycle that repeats
over time.
PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS:
Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or composite. A simple periodic analog
signal, a sine wave, cannot be decomposed into simpler signals. A composite periodic analog
signal is composed of multiple sine waves.
Sine Wave
The sine wave is the most fundamental form of a periodic analog signal. When we visualize it as
a simple oscillating curve, its change over the course of a cycle is smooth and consistent, a
continuous, rolling flow. Figure below shows a sine wave. Each cycle consists of a single arc
above the time axis followed by a single arc below it.

Characteristics of Signals:
1. Peak Amplitude
The peak amplitude of a signal is the absolute value of its highest intensity, proportional to the
energy it carries. For electric signals, peak amplitude is normally measured in volts. Figure
below shows two signals and their peak amplitudes.

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2. Period and Frequency
Period refers to the amount of time, in seconds, a signal needs to complete 1 cycle.
Frequency refers to the number of periods in I s. Note that period and frequency are just one
characteristic defined in two ways. Period is the inverse of frequency, and frequency is the
inverse of period, as the following formulas show.
f=1/T and T=1/f
Period is formally expressed in seconds. Frequency is formally expressed in Hertz (Hz), which is
cycle per second.

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3. Phase
The term phase describes the position of the waveform relative to time O. If we think of the
wave as something that can be shifted backward or forward along the time axis, phase describes
the amount of that shift. It indicates the status of the first cycle. Phase is measured in degrees or
radians [360° is 2n rad; 1° is 2n/360 rad, and 1 rad is 360/(2n)]. A phase shift of 360°
corresponds to a shift of a complete period; a phase shift of 180° corresponds to a shift of one-
half of a period; and a phase shift of 90° corresponds to a shift of one-quarter of a period.

I. A sine wave with a phase of 0° starts at time 0 with a zero amplitude. The amplitude is
increasing.
II. A sine wave with a phase of 90° starts at time 0 with a peak amplitude. The amplitude is
decreasing.
III. A sine wave with a phase of 180° starts at time 0 with a zero amplitude. The amplitude is
decreasing.

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4. Wavelength
Wavelength is another characteristic of a signal traveling through a transmission medium.
Wavelength binds the period or the frequency of a simple sine wave to the propagation speed of
the medium. While the frequency of a signal is independent of the medium, the wavelength
depends on both the frequency and the medium. Wavelength is a property of any type of signal.
In data communications, we often use wavelength to describe the transmission of light in an
optical fiber. The wavelength is the distance a simple signal can travel in one period. Wavelength
can be calculated if one is given the propagation speed (the speed of light) and the period of the
signal. However, since period and frequency are related to each other, if we represent
wavelength by λ, propagation speed by c (speed of light), and frequency by f, we get
Wavelength=Propagation speed * Period = propagation speed/frequency
λ=c/f
The wavelength is normally measured in micrometers (microns) instead of meters.
Bandwidth
The range of frequencies contained in a composite signal is its bandwidth. The bandwidth is
normally a difference between two numbers. For example, if a composite signal contains
frequencies between 1000 and 5000, its bandwidth is 5000 - 1000, or 4000. Figure 3.12 shows
the concept of bandwidth. The figure depicts two composite signals, one periodic and the other
nonperiodic. The bandwidth of the periodic signal contains all integer frequencies between 1000
and 5000 (1000, 100 I, 1002, ...). The bandwidth of the nonperiodic signals has the same range,
but the frequencies are continuous.

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DIGITAL SIGNALS
In addition to being represented by an analog signal, information can also be represented by a
digital signal. For example, a 1 can be encoded as a positive voltage and a 0 as zero voltage. A
digital signal can have more than two levels. In this case, we can send more than 1 bit for each
level. Figure 3.16 shows two signals, one with two levels and the other with four.

We send 1 bit per level in part a of the figure and 2 bits per level in part b of the figure. In
general, if a signal has L levels, each level needs log2L bits.

Bit Rate
Most digital signals are nonperiodic, and thus period and frequency are not appropriate
characteristics. Another term-bit rate is used to describe digital signals. The bit rate is the
number of bits sent in 1s, expressed in bits per second (bps). Figure 3.16 shows the bit rate for
two signals.

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 TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT
Signals travel through transmission media, which are not perfect. The imperfection causes
signal impairment. This means that the signal at the beginning of the medium is not the
same as the signal at the end of the medium. What is sent is not what is received. Three
causes of impairment are attenuation, distortion, and noise.

