Differential Amplifier Overview

Sakshi Arora, IIIT-B

August 21, 2025

1 Why Differential Amplifier?

A differential amplifier is a key part of many electronic circuits. Its main job
is to take the difference between two signals and make it bigger. This ability is
especially useful in error amplifiers, where it can take a small difference (or error)
and amplify it. They are also a core part of operational amplifiers (opamps),
which are used in a lot of different devices.

Figure 1: Diffamp Topology

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2 What is Differential Mode (DM) and Com-
mon Mode (CM)?
Differential Mode (DM):
In Differential Mode, the amplifier responds to the difference between the two
input voltages, Vip (inverting input) and Vim (non-inverting input). The output
signal is a function of Vid , which is the difference Vip − Vim . Differential Mode
amplification is used to highlight the difference in input signals while ignoring
common noise or interference.
Common Mode (CM):
In Common Mode, the amplifier responds to the average of the two input volt-
ages. It amplifies signals that are common to both inputs, Vip and Vim . The
common mode voltage is given by:
Vip + Vim
Vic =
2
The amplifier’s output in Common Mode is typically minimized to reject any
noise or interference that is present equally on both inputs.
Mathematical Expressions:
• Differential Mode Voltage:

Vid = Vip − Vim

• Common Mode Voltage:

Vip + Vim
Vic =
2

These expressions help in understanding how the differential amplifier pro-

cesses signals and separates the useful signal from unwanted noise.

3 Compute Large Signal Transfer Function

Definitions and Goals
Differential Output Current (Iod ) Iod represents the differential output
current of the amplifier. It is the difference between the drain currents of the
two transistors in the differential pair:

Iod = Id1 − Id2

where Id1 and Id2 are the drain currents of the first and second transistor,
respectively.

2
Differential Input Voltage (Vid ) Vid is the voltage difference between the
inputs of the differential amplifier:

Vid = Vip − Vim

where Vip and Vim are the voltages at the positive and negative input terminals,
respectively.

Overdrive Voltage (Vov ) Vov (also called Vgs − Vt ) is the overdrive voltage
of the transistors. It is the difference between the gate-source voltage (Vgs ) and
the threshold voltage (Vt ):
Vov = Vgs − Vt

Tail Current (Itail ) Itail is the current supplied to the tail node of the dif-
ferential pair. It is the total current flowing through the source degeneration
resistors (if any) or the current source connected to the tail of the differential
pair.

Goal
Our goal is to find:
1
β A2 − B 2


Iod = Id1 − Id2 =
2
where:
A = Vgs1 − Vt and B = Vgs2 − Vt
and
1
β A2 + B 2


Itail = Id1 + Id2 =
2
and
Vid = A − B

Derivation of A2 − B 2
Given:
2
A2 + B 2 = · Itail
β
A − B = Vid

1. Find A2 − B 2
A2 − B 2 = (A + B)(A − B)
Substitute A − B = Vid :

A2 − B 2 = (A + B) · Vid

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2. Squaring Vid
Vid2 = (A − B)2 = A2 − 2AB + B 2

2
3. Express A2 + B 2 in terms of β
and Itail
2
A2 + B 2 = · Itail
β
2
Vid2 = · Itail − 2AB
β

4. Solve for 2AB

2
2AB = · Itail − Vid2
β

5. Find A + B
(A + B)2 = A2 + 2AB + B 2
2 2
Substitute A2 + B 2 = β · Itail and 2AB = β · Itail − Vid2 :
 
2 2
(A + B)2 = · Itail + · Itail − Vid2
β β
Simplify:
4
(A + B)2 = · Itail − Vid2
β
Thus: r
4
A+B = · Itail − Vid2
β

6. Combine to find A2 − B 2
Substitute A + B into the expression:
r
4
A2 − B 2 = Vid · · Itail − Vid2
β

7. Final Expression for Iod

Thus, the differential output current Iod can be expressed as:
β
A2 − B 2


Iod =
2
Substitute A2 − B 2 :
r
β 4
Iod = · Vid · · Itail − Vid2
2 β

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Relationship Between Iod and Itail
From the relationship:
Itail β 2
= · Vov
2 2
we can express Iod in terms of Itail as follows:
s  2
Iod Vid Vid
= · 1−
Itail Vov 2Vov

Plotting the Characteristic

The characteristic plot of IItail
od
versus VVov
id
is shown below. This graph high-
lights the clamping behavior of the differential amplifier’s large-signal transfer
function. Special cases are indicated:

• When Vid = 0, Iod

= 0, indicating no differential current.
Itail
√
• When IItail
od
= ±1, Vid = ±Vov 2, representing the maximum current
steering.

