DP IB Analysis & Your notes

Approaches (AA): HL
Modulus Functions & Further
Transformations
Contents
Modulus Functions
Modulus Transformations
Modulus Equations & Inequalities
Reciprocal Transformations
Square Transformations

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at [Link] 1
 Modulus Functions
Your notes

Modulus functions & graphs

What is the modulus function?
The modulus function (or absolute value function) is defined by f ( x ) =x







which gives the positive distance (or size) of a real number x from zero

e.g.

|3 | = 3
|− 2 | = 2
|0 | = 0
It can also be defined as
⎧
x x ≥0
= −x
⎪

x  ⎪

x <0
  ⎨
  ⎪
⎪
⎩

or x 
 
= x2
Its largest domain is the set of all real values
and its range is the set of all real non-negative values

Examiner Tips and Tricks

It is common quick way of saying y = | x | is "y equals mod x ".
How do I sketch the modulus function?
The graph of y = | x | is the line y = x for x ≥ 0

and y = − x for x < 0

giving it a V-shape
with its vertex at the origin
The function is continuous

but not differentiable at x =0

as no gradient exists there

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at [Link] 2
 Your notes

How do I sketch y = a|x + p| + q?

The graph of y = a | x + p | + q is a transformation of the graph y = | x | as follows:

First, apply a vertical stretch of scale factor a to y = | x |

y = a |x|
−p ⎛
⎜
⎞
⎟
Secondly, apply a translation of ⎜⎜ ⎟

⎝
q ⎟

y = a |x + p | + q
,
This transforms the vertex 0 0 on y
( = | x | to
)

the new vertex at −p , q on y = a | x + p | + q

( )

Examiner Tips and Tricks

A lot of students get the sign of p wrong when finding the vertex coordinates
(−, = | + |+
p q from y a x p q .
)

Note that

a > 0 means a ∨ shape

the bigger a the steeper the ∨
a < 0 means a ∧ shape
the more negative the a the steeper the ∧

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at [Link] 3
 Your notes

How do I rearrange a graph into the form y = a|x +

p| + q?
Two useful modulus relations for rearranging are



ab  =  a  b 



a − b  = b − a 
e.g. y= | 6 − 2x | + 1 can be rearranged as follows:
y = | 2x − 6 | + 1
using a − b = b − a
   
   
   

y = |2 x − 3 | + 1
( )

by factorisation

y = | 2 || x − 3 ( ) | +1
=a b
using  ab 
  









|2 | = 2 and | x − 3 | = | x − 3| giving
( )

y = 2|x − 3| + 1

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at [Link] 4
 Modulus Transformations
Your notes

Modulus transformations
How do I sketch the modulus of a function y =
|f(x)|?
To sketch y = | f x |
( )

STEP 1
Sketch the parts of y =f ( x that are on or above the x -axis
)

STEP 2
Sketch the reflections in the x -axis of any parts below

Examiner Tips and Tricks

No part of the graph y = | f x | should be below the x -axis.
( )

How do I sketch a function of mod x, y = f(|x|)?

To sketch y = f |x |
( )

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at [Link] 5
 STEP 1
Keep the part of y =f ( x on, or to the right of, the y -axis
)

Your notes
get rid of any part that is to the left
STEP 2

Reflect the right-hand side in the y -axis to create a left-hand side

This will create a symmetric graph about the y -axis

What are some differences between y = |f(x)| or y =
f(|x|)?
It helps to remember that

y = | f x | can never go below the x -axis

( )

whereas y = f |x | ( ) can

y = f |x | is always symmetric about the y -axis

( )

whereas y = | f x | does not have to have any lines of symmetry

( )

How do I sketch transformations of y = |f(x)|?

To sketch y = af x + b
 
 ( )

 

first sketch y = f x without modulus signs

( )

then apply a vertical stretch of scale factor a

y = af x ( )

followed by a vertical translation of b

y = af x ( ) +b
then take the modulus (using the rules above)

y =  af x +b ( )




To sketch y = a | f x | + b ( )

sketch y = | f x | (as above)

( )

then apply a vertical stretch of scale factor a

y = a|f x ( ) |
followed by a vertical translation of b

y = a|f x
| +b ( )

How do I sketch transformations of y = f(|x|)?

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at [Link] 6
 y
To sketch y= af |x | + b ( )

sketch y = f |x | (using the rules above)

( )
Your notes

then apply a vertical stretch of scale factor a

y = af |x | ( )

followed by a vertical translation of b

y = af |x | +b
( )

How do I sketch y = |f(ax+b)| or y = f(|ax+b|)?