1. Attenuation
Attenuation means a loss of energy. When a signal, simple or composite, travels through a
medium, it loses some of its energy in overcoming the resistance of the medium. That is why a
wire carrying electric signals gets warm, if not hot, after a while. Some of the electrical energy in
the signal is converted to heat. To compensate for this loss, amplifiers are used to amplify the
signal. Attenuation is measured in terms of Decibels.
The decibel (dB) measures the relative strengths of two signals or one signal at two different
points. Note that the decibel is negative if a signal is attenuated and positive if a signal is
amplified.
dB=10log10 P2/P1
Variables PI and P2 are the powers of a signal at points 1 and 2, respectively.

2. Distortion:
Distortion means that the signal changes its form or shape. Distortion can occur in a composite
signal made of different frequencies. Each signal component has its own propagation speed
through a medium and, therefore, its own delay in arriving at the final destination. Differences in
delay may create a difference in phase if the delay is not exactly the same as the period duration.
In other words, signal components at the receiver have phases different from what they had at the

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sender. The shape of the composite signal is therefore not the same. Figure 3.28 shows the effect
of distortion on a composite signal.

3. Noise
Noise is another cause of impairment. Several types of noise, such as thermal noise, induced
noise, crosstalk, and impulse noise, may corrupt the signal. Thermal noise is the random motion
of electrons in a wire which creates an extra signal not originally sent by the transmitter. Induced
noise comes from sources such as motors and appliances. These devices act as a sending
antenna, and the transmission medium acts as the receiving antenna. Crosstalk is the effect of
one wire on the other. One wire acts as a sending antenna and the other as the receiving antenna.
Impulse noise is a spike (a signal with high energy in a very short time) that comes from power
lines, lightning, and so on.

Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)

The signal-to-noise ratio is defined as

SNR= Average Signal power / Average Noise Power
SNR is actually the ratio of what is wanted (signal) to what is not wanted (noise). A high SNR
means the signal is less corrupted by noise; a low SNR means the signal is more corrupted by
noise. Because SNR is the ratio of two powers, it is often described in decibel units, SNR dB,
defined as
SNRdB = l0logl0 SNR

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 DATA RATE LIMITS
A very important consideration in data communications is how fast we can send data, in bits per
second. over a channel. Data rate depends on three factors:
1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)
Two theoretical formulas were developed to calculate the data rate: one by Nyquist for a
noiseless channel. another by Shannon for a noisy channel.
Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate
For a noiseless channel, the Nyquist bit rate formula defines the theoretical maximum bit rate
BitRate = 2 x bandwidth x 10g2 L
In this formula, bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel, L is the number of signal levels used
to represent data, and BitRate is the bit rate in bits per second. According to the formula, we
might think that, given a specific bandwidth, we can have any bit rate we want by increasing the
number of signa11eve1s. Although the idea is theoretically correct, practically there is a limit.
When we increase the number of signal1eve1s, we impose a burden on the receiver. If the
number of levels in a signal is just 2, the receiver can easily distinguish between a 0 and a 1. If
the level of a signal is 64, the receiver must be very sophisticated to distinguish between 64
different levels. In other words, increasing the levels of a signal reduces the reliability of the
system.
Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity
In reality, we cannot have a noiseless channel; the channel is always noisy. In 1944, Claude
Shannon introduced a formula, called the Shannon capacity, to determine the theoretical highest
data rate for a noisy channel:
Capacity =bandwidth X log2 (1 +SNR)
In this formula, bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel, SNR is the signal-to-noise ratio, and
capacity is the capacity of the channel in bits per second. Note that in the Shannon formula there
is no indication of the signal level, which means that no matter how many levels we have, we
cannot achieve a data rate higher than the capacity of the channel. In other words, the formula
defines a characteristic of the channel, not the method of transmission.

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Bandwidth in Bits per Seconds
The term bandwidth can also refer to the number of bits per second that a channel, a link, or even
a network can transmit. For example, one can say the bandwidth of a Fast Ethernet network is a
maximum of 100 Mbps. This means that this network can send 100 Mbps.

DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION
Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of changing one of the characteristics of an analog
signal based on the information in digital data. Figure 5.1 shows the relationship between the
digital information, the digital-to-analog modulating process, and the resultant analog signal.