4 Large Signal Plot

Iod Vid
Figure 2: Characteristic plot of Itail versus Vov

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5 What is the Transconductance Gm of the Dif-
famp?
The transconductance Gm of the differential amplifier is defined as:
dIod
Gm =
dVid
For a differential amplifier, the differential output current Iod is given by:
 r 
β 4
Iod = Vid · · Itail − Vid2
2 β
To find Gm , differentiate Iod with respect to Vid :
  r 
d β 4
Gm = Vid · · Itail − Vid2
dVid 2 β
Let:
r
4
f (Vid ) = · Itail − Vid2
β
Then:
 
dIod β df (Vid )
= f (Vid ) + Vid ·
dVid 2 dVid
Where:

df (Vid ) Vid
= −q
dVid 4 2
β · Itail − Vid

Substitute:
 
2
r
dIod β 4 V id
= · Itail − Vid2 − q 
dVid 2 β 4
· I − V 2
β tail id

At Vid = 0:
β 2Itail Itail
Gm = · =
2 β · Vov Vov
Thus:
Itail
Gm =
Vov

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6 Does the Tail Node Move?
Consider a differential amplifier with two transistors M1 and M2 with their
sources connected to a current source Itail . The tail node voltage Vtail can be
derived as follows:

6.1 Transistor Drain Current Equations

For a transistor operating in saturation, the drain current ID is given by:
 
1 ′ W
ID = k (VGS − VT )2
2 L
For each transistor M1 and M2 , the gate-source voltages are:
Vid
VGS1 = Vic + − Vtail
2
Vid
VGS2 = Vic − − Vtail
2
The drain current for each transistor in saturation is given by:
1 2
ID1 = β (VGS1 − VT )
2
1 2
ID2 = β (VGS2 − VT )
2
Since ID1 + ID2 = Itail :
1 2 1 2
β (VGS1 − VT ) + β (VGS2 − VT ) = Itail
2 2
Substituting VGS1 and VGS2 :
 2  2
1 Vid 1 Vid
β Vic + − Vtail − VT + β Vic − − Vtail − VT = Itail
2 2 2 2
Define:
A = Vic − VT − Vtail
Then:  2  2
Vid Vid 2Itail
A+ + A− =
2 2 β
Expanding the squares:
2
V2

Vid
A+ = A2 + Vid A + id
2 4
2
Vid2

Vid
A− = A2 − Vid A +
2 4

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 Adding these:
2 2
V2
 
Vid Vid
A+ + A− = 2A2 + id
2 2 2

Substitute into the current equation:

Vid2 2Itail
2A2 + =
2 β

Solve for A2 :
2Itail V2
2A2 = − id
β 2
Itail V2
A2 = − id
β 4
s
Itail V2
A= − id
β 4
Relate A to Vov :
2 Itail
Vov =
β
V2
A2 = Vov
2
− id
4
s
V2
A = Vov 1 − id2
Vov
Finally: s
Vid2
Vtail = Vic − VT − Vov 1− 2
Vov
Which is close to AC ground.

7 AC Analysis
Transconductance Expressions
• Single-Stage Amplifier:
2ID
gm =
Vov
• Differential Amplifier:
Itail
gm =
Vov

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 Figure 3: Diffamp CM

7.1 Small-Signal Model

For small AC signals, we replace the transistors with their small-signal models.
The tail current source Itail is ideal and provides a constant current.

