Precision Machine Design- Flexure Hinge Design

Flexure hinge mechanism is one of high effective and precise

mechanism within the limed range of motion.

An effective method for achieving a motion having small range

but with most precise control is to apply a force to an elastic
mechanism of known stiffness. This is a different concept from
techniques using kinematic design or elastic averaging design
for achieving the high precision, because the driving force is
never applied directly against the stiffness in them, although
the driving force needs to overcome the friction.

The pros and cons of the flexure hinge or the elastic

mechanism are as follows;

Pros; (Advantage)

1) Ideal for ultra-precision motion of small stroke with fine

resolution; the flexure hinge uses the elasticity for motion
generation, thus very high precise motion can be
obtained up to angstrom level resolution depending on
actuator.

2) Friction free motion: friction is one of difficulties when

very precise motion is required, even with well lubricated
rolling bearings. The flexure hinge provides the elastic
 motion due to the elastic deformation that is coming
from the distance change between atoms, without giving
any friction forces noticeable.

3) Smooth and continuous motion: this is another

characteristics of friction free motion, because it does not
make any stick-slip or discontinuity during the motion.

4) Wear free motion: because there is no sliding or rolling

parts, this flexure hinge provides wear free, thus
lubrication, replacing of worn parts are not needed, thus
service free operating is possible.

Cons; (Disadvantage)

1) Limited range of motion: very small range of motion

within the elastic range, typically from few tens of
microns to few millimeters.

2) Limited force and stiffness in the driving direction:

Because the elastic deformation of flexure is engaged,
the stiffness and force in the driving direction are
relatively small when compared to other actuating
methods of high rigidity. Thus force and stiffness in the
driving direction are quite small, and it can be quite weak
to the external vibrations of disturbing.
 3) Lifetime or durability can be low; because it uses the
repeated elastic deformation utilizing the full elastic
range, thus it is exposed to fatigue and catastrophic
failure, where the allowable fatigue strength should be
carefully chosen as quite low, accommodating the
relatively large strain and stress concentration factor.
Thus the allowable stress or strain can be reduced further.

4) Motion is much depending on material characteristics

such as Young’s modulus, work-hardening, and they are
also varying with temperatures of operation.

Leaf type linear spring

The cantilever of thin plate is one of the simple flexure

mechanism;

δ=FL3/3EI and θ=FL2/2EI at end

where E=Young’s modulus,

I=area moment of inertial=bt3/12, and b is width, t is the

thickness of plate,

Stiffness, K, is

K=F/δ=3EI/L3

The arch shape of deflected cantilever is very strange to use

for motion control due to the nonlinearity, and the angle θ
experienced at the end is never desirable because it may
generate undesirable Abbe error when a device or instrument
is attached at the end. In order to minimize or cancel the angle
deformation. Thus a coupled force can be applied to negate
the nonlinearities at the offset of S as in the fig.

F δ=FL3/12EI and θ=0 at end

S=L/2

Thus the rotation angle θ is cancelled by the superposition of

moment, FL/2, at the end, and the stiffness, K is,

K=F/δ=12EI/L3

It is four times increased than the cantilever case. This

mechanism is enhanced, but it may have still instability
because small misalignment of force in direction or location
may lead large parasitic deflection that is a kind of unwanted
motion.

This situation can be improved if one or more plates are

symmetrically superposed in parallel as in fig.

Due to the symmetrically superposed plates, the y rotation

angle at the end becomes zero due to the fixing of parallel
plates; and the torsional stiffness of z rotational axis is greatly
increased due to the increased polar moment of inertia of
plates. This mechanism is a type of parallelogram motion
spring, and sometimes is called as the single leaf type linear
spring. Also, the stiffness in x direction becomes as twice as
the previous one, assuming the split section is small.