A sine wave is defined by three characteristics: amplitude, frequency, and phase. When we vary
anyone of these characteristics, we create a different version of that wave. So, by changing one
characteristic of a simple electric signal, we can use it to represent digital data. Any of the three
characteristics can be altered in this way, giving us at least three mechanisms for modulating
digital data into an analog signal: amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency shift keying (FSK),
and phase shift keying (PSK).
Aspects of Digital-to-Analog Conversion
Before we discuss specific methods of digital-to-analog modulation, two basic issues
must be reviewed: bit and baud rates and the carrier signal.
Data Element Versus Signal Element
Data element as the smallest piece of information to be exchanged, the bit. We also defined a
signal element as the smallest unit of a signal that is constant.

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Data Rate Versus Signal Rate
We can define the data rate (bit rate) and the signal rate (baud rate). The relationship between
them is
S= N/r baud
where N is the data rate (bps) and r is the number of data elements carried in one signal
element. The value of r in analog transmission is r =log2 L, where L is the type of signal
element, not the level.
Carrier Signal
In analog transmission, the sending device produces a high-frequency signal that acts as a base
for the information signal. This base signal is called the carrier signal or carrier frequency. The
receiving device is tuned to the frequency of the carrier signal that it expects from the sender.
Digital information then changes the carrier signal by modifying one or more of its
characteristics (amplitude, frequency, or phase). This kind of modification is called modulation
(shift keying).
1. Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
In amplitude shift keying, the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied to create signal elements.
Both frequency and phase remain constant while the amplitude changes. Although we can have
several levels (kinds) of signal elements, each with a different amplitude, ASK is normally
implemented using only two levels. This is referred to as binary amplitude shift keying or on-off
keying (OOK). The peak amplitude of one signal level is 0; the other is the same as the amplitude
of the carrier frequency. Figure 5.3 gives a conceptual view of binary ASK.

Data Communication and Computer Networks Page 24

2. Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
In frequency shift keying, the frequency of the carrier signal is varied to represent data. The
frequency of the modulated signal is constant for the duration of one signal element, but changes
for the next signal element if the data element changes. Both peak amplitude and phase remain
constant for all signal elements.
One way to think about binary FSK (or BFSK) is to consider two carrier frequencies. In Figure
5.6, we have selected two carrier frequencies,f1 andf2. We use the first carrier if the data element
is 0; we use the second if the data element is 1. However, note that this is an unrealistic example
used only for demonstration purposes. Normally the carrier frequencies are very high, and the
difference between them is very small.

3. Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

In phase shift keying, the phase of the carrier is varied to represent two or more different signal
elements. Both peak amplitude and frequency remain constant as the phase changes. Today, PSK
is more common than ASK or FSK. The simplest PSK is binary PSK, in which we have only two
signal elements, one with a phase of 0°, and the other with a phase of 180°. Figure 5.9 gives a
conceptual view of PSK.

Data Communication and Computer Networks Page 25

TRANSMISSION MODES:

Transmission of binary data across a link can be accomplished in either parallel or serial mode. In
parallel mode, multiple bits are sent with each clock tick. In serial mode, 1 bit is sent with each clock
tick.

Parallel Transmission

• Binary data, consisting of 1s and 0s, may be organized into groups of n bits each. Computers
produce and consume data in groups of bits much as we conceive of and use spoken language
in the form of words rather than letters.

• By grouping, we can send data n bits at a time instead of 1. This is called parallel transmission.
The mechanism for parallel transmission is a conceptually simple one: Use n wires to send n
bits at one time. That way each bit has its own wire, and all n bits of one group can be
transmitted with each clock tick from one device to another. Typically, the eight wires are
bundled in a cable with a connector at each end.

• The advantage of parallel transmission is speed. Parallel transmission can increase the transfer
speed by a factor of n over serial transmission. But there is a significant disadvantage: cost.
Parallel transmission requires n communication lines (wires in the example) just to transmit
 the data stream. Because this is expensive, parallel transmission is usually limited to short
distances.

Serial Transmission

• In serial transmission one bit follows another, so we need only one communication channel
rather than n to transmit data between two communicating devices. The advantage of serial
over parallel transmission is that with only one communication channel, serial transmission
reduces the cost of transmission over parallel by roughly a factor of n.