7.1.1 Small-Signal Gain

The small-signal output current difference between the two transistors M1 and
M2 is given by:
iod = id1 − id2

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 Figure 4: Diffamp DM

where  
Vid
id1 = gm
2
 
Vid
id2 = −gm
2

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 Figure 5: Diffamp Topology

Thus,     
Vid Vid
iod = gm − −gm = gm · Vid
2 2
The small-signal voltage gain Av of the differential amplifier is:
Vout
Av =
Vid
where Vout is the voltage across the load resistance RL due to the differential
current iod :
Vout = iod · RL = gm · Vid · RL
Therefore, the small-signal voltage gain is:
Vout
Av = = gm · RL
Vid

7.1.2 Evaluate Vod

The differential output voltage Vod is given by:
Vod = iod · RL
Substituting the expression for iod :
Vod = gm · Vid · RL

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7.2 Small-Signal Impedance
The impedance of the current source Itail can be represented as an ideal current
source with infinite impedance:

Ztail ≈ ∞
This means that the voltage at the tail node Vtail does not change signifi-
cantly due to AC signals because the current source does not allow for significant
variations in current.

8 Small Signal Differential Equivalent Circuit

9 Common Mode Gain
The common mode gain ACM of a differential amplifier can be expressed as:
Vout,CM
ACM =
VCM
For a specific configuration, the common mode gain ACM is given by:
gm Rd
ACM =
1 + gm Rtail
where: - gm is the transconductance. - Rd is the load resistance. - Rtail is
the resistance in the tail of the current source.
where gm2 is the transconductance of the second stage or specific transistor,
and Rtail is the tail resistance.
These expressions highlight the dependence of the common mode gain on
various parameters of the amplifier circuit.

10 Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)

The Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) is defined as the ratio of the
differential gain to the common mode gain:
AV D
CMRR =
ACM
where AV D is the differential gain and ACM is the common mode gain.
For a differential amplifier, the differential gain AV D can be expressed as:
gm Rd
AV D =
1 + 2gm Rtail
And the common mode gain ACM can be expressed as:
gm Rd
ACM =
1 + 2gm Rtail

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 Thus, the CMRR is:
g m Rd
AV D 1+2gm Rtail gm Rd
CMRR = = g m Rd
= g m Rd
ACM 1+2gm Rtail 1+2gm Rtail

Simplifying this gives:

CMRR = 1 + 2gm Rtail

where: - gm is the transconductance. - Rd is the load resistance. - Rtail is
the tail resistance.
This expression shows how the CMRR depends on the transconductance and
the tail resistance of the amplifier.

11 Differential Mode to Single-Ended Output/Single-

Ended Operational Transconductance Am-
plifier (OTA)

In a single-ended operational transconductance amplifier (OTA), the output

current Iout can be derived from the input differential voltage Vid as follows:
The current generated by the differential pair is:
 
Vid
Idiff = gm −
2
The current generated by the current mirror is:

13
  
Vid
Imirror = gm
2
Adding these currents together, the total output current is:

Iout = Idiff + Imirror

Substituting the expressions for Idiff and Imirror :
   
Vid Vid
Iout = gm − + gm
2 2
Simplifying, we get:

Iout = gm · Vid

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 Table 1: Comparison of Single-Stage and Differential Amplifiers
Aspect Single-Stage Amplifier Differential Amplifier
Noise Immunity Lower noise immunity; Higher noise immu-
more susceptible to nity; better rejection of
common-mode noise. common-mode noise due
to differential operation.
Gain (Small Sig- Higher gain compared to Lesser gain for same
nal) differential amplifier. Iq: Gm=Itail/Vov vs.
2Itail/Vov for CS am-
plifer..

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Example 1: Differential-Amplifier Analysis
Consider the differential amplifier circuit shown below:

Problem Statement:
1. Show the differential-mode half circuit and derive the expression for Adm
of the differential amplifier. You don’t have to show the small signal model or
equations.
2. Show the common-mode half circuit and derive the expression for Acm of
the differential amplifier.
3. What is the Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) of the cir-
cuit?

Solution:
Half circuits for DM and CM are shown below.
For DM, assume the tail node is ac-grounded. And for CM half circuit, all
5 transsitors are th

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 Figure 6: DM Half circuit Figure 7: CM Half circuit

Output Impedance for Adm:

- Looking up: gm ro2 (cascoded FETs).
- Looking down: ro .