K= F/δ=24EI/L3

Please note there exists a parasitic motion, h, in the z direction,

which is a kind of unwanted motion.
Single leaf type linear spring

(source: Smith’s Ultra precision mechanism design)

The unwanted parasitic motion also can be removed by

symmetric superposition of leaf spring in compound form as
in the fig., where the parasitic motion becomes zero or very
little, as the top and bottom cancel each other for the parasitic
motion. The superposition leads to decrease the stiffness in
the driving direction by half when compared to the single leaf
type linear spring, as they are serially connected. Thus,

K= F/δ=12EI/L3
Compound leaf type linear spring

(source: Smith’s ultra precision mechanism design)

This mechanism is called as compound leaf type linear spring,

and are commonly used for single axis drive mechanism using
the leaf type springs, as it can provide virtually no parasitic
error motion.

Notch hinge structure

An alternative mechanism for flexure hinge is to use the notch

spring or notch hinge, in which several notch holes are
manufactured onto the solid structure to have functioning as
the flexure mechanism.

Comparisons can be made between the notch hinge and the

leaf spring.

For the notch hinge;

1) It is well suited to monolithic structure for higher

precision due to simple manufacturing holes or notches
onto the monolithic structure; while the bolting, screwing,
welding, etc. are required during the assembly for the
leaf spring.

2) It has very good agreement between the theoretical

analysis and experiment for the flexure characteristics;
while about 30% discrepancy is typically observed
between the theory and experiment for the cantilever
parts.

3) Easy manufacturing via EDM, drilling, or turning; while

screwing, bolting, welding, fastening for leaf spring; thus
the notch hinge is of cost efficiency with compact/simple
design.

4) Stronger bucking resistance due to shorter length in thin

section when compared to the leaf spring

5) Notch location equals to the flexing position, while only

the notch part is flexing and the rest section is quite flat
for the leaf spring.Notch hinge gives more flexible design.
A Notch Hinge

R b

M t M h=2R+t

When E is the young’s modulus of elasticity for the material,

1) h≒2R+t ; when the notch is close to half circle

Rotation angle, θ= 9πR1/2M/[2Ebt5/2]

Thus Angular stiffness, λθ

λθ=M/θ=2Ebt5/2/[9πR1/2] eq(1) (by Paros and Weisbord)

2) t<R<5t

Angular stiffness, λθ=M/θ=Ebt3/[24KR] eq(2)

where K=0.565t/R=0.166 (by Smith etal.)

Maximum stress, σmax, is observed at the top part of hinge,

σmax = KtM(t/2)/[bt3/12]=KtM/[bt2/6]

where Kt is the stress concentration factor for the circular notch

shape, and Kt=0.325+[2.7t+5.4R]/[t+8R]
For the allowable maximum stress, σmax , the allowable
maximum moment, Mmax, is

Mmax=bt2σmax/[6Kt]

Thus the maximum allowable angle, θmax, is

θmax=Mmax/λθ

= 9πR1/2Mmax/[2Ebt5/2] for h≒2R+t

= 24KRMmax/[Ebt3] for t<R<5t

The right tip of the notch hinge will experience the maximum
deflection qmax relative to the left end of the notch hinge,

qmax=Lθmax

where L is the distance from the notch centre to the right tip.

Multi directional flexure hinge

The notch flexure hinge can generate the angular motion in

the perpendicular direction to the plane of force. Thus when
multi directional motion is desired, the notch flexure of
another axis can be superposed or added to give the desired
motion as in fig.

The circular flexure hinge can be used for the universal

direction of motion as in the fig.

Two axis notch hinge and universal circular hinge

(source: Smith’s ultraprexision mechanism design)

Circular flexure hinge, or, Flexure for universal direction

M t M D=2R+t

When monolithic material is cylinder instead of cuboid, the

circular notch can be manufactured by turning. Then direction
of bending can be any direction as it just follows the direction
of force. This is called as circular notch flexure hinge or
universal flexure hinge due to its all directional bending. This
flexure is useful to the situation where actuation is required
under which some misalignments are occurring such as in
driving section by PZT actuator, thus the misalignment can be
compensated by the universal flexure hinge like universal joint
for the power transmission.