• Since communication within devices is parallel, conversion devices are required at the
interface between the sender and the line (parallel-to-serial) and between the line and the
receiver (serial-to-parallel).
Advantages of Circuit Switching
 The main advantage of circuit switching is that a committed transmission channel
is established between the computers which give a guaranteed data rate.
 In circuit switching, there is no delay in data flow because of the dedicated
transmission path.
 Reliability: Circuit switching provides a high level of reliability since the dedicated
communication path is reserved for the entire duration of the communication. This
ensures that the data will be transmitted without any loss or corruption.
 Quality of service: Circuit switching provides a guaranteed quality of service,
which means that the network can prioritize certain types of traffic, such as voice
and video, over other types of traffic, such as email and web browsing.
 Security: Circuit switching provides a higher level of security compared to packet
switching since the dedicated communication path is only accessible to the two
communicating parties. This can help prevent unauthorized access and data
breaches.
 Ease of management: Circuit switching is relatively easy to manage since the
communication path is pre-established and dedicated to a specific communication.
This can help simplify network management and reduce the risk of errors.
 Compatibility: Circuit switching is compatible with a wide range of devices and
protocols, which means that it can be used with different types of networks and
applications. This makes it a versatile technology for various industries and use
cases.
Disadvantages of Circuit Switching
 Limited scalability: Circuit switching is not well-suited for large-scale networks
with many nodes, as it requires a dedicated communication path between each pair
of nodes. This can result in a high degree of complexity and difficulty in managing
the network.
 Vulnerability to failures: Circuit switching relies on a dedicated communication
path, which can make the network vulnerable to failures, such as cable cuts or
switch failures. In the event of a failure, the communication path must be re-
established, which can result in delays or loss of data.
 Limited Flexibility: Circuit switching is not flexible as it requires a dedicated
circuit between the communicating devices. The circuit cannot be used Waste of
 Resources for any other purpose until the communication is complete, which limits
the flexibility of the network.
 Waste of Resources: Circuit switching reserves the bandwidth and network
resources for the duration of the communication, even if there is no data being
transmitted. This results in the wastage of resources and inefficient use of the
network.
 Expensive: Circuit switching is an expensive technology as it requires dedicated
communication paths, which can be costly to set up and maintain. This makes it less
feasible for small-scale networks and applications.
 Susceptible to Failure: Circuit switching is susceptible to failure as it relies on a
dedicated communication path. If the path fails, the entire communication is
disrupted. This makes it less reliable than other networking technologies, such
as packet switching.
 Not suitable for high traffic: Circuit switching is not suitable for high traffic,
where data is transmitted intermittently at irregular intervals. This is because a
dedicated circuit needs to be established for each communication, which can result
in delays and inefficient use of resources.
 Delay and latency: Circuit switching requires the establishment of a dedicated
communication path, which can result in delay and latency in establishing the path
and transmitting data. This can impact the real-time performance of applications,
such as voice and video.
 High cost: Circuit switching requires the reservation of resources, which can result
in a high cost, particularly in large-scale networks. This can make circuit switching
less practical for some applications.
 No prioritization: Circuit switching does not provide any mechanism for
prioritizing certain types of traffic over others.
Difference between Circuit Switching and Packet Switching

Circuit Switching Packet Switching

In-circuit switching, each data unit In Packet switching, each data unit just knows
knows the entire path address which is the final destination address intermediate path is
provided by the source. decided by the routers.
Circuit Switching Packet Switching

In-Circuit switching, data is processed In Packet switching, data is processed at all

at the source system only intermediate nodes including the source system.

The delay between data units in circuit The delay between data units in packet
switching is uniform. switching is not uniform.

Circuit switching is more reliable. Packet switching is less reliable.

Wastage of resources is more in Circuit Less wastage of resources as compared to

Switching Circuit Switching

Circuit switching is not convenient for Packet switching is suitable for handling
handling bilateral traffic. bilateral traffic.

In-Circuit Switching there is a physical

In Packet Switching there is no physical path
path between the source and the
between the source and the destination
destination

OSI MODEL

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model is a set of rules that explains how different
computer systems communicate over a network. OSI Model was developed by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO). The OSI Model consists of 7 layers and each layer has
specific functions and responsibilities. This layered approach makes it easier for different
devices and technologies to work together. OSI Model provides a clear structure for data
transmission and managing network issues. The OSI Model is widely used as a reference to
understand how network systems function.
Layers of the OSI Model

There are 7 layers in the OSI Model and each layer has its specific role in handling data. All
the layers are mentioned below:

 Physical Layer

 Data Link Layer

 Network Layer

 Transport Layer

 Session Layer

 Presentation Layer

 Application Layer

Layer 1 – Physical Layer

The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the Physical Layer. It is responsible for the
actual physical connection between the devices. The physical layer contains information in the
form of bits. Physical Layer is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the
next. When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s
and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together. Common physical
layer devices are Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables.
 Physical Layer

Functions of the Physical Layer

 Bit Synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by
providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver thus providing
synchronization at the bit level.