Zout = ro ||gm ro2

If gm ro2 ≫ ro , then:
Zout ≈ ro
Output Impedance for Acm:
- Looking up: gm ro2 (cascoded FETs).
- Looking down: gm ro · gm ro2 = gm
2 3
ro .
Thus, the overall output impedance is:

Zout = gm ro2 ||gm

2 3
ro

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 2 3
If gm ro ≫ gm ro2 , then:
Zout ≈ gm ro2
1. Differential Mode Gain Adm :

Adm = −gm ro ||gm ro2 ≈ −gm ro

2. Common Mode Gain Acm (Please refer to the notes: we have just changed
the load to (gm ro2 ) and tail resistance to also (gm ro2 ):
2 2
 
gm 2

gm ro
Acm = − · gm ro = −
1 + 2gm (gm ro2 ) 1 + 2gm2 r2
o

3. CMRR Calculation:
Adm −gm ro
CMRR = = 2 r2
gm
Acm − 1+2g o
2 r2
m o

2 2


gm ro · 1 + 2gm ro 2 2
1 + 2gm ro
CMRR = 2 2
=
gm ro gm ro

CMRR ≈ 2gm ro

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Example 2: Differential-Amplifier Analysis:II
Consider the single ended differential amplifier circuit shown below:

Problem Statement:
1. Derive the expression for the gain, (Ad ) = (Vout )/ (Vid ) of the differential-
to-single ended differential amplifier. Note that unlike the differential output
we studied in the class, the output is not differential and tapped from the right
branch. You may choose to make the small-signal model for this circuit but
remember that since the circuit is not symmetrical, you cannot split it into
differential or common-mode half circuit.
2. Given that we want a gain of 30 and Iq of 100 uA as the tail current, size
the Diffamp FETs (not the current mirror)? Please assume that rop =ron and
gm/Id of 10 for all FETs.

Solution
We will analyze the circuit without explicitly drawing small-signal model first
and then in part 2, using small-signal model.

Analysis Method 1
1. The final gain of the OTA is given by
Ad = Gm · rout , where rout = rop ||rop

Net few steps will find Gm and rout

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 2. Define the input voltage difference as

vid = vip − vim

vid
We can inject 2 to the left and − v2id to the right FET gate.
3. The currents through the two branches are
vid vid
gm and − gm
2 2
The current in the left branch gets mirrored via Pload . Thus, the total
current through rout is
vid vid
gm (from the top) and − (−gm ) from the bottom.
2 2
The net current is then
vid vid
gm + gm = gm vid .
2 2

4. Overall gain:
Ad = Gm · rout = gm · (rop ||ron ).

The implicit assumption here was 1/gm is much smaller than ro, which
helped us assume that all of the left MOS current gets mirrored.

Small Signal Analysis:

1. Voltage vx :
 
vid 1 vid 1
vx = −gmn · ||ron ≈ −gmn ·
2 gmp 2 gmp

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 2. Current iy :
 
vid 1 vid
iy = −gmp vx = +gmp gm · = gm
2 gmp 2

3. Output Voltage vout :

vid  vid 
vout = gm − −gm · (rop ||ron )
2 2
3. Output Voltage vout :
 
gm −gm
Ad = − · (rop ||ron ) = gm (rop ||ron )
2 2

1. Device Sizing using techplots:

gm · rout = 30 =⇒ gm · rop = 60

From techplots, we have the lengths: - PMOS length: LP M OS = 360 nm -

NMOS length: LN M OS = 720 nm
2. Given ID = 50 µA (which is Iq /2) for both the PMOS and NMOS devices:
- PMOS Width Calculation:
ID 50 µA
= 3.5 =⇒ WP = ≈ 14.29 µm
WP 3.5
- NMOS Width Calculation:
ID 50 µA
= 6 =⇒ WN = ≈ 8.33 µm
WN 6

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Example 3: Differential Amplifier Analysis
For the differential amplifier topology shown in the fig 3, please assume that the
DC-biasing exists but is not shown. Answer the following:

Figure 8: Differential Amplifier Topology

• 1. Draw the Differential Half-Circuit

• 2. Draw the Common-Mode Half-Circuit

• 3. Small Signal Differential Mode Gain
• 4. Small Signal Common Mode Gain
• 5. Low-Frequency CMRR

• 6. Plot CMRR with Varying Frequencies

Revision Points
To answer this question, review the following concepts:

• Differential and common-mode small signal analysis

• Calculation of differential and common-mode gains
• Derivation and interpretation of CMRR

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