To sketch y = | f ax + b |
( )

b
first sketch y =f ( ax + b which factorises to y = f ⎜⎜ a ⎜⎜x +
)
⎛ ⎛

a
⎞⎞
⎟⎟
⎟⎟

⎝ ⎝ ⎠⎠

1
i.e. first apply a horizontal stretch to y =f ( x of scale factor
)

a
y = f x becomes y = f ax
( ) ( )

b
⎜ −
⎛ ⎞
b ⎜ ⎟
⎟

to the left, ⎜⎜ a
⎜ ⎟
followed by a horizontal translation of ⎟
a ⎜
⎜
⎟
⎟
⎟

⎝
0 ⎠

b
i.e. y =f ( ax becomes y = f ⎜⎜ a ⎜⎜x +
)
⎛ ⎛

a
⎞⎞
⎟⎟
⎟⎟ which is y =f ( ax + b )

⎝ ⎝ ⎠⎠

then take the modulus of y =f ( ax + b using the rules above

)

y = | f ax + b
( | )

To sketch y = f | ax + b |
( )


b 

|a | x +
⎛  ⎞

factorise it to f ⎜  ⎟
⎜  ⎟

⎝



a 

⎠

1
i.e. first apply a horizontal stretch of scale factor
|a| to y = f |x | ( )

y = f |x | becomes y = f | a || x |
( ) ( )

b
⎜ −
⎛ ⎞
b ⎜ ⎟
⎟

to the left, ⎜⎜ a
⎜ ⎟
followed by a horizontal translation of ⎟
a ⎜
⎜
⎟
⎟
⎟

⎝
0 ⎠

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at [Link] 7
 
b 

= f |a || x | |a | x + = f |ax + b |
⎛  ⎞

i.e. y becomes f which is y

⎜  ⎟
⎜  ⎟

a 
( ) ( )

⎝



⎠ Your notes

Examiner Tips and Tricks

When sketching transformed modulus graphs, make sure the corners (cusps) where
parts of the graph have been reflected are drawn sharply.

Worked Example
The diagram below shows the graph of y =f ( x .
)

(a) Sketch the graph of y =  f x  .

( )

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at [Link] 8
 Your notes

(b) Sketch the graph of y = f x  .

( )

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at [Link] 9
 Modulus Equations & Inequalities
Your notes

Modulus equations
How do I solve modulus equations graphically?
To solve | f x | = g x (or | f x | = | g x | ) graphically
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

Draw y = | f x | and y = g x (or y = | g x | ) into your GDC

( ) ( ) ( )

Find the x -coordinates of the points of intersection

How do I solve modulus equations using algebra?

To solve either | f x | = g x or | f x | = | g x | using algebra, the process is the
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

same:
split into two equations

f x
( ) =g x ( )

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at [Link] 10
 f x
( ) = −g x
( )

Solve both equations

Your notes
Check that the solutions work in the original equation
| − |= −
e.g. x 2 − = −
2x 3 splits into x 2 2x 3 and x − 2 = − 2x − 3
( )

the first equation gives x=1

but x = 1 is not a solution to |x − 2 | = 2x − 3

as | 1 − 2 | = 1 and 2 1 − 3 = − 1
( ) ( )

5
the second equation gives x =3
which does satisfy |x − 2 | = 2x − 3 so is the solution
A sketch can help, even when solving algebraically

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at [Link] 11
 Your notes

Worked Example
Solve

2x + 3 

=5
 
 
(a)
2−x
 
 
 
 

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at [Link] 12
 Your notes

(b) 3x

− 1 = 5x − 11 .




Modulus inequalities
How do I solve modulus inequalities?
To solve modulus inequalities
first solve the modulus equation
by replacing the inequality sign with =

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at [Link] 13
 then use a graphical method to find the intervals of x that satisfy the inequality
To solve G
1
≤ 2 1
≥ 2 1
<
G , G G , G G or G G where 2 1
> 2 Your notes
G 1 is graph 1

G 2 is graph 2
STEP 1
Sketch G and G
1 2

STEP 2
Locate the x -coordinates of the points of intersection

these would be x -axis intercepts if G

2
=0
STEP 3
Determine which part(s) of the graph(s) satisfy the inequality

G 1 ≤ G 2 or G 1 < G 2 are where graph 1 is below than graph 2

G 1 ≥ G 2 or G 1 > G 2 are where graph 1 is above than graph 2

STEP 4
Write the range of values of x for these regions

using strict inequalities if G

1
< G 2 or G 1 > G 2
or 'equal to' inequalities if G
1
≤ G 2 or G 1 ≥ G 2
An alternative method is to use a sign table

e.g. where you substitute a numerical value from each of the possible intervals of x
into the original inequality
The solutions are the regions for which the original inequality is true

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at [Link] 14
 Your notes

Worked Example
Solve the following inequalities.

| − 1| < 4
(a) 2x

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at [Link] 15
(b) x

+ 1 < 2x + 3










Your notes

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at [Link] 16
 Reciprocal Transformations
Your notes

Reciprocal transformations
What is a reciprocal transformation?
1
For the graph y =f ( x the reciprocal transformation is y =
)

f x
( )

It transforms points on the graph y =f ( x )

by changing their y -coordinates

1
from a height of y to a height of
y
All x -coordinates stay the same

Points that lie on the line y = 1 or the line y = -1 stay the same

Examiner Tips and Tricks

It helps to know, when sketching, that any points with y -coordinates of 1 stay the ±
same under a reciprocal transformation.