 Bit Rate Control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number
of bits sent per second.

 Physical Topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different, devices/nodes are
arranged in a network i.e. bus topology, star topology, or mesh topology.

 Transmission Mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows between the two
connected devices. The various transmission modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex
and full duplex.

Layer 2 – Data Link Layer (DLL)

The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message. The main
function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to another, over
the physical layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the DLL to
transmit it to the Host using its MAC address. Packet in the Data Link layer is referred to as
Frame. Switches and Bridges are common Data Link Layer devices.

The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:

 Logical Link Control (LLC)

 Media Access Control (MAC)

The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the
frame size of the NIC (Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s
MAC address in the header.

The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
request onto the wire asking, “Who has that IP address?” and the destination host will reply
with its MAC address.

Functions of the Data Link Layer

 Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to
transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by
attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the frame.

 Physical Addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical
addresses (MAC addresses) of the sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.

 Error Control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which
it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.

 Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get
corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before
receiving an acknowledgment.

 Access Control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices,

the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to determine which device has control
over the channel at a given time.

Layer 3 – Network Layer

The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in
different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to
transmit the packet, from the number of routes available. The sender and receiver’s
IP address are placed in the header by the network layer. Segment in the Network layer is
referred to as Packet. Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers and
switches.

Functions of the Network Layer

  Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to
destination. This function of the network layer is known as routing.

 Logical Addressing: To identify each device inter-network uniquely, the network layer
defines an addressing scheme. The sender and receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the
header by the network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and
universally.

Layer 4 – Transport Layer

The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from the
network layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for
the end-to-end delivery of the complete message. The transport layer also provides the
acknowledgment of the successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is
found. Protocols used in Transport Layer are TCP, UDP NetBIOS, PPTP.

At the sender’s side, the transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers,
performs Segmentation, and also implements Flow and error control to ensure proper data
transmission. It also adds Source and Destination port number in its header and forwards the
segmented data to the Network Layer.

 Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or manually. For
example, when a web application requests a web server, it typically uses port number
80, because this is the default port assigned to web applications. Many applications
have default ports assigned.

At the Receiver’s side, Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and forwards the
Data which it has received to the respective application. It also performs sequencing and
reassembling of the segmented data.

Functions of the Transport Layer

 Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session)
layer and breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the segments produced has a
header associated with it. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the
message.

 Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process, the transport
layer header includes a type of address called service point address or port address.
 Thus, by specifying this address, the transport layer makes sure that the message is
delivered to the correct process.

Services Provided by Transport Layer

 Connection-Oriented Service

 Connectionless Service

Layer 5 – Session Layer

Session Layer in the OSI Model is responsible for the establishment of connections,
management of connections, terminations of sessions between two devices. It also provides
authentication and security. Protocols used in the Session Layer are NetBIOS, PPTP.

Functions of the Session Layer

 Session Establishment, Maintenance, and Termination: The layer allows the two
processes to establish, use, and terminate a connection.

 Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are considered
synchronization points in the data. These synchronization points help to identify the
error so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut
prematurely, and data loss is avoided.

 Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with
each other in half-duplex or full duplex.

Example

Let us consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message through some Messenger
application running in their browser. The “Messenger” here acts as the application layer which
provides the user with an interface to create the data. This message or so-called Data is
compressed, optionally encrypted (if the data is sensitive), and converted into bits (0’s and 1’s)
so that it can be transmitted.
 Communication in Session Layer

Layer 6 – Presentation Layer

The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the application layer
is extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network.
Protocols used in the Presentation Layer are JPEG, MPEG, GIF, TLS/SSL, etc.

Functions of the Presentation Layer

 Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.

 Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or code.
The encrypted data is known as the ciphertext, and the decrypted data is known as plain
text. A key value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.

 Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.

Layer 7 – Application Layer

At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the Application layer which
is implemented by the network applications. These applications produce the data to be
transferred over the network. This layer also serves as a window for the application services to
access the network and for displaying the received information to the user. Protocols used in
the Application layer are SMTP, FTP, DNS, etc.
 Application Layer

Functions of the Application Layer

The main functions of the application layer are given below.

 Network Virtual Terminal (NVT): It allows a user to log on to a remote host.