In this case, the rotation angle and moment relationship can

be similarly derived as,

θ=20MR1/2/[Et7/2], and angular stiffness λθ is

λθ=Et7/2/[20R1/2]

Sensitivity analysis for notch hinge

It is of interest to assess the sensitivity analysis for the notch

hinge. When there are variations in the dimensions or material
property for the hinge, it affects to the stiffness of hinge, and
it can be derived from eq(1)

λθ=M/θ=2Ebt5/2/[9πR1/2] eq(1)

δλ=(∂λ/∂E)δE+(∂λ/∂b)δb+(∂λ/∂t)δt+(∂λ/∂R)δR eq(10)

As ∂λ/∂E=λ/E, ∂λ/∂b=λ/b, ∂λ/∂t=(5/2)λ/t, ∂λ/∂R=(-1/2)λ/R;

Thus from eq(10),

δλ/λ=δE/E+δb/b+(5/2)δt/t-(1/2)δR/R
As a maximum case, the total contribution is from the sum of
absolute value of individual factors, thus

|δλ/λ|=|δE/E|+|δb/b|+(5/2)|δt/t|+(1/2)|δR/R|

Or a most probable case, the total contribution is from the

square root of sum of squares of the individual factors. Thus,

δλ/λ=[(δE/E)2+(δb/b)2+(5/2)2(δt/t)2+(1/2)2(δR/R)2]1/2

The thickness variation, δt/t, greatly affects to the stiffness

variation of the hinge, thus strict dimensional control for the
thickness is needed.

Energy Method for Static Analysis

As the flexures are of purely elastic motion, the energy method

can be applied to give the static analysis such as stiffness.

Let U be the total elastic energy stored in structure or

mechanism, and it is a function deflection qi such that
U=U(q1,q2..qn ), where qi (for i=1,2..n) are the deflections(or
angles) at the ith location of structure, and Fi (for i=1,2..n) are
the external forces(or moments) applied to give qi deflection.
 Load

F C=ΣqiδFi=∫qdF

U=ΣFiδqi=∫Fdq

Deflection

C=Complementary energy=∫qdF; thus q=∂C/∂F

: by Engesser(1889), no physical meaning,

but just for mathematical convenience

U=Strain energy=∫Fdq; thus F=∂U/∂q

: Physical strain energy stored

For linear, elastic material; C=U

∴No difference between them,

Thus completely interchangeable such that

q=∂U/∂F (Castigliano’s theorem), or

F=∂U/∂q (Virtual Work or Energy method)

The energy method gives the relationship between the

deflection and the forces such as,
Fi=∂U/∂qi for i=1,2..n

Thus stiffness λi at the Fi location can be obtained as

λi =Fi/qi for i=1,2..n

The energy method can provide a very efficient tool for the
calculation of stiffness comprising of complex
structures/mechanism behaving in the elastic region.

Mobility or Kinematic analysis for DOFs

A kinematic system can consist of N elements with J joints,

where the elements are not deforming thus rigid, and joints
provide constraints to restrict the DOF(Degree of Freedom) of
the system.

One free element can have maximum 6 DOFs in a space, and

one element should be fixed for reference of motion, thus the
maximum DOFs what the system can have is 6(N-1) for N
elements.

The joint is for constraining the system, and the number of

constraints for the joint, c, will be the 6 minus the number of
freedom of that joint, f, such that ci=6-fi for i=1 to J joints

The total DOFs what the kinematic system can have will be;
Total DOFs=6(N-1) - Σci (for i=1 to J)

=6(N-1) – Σ (6- fi) (for i=1 to J)

The above equation provides very useful for the mobility

analysis of general kinematic structures. For the plane
mechanism, this equation reduces to

DOFs in 2D=3(N-1)-2J

This is called as Grubler’s equation, and is because the

maximum DOFs what the plane mechanisn can have will be 3
for each element, and number of constraints will be 2 for each
joint such that δx, δy are constrained while θ is free for a hinge
joint. For example four bar linkage system, N=number of
elements=4, J=number of joints=4; the DOFs what the four
bar linkage can have will be 3(4-1)-2(4)=1, and thus it is only
for one DOF free. The Grubler’s equation is very useful to
analyze the mobility whether the system is kinematically
constrained, over-constrained, or under-constrained.