How do I sketch a reciprocal transformation y =

1/f(x)?
To sketch a reciprocal transformation, you need to know

how key features on the original graph y =f ( x )

1
transform to different key features on the graph of y =f x
( )

In general

the larger the heights of points on y =f ( x )

1
the closer to the x -axis they become on y =f (x )

and vice versa

If y =f ( x is positive
)

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at [Link] 17
 1
then y =f x
is positive
( )
Your notes
If y =f ( x is negative
)

1
then y =f x
(
is negative
)

If y =f ( x is increasing
)

1
then y =f x
(
is decreasing
)

If y =f ( x is decreasing
)

1
then y =f x
(
is increasing
)

More specifically

If y =f ( x has a y -intercept at 0, c where c ≠ 0

) ( )

1 1
y= has a y -intercept at ⎜⎜0,
⎛ ⎞
⎟
⎟
f x
( )
⎝
c ⎠

If y =f ( x has an x -intercept (root)at a , 0

) ( )

1
y= has a vertical asymptote at x = a
f x
( )

If y =f ( x has a vertical asymptote at x = a

)

1
y= has a discontinuity at a , 0
f x
( )

( )

The discontinuity looks like a root when you sketch

If y =f ( x has a local maximum at x 1, y 1 where y 1 ≠ 0

)
( )

1 1
y= has a local minimum at ⎜⎜⎜x ,
⎛ ⎞
⎟
⎟
f x
( )
1 y
1
⎟

⎝ ⎠

If y =f ( x has a local minimum at x 1, y 1 where y 1 ≠ 0

)
( )

1 1
y= has a local maximum at ⎜⎜⎜x ,
⎛ ⎞
⎟
⎟
f x
( )
1 y
1
⎟

⎝ ⎠

If y =f ( x has a horizontal asymptote at y = k

)

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at [Link] 18
 1 1
if k ≠ 0 then y = f x
has a horizontal asymptote at y =
k
( )
Your notes
1
if k= 0 then y = f x → ± ∞ ( )

If y = f x → ± ∞ as x → ± ∞
( )

1
y= has a horizontal asymptote at y = 0
f x
( )

Worked Example
The diagram below shows the graph of y =f ( x which has a local maximum at the
)

point A .

1
Sketch the graph of y =f x
(
.
)

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at [Link] 19
 Your notes

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at [Link] 20
 Square Transformations
Your notes

Square transformations
What is a square transformation?
For the graph y = f x the square transformation is y = f x 2
⎡ ⎤
( )
⎢ ( )
⎥
⎣ ⎦

It transforms points on the graph y = f x ( )

by keeping the x -coordinates the same

but squaring their y -coordinates

increasing them from a height of y to a height of y 2

Any points below the x -axis (where y is negative)

transform to being above the x -axis

since y 2 is always positive

Examiner Tips and Tricks

=
The square transformation y ⎢⎣ f x ⎥⎦ 2 shares a similarity with the y
⎡
( )
⎤
= | f x | in( )

that there are no parts below the x -axis.

Points that have y -coordinates of 0 or 1 stay in the same position

How do I sketch a square transformation y =

[f(x)]²?
To sketch a square transformation, you need to know

how key features on the original graph y =f ( x )

transform to different key features on the graph of y = ⎡

⎢
⎣
f x ( )
⎤
⎥
⎦
2

In general

any points on y =f ( x with heights that satisfy |y | > 1

)

move further away from the x -axis on y = ⎡

⎢
⎣
f x ( )
⎤
⎥
⎦
2

any points on y =f ( x with heights that satisfy |y | < 1

)

move closer to the the x -axis on y = ⎡

⎢
⎣
f x
( )
⎤
⎥
⎦
2

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at [Link] 21
 where negative heights are reflected in the x -axis then

|y | > 1
increased if Your notes

or decreased if |y | < 1
More specifically

If y = f x has a y -intercept at 0, c
( ) ( )

y = f x 2 has a y -­intercept at 0, c 2
⎡
⎢
⎣
( )
⎤
⎥
⎦
( )

If y = f x has an x -intercept (root)at a , 0

( ) ( )

y = f x 2 has a root and minimum point at a , 0

⎡
⎢
⎣
( )
⎤
⎥
⎦
( )

If y = f x has