 File Transfer Access and Management (FTAM): This application allows a user to
access files in a remote host, retrieve files in a remote host, and manage or control files
from a remote computer.

 Mail Services: Provide email service.

 Directory Services: This application provides distributed database sources and access
for global information about various objects and services.

How Data Flows in the OSI Model?

When we transfer information from one device to another, it travels through 7 layers of OSI
model. First data travels down through 7 layers from the sender’s end and then climbs back 7
layers on the receiver’s end.

Data flows through the OSI model in a step-by-step process:

 Application Layer: Applications create the data.

 Presentation Layer: Data is formatted and encrypted.

 Session Layer: Connections are established and managed.

 Transport Layer: Data is broken into segments for reliable delivery.

 Network Layer: Segments are packaged into packets and routed.

 Data Link Layer: Packets are framed and sent to the next device.
  Physical Layer: Frames are converted into bits and transmitted physically.

Protocols Used in the OSI Layers

Protocol Data
Layer Working Unit Protocols

Establishing Physical
1 – Physical
Connections between Bits USB, SONET/SDH, etc.
Layer
Devices.

2 – Data Link Node to Node Delivery

Frames Ethernet, PPP, etc.
Layer of Message.

Transmission of data
3 – Network from one host to another,
Packets IP, ICMP, IGMP, OSPF, etc.
Layer located in different
networks.

Take Service from Segments (for

4 – Transport Network Layer and TCP) or
TCP, UDP, SCTP, etc.
Layer provide it to the Datagrams
Application Layer. (for UDP)

Establishes Connection,
5 – Session Maintenance, Ensures
Data NetBIOS, RPC, PPTP, etc.
Layer Authentication and
Ensures security.
 Protocol Data
Layer Working Unit Protocols

Data from the application

6 – layer is extracted and
TLS/SSL, MIME, JPEG,
Presentation manipulated in the Data
PNG, ASCII, etc.
Layer required format for
transmission.

7 – Helps in identifying the

FTP, SMTP, DNS, DHCP,
Application client and synchronizing Data
etc.
Layer communication.

TCP/IP Model

Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) model is a concise version of the

OSI Model. The TCP/IP protocol suite was developed before the OSI model. But the layers in
the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match those in the OSI model.
TCP/IP Protocol

The original TCP/IP protocol uses four layers host-to-network, Internet, Transport, and
Application layer.

The host-to-network layer is equivalent to the combination of physical and data link layers in
the OSI model.

The Internet layer in TCP/IP is equivalent to the Network layer of the OSI model. And the
Application layer does the job of the Session, Presentation, and Application layers with the
Transport layer in TCP/IP.

In the TCP/IP model, the first four layers provide physical standards, network interface,
internetworking, and transport functions.

The first topmost layers (application, presentation, and session layers) in the OSI model are
represented in TCP/IP by a single layer called the application layer.

In the Transport layer, the TCP/IP model defines three protocols Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP), User Datagram Protocol (UDP), and the Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP).

TCP/IP Protocol

TCP/IP Protocol Suite to OSI Reference Model

The following diagram illustrates the mapping of the TCP/IP Protocol Suite to the OSI
Reference Model:
TCP/IP Protocol Suite to OSI Model

Layers of TCP/IP Model

1. Application Layer

In TCP/IP, the Application layer protocols provide services to the application software running
on a computer. The application layer uses HTTP, POP3, and SMTP protocols. The application
layer provides an interface between the software running on a computer and the network itself.

2. Transport Layer

In TCP/IP, the Transport layer includes transmission control protocol (TCP) and user datagram
protocol (UDP). TCP provides services to the application layer that reside above the transport
layer or higher within the TCP/IP model.

3. Internet Layer (Network Layer)

The Internet layer in the TCP/IP model is the Network Layer 3 of the OSI model. It stores the
IP addresses and the routing data. When data is transmitted from a node on one LAN to a node
on a different LAN, the Internet Layer is used. IPv4, IPv6, ICMP, and routing protocols (among
others) are the Internet Layer TCP/IP protocols.

4. Host-to-Network or Link Layer

In TCP/IP, the Host-to-Network layer is also called the network interface or link layer. It
provides services to the upper layer within the model. When a hosts or routers IP process
chooses to send an IP packet to a different router or host, that host or router then uses the link-
layer details to send that packet to the next host/router.

This layer is the lowermost layer of the TCP/IP model; it is concerned with the physical
transmission of data. It is like a combination of the data link layer and physical layer of the OSI
model.