Dynamic analysis

Dynamic analysis is required to give the dynamic

characteristics such as natural frequency of the mechanism.
There are mainly two reasons for dynamic analysis:
1) Fast servo time, or fast response of system is desirable to
give the high precision motion control, because the
smallest increment of motion can be run during the
shortest time interval, Δt. The time interval, Δt, can be
usually chosen as 1/2-1/3 of the fundamental period (or
the inverse of natural frequency) of the system, in order
to avoid biasing.

2) The system capability of isolation from the vibration

disturbance is very important to the ultra-precision
motion control. When the natural frequency is quite high,
and the disturbing vibration frequency is lower than the
natural frequency, the system will not experience the
resonance. When the disturbing frequency is high and is
close to the natural frequency of the system, the energy
of disturbing frequency is very low, thus the resonance
cannot happen easily. Thus it is very good practice to
have the system’s natural frequency higher. Thus the
higher the natural frequency, the higher the capability of
vibration isolation. It is the golden rule for the precision
mechanism of higher performance, being isolated from
external vibration disturbance.
For the system having potential energy and kinetic energy, the
Lagrangean principle can be applied to give the efficient
dynamic analysis.

Let Fi , qi (i=1,2..n) be the force and displacement experienced

at the sub-system i, and mi is the mass of the sub-system in
the mechanism.

The Kinetic energy, T, is the sum of kinetic energy of sub-

syetem of mass, mi

T=Σmi(dqi/dt)2/2, for i=1,2..n eq(20)

The potential energy or elastic energy, U, is the sum of the

elastic energy of sub-system, whose stiffness is Ki in the qi
direction.

U=ΣKiqi2/2, for i=1,2..n eq(21)

The Lagrangean, L, is derived as T-U such as

L=T-U eq(22)

Then the motion of equation of the each sub-system is given

by the Lagrangean equation;

d[∂L/∂(dqi/dt)]/dt - ∂L/∂qi=Fi for i=1,2..n eq(23)

Eq(20) and (23) lead to the motion of equations for every sub-
system in the mechanism.

Simple notch type spring

When the notches are symmetrically superposed like the

simple leaf type linear spring as in fig, it becomes a simple
type notch spring, providing smooth motion into qi direction
under the force applied to the direction. Please also note that
it can give some parasitic motion in the vertical direction due
to the rotations of four hinges.

Simple notch type linear spring

(source: Smith’s Ultraprecision mechanism design)

Mobility analysis

Considering the number of elements=4, and the number of

joints equals to the number of notches=4. Thus allowable
DOFs=3(4-1)-2(4)=1. Therefore this mechanism provides 1
DOF, and it is kinematically constrained for the 1 DOF motion
into the q1 direction.

Static analysis

Assume F is applied to the mechanism along the q1 direction,

then the moment of FL is input to the mechanism, and the
moment is assumed as equally allocated to each hinge (or
notch) due to the symmetry. Thus the moment of FL/4 is
applied to each notch, giving the angular deflection, θ=M/λθ,
giving the elastic energy storage of 0.5λθθ2. Thus the total
elastic energy, U, stored in the mechanism will be four times
of this, thus

U=4(0.5)λθθ2=2λθθ2=2λθ(q1/L)2

Applying the energy method,

F=∂U/∂q1=4λθq1/L2

Thus stiffness in the q1 direction, K1, is

K1=F/q1=4λθ/L2 [N/m]
where λθ is the angular stiffness of one notch given by
eq(1),eq(2).

This simple notch spring generate the parasitic motion in the

vertical direction, and it would be δ=L(1-cosθ) downward,
where θ is the angle of rotation experienced at a notch.

Dynamic analysis

Kinetic energy:

When m is the mass of the notched element of length, L , the

kinetic energy of the mechanism can be considered as sum of
kinetic energy of top part of mass, M and two hinge parts of
mass, m, respectively, while the base is stationary.

Thus kinetic energy, T, is

T=M(dq1/dt)2/2+ I(dq1/dt/L)2/2 + I(dq1/dt/L)2/2

Where I=mass moment of inertia of hinge part about the axis

of bottom hinge=mL2/12+m(L/2)2 = mL2/3

Thus T= M(dq1/dt)2/2+I(dq1/dt/L)2/2+ I(dq1/dt/L)2/2

=[M+2m/3](dq1/dt)2/2

The potential or strain energy, U

U=sum of elastic energy equally stored in the four hinges

=λθθ2/2+ λθθ2/2+ λθθ2/2+ λθθ2/2

=2λθ(q1/L)2 where λθ is defined as above.

The Lagrangean, L

L=T-U= [M+2m/3](dq1/dt)2/2 - 2λθ(q1/L)2

∂L/∂(dq1/dt)=[M+2m/3](dq1/dt)

d[∂L/∂(dq1/dt)]/dt=(M+2m/3)d2q1/dt2

∂L/∂q1=-4λθq1/L2

Thus the motion of equation for q1 is

(M+2m/3)d2q1/dt2 +4λθq1/L2 = F

When F=0, it gives the fundamental response of q1 of the

mechanism. Thus

(M+2m/3)d2q1/dt2 +4λθq1/L2=0

Therefore the natural frequency, ωn, of the mechanism can be

obtained as follows;

ωn=[4λθ/L2/(M+2m/3)]1/2 [rad/sec]
Compound notch type spring

Compound notch type linear spring (source: Smith’s Ultraprecison

mechanism design)

The notched hinge structure can be added (or symmetrically

superposed) as shown in fig, then it can give improved flexure
hinge structure that is much similar to the compound leaf type
linear spring, giving zero parasitic motion, but with the less
stiffness in the driving direction when compared to the simple
notch type linear spring.

Mobility analysis

There are 7 elements including base fixed, and 8 joints (hinges);

thus N=7, J=8
From Grubler’s equation for plane mechanism,

DOF=3(N-1)-2J=3(7-1)-2(8)=18-16=2

This mechanism provides 2 DOFs such as q1 and q2;

Although there exists 2 DOFs along the driving direction, they

can be related by q1=q2/2 if the applied force F1 becomes zero
due to the symmetric structure, as it is explained in the static
analysis

Static Analysis

Stiffness Calculation

Let F1 , F2 be the forces applied to the q1, q2 displacement,

respectively.

For the hinges connected between the top parts and base, the
angle of rotation, θ1, due to the q1 displacement become
θ1=q1/L, where L is the length of hinged part.

For the hinges connected between the top parts and bottom
parts, the angle of rotation, θ2, become

θ2=(q2-q1)/L

The total elastic energy, U, stored the in the mechanism is the

sum of the elastic energy stored in the 8 hinges.

U= λθθ12/2 X 4+ λθθ22/2 X 4

=2λθq12/L2 + 2λθ(q2-q1)2/L2

Applying the energy method to obtain the force F1 and F2;

F1=∂U/∂q1=4λθq1/L2 + 4λθ(q2-q1)(-1)/L2

=4λθ(2q1-q2)/L2=0 if there is no force applied to the q1

Thus q1=q2/2, and it is the same result as we expect, due to

the symmetry of structure.

F2=∂U/∂q2=4λθ(q2-q1)/L2=4λθ(q2/2)/L2=2λθq2/L2

Thus the Stiffness, K2, in the driving direction of q2 , becomes

K2=F2/q2=2λθ/L2

Thus the stiffness in the driving direction becomes half of the

simple notch spring, but the vertical parasitic motions are
cancelled for the bottom moving part, when compared to the
simple notch spring case.

Dynamic Analysis

Let M1, M2 be the mass of top part and bottom part,

respectively, and m is the mass of hinged part.

Kinetic Energy

Top part: M1(dq1/dt)2/2

Bottom part: M2[dq2/dt]2/2

For the one hinged part connected between base and top:

m[dq1/dt/2]2/2 + I[dq1/dt/L]2/2 eq(30)

where I=mass moment of inertial of one hinged part about

axis of rotation centered=mL2/12
Eq(30) becomes

=(m/4+m/12)(dq1/dt)2/2=(m/3)(dq1/dt)2/2

and the kinetic energy for the two hinged parts

=(2m/3)(dq1/dt)2/2=(m/3)(dq1/dt)2

One hinged part connected between the top moving part and
bottom moving part:

m[d{q1+(q2-q1)/2}/dt]2/2 + I[d(q2-q1)/dt/L]2/2

=m[d(q1+q2)/dt]2/8 + m[d(q2-q1)/dt]2/24

Thus for two hinged parts

=m[d(q1+q2)/dt]2/4 + m[d(q2-q1)/dt]2/12

Thus the total kinetic energy, T

= M1(dq1/dt)2/2+M2[dq2/dt]2/2

+(m/3)(dq1/dt)2+m[d(q1+q2)/dt]2/4 + m[d(q2-q1)/dt]2/12
Potential or strain energy, U

Potential energy, U, is the same as the static analysis, and

U=2λθq12/L2 + 2λθ(q2-q1)2/L2

Lagrangean, L=T-U

For q1 displacement,

∂L/∂(dq1/dt)=M1(dq1/dt)

+(2m/3)(dq1/dt)+(m/2)[d(q1+q2)/dt]+(m/6)[d(q2-q1)/dt(-1)]

=M1dq1/dt+4m/3(dq1/dt)+(m/3)(dq2/dt)

∂L/∂q1=-[4λθq1+4λθ(q2-q1)(-1)]/L2=-4λθ(2q1-q2)/L2

Thus

(M1+4m/3)d2q1/dt2+(m/3)d2q2/dt2+4λθ(2q1-q2)/L2

=F1=0 if homogeneous solution eq(31)

For q2 displacement;

∂L/∂(dq2/dt)=M2dq2/dt+(m/2)[d(q1+q2)/dt]

+(m/6)[d(q2-q1)/dt]=(M2+2m/3)dq2/dt+m/3dq1/dt

∂L/∂q2=-4λθ(q2-q1)/L2
Thus

(m/3)d2q1/dt2+(M2+2m/3)d2q2/dt2-4λθ(q2-q1)/L2

=F2=0 if homogeneous solution; eq(32)

Eq(31),(32) give the motion of equations, and they are the

second order differential equations.

Let q1=c1exp( jωt), q2=c2exp( jωt);

then d2q1/dt2=-ω2q1 and d2q2/dt2=-ω2q2

From eq(31)

(M1+4m/3)d2q1/dt2+(m/3)d2q2/dt2+4λθ(2q1-q2)/L2

=[-(M1+4m/3)ω2+8λθ/L2]q1+[-(m/3)ω2-4λθ/L2]q2=0 eq(33)

From eq(32)

[-(m/3)ω2-4λθ/L2]q1+[-(M2+2m/3)ω2+4λθ/L2]q2=0 eq(34)

In order to have nontrivial solution for q1 and q2, the

determinant of eq(33),(34) are zero;

The characteristics equations are;

[-(M1+4m/3)ω2+8λθ/L2][-(M2+2m/3)ω2+4λθ/L2]

-[-(m/3)ω2-4λθ/L2]2=0
Thus

ω4[(M1+4m/3)(M2+2m/3)-(m/3)2]

–ω2[4M1+8M2+40m/3] λθ/L2+16(λθ/L2)2=0

Therefore the natural frequency of the mechanism, ω, can be

obtained. Also, the mode shape, or eigen vector can be
obtained for the q1, q2 displacement.

Multi DOF mechanism

The multi DOF mechanism can be designed by fully utilizing

the symmetry and superposition of hinge elements. Fig shows
the 3DOF stage, and 6 DOF stage, respectively. The stress
analysis and design analysis are very much essential for the
stiffness, vibration isolation capability, allowable range and
lifetime. These analysis is quite complex thus, it is much
efficient to use the FEM during the design stage.
 Notch hinge

Circular hinge for

actuator

3 DOFs stage designed (source: SNU Metrology Lab)

6 DOFs Stage Designed

(source: Mun and Pahk, Int.J.Advanced Manuf. Tech)

Angular motion flexure hinge:

In order to generate the angular motion, there are also some

angular flexure hinges such as crossed strip hinge, monolithic
torsional hinge, etc., as in fig, where the bending modes or
the torsion modes of the thin sections or notched parts are
fully utilized.

Cross strip hinge and Torsional hinge

(source: Smith’s Ultraprecision Mechanism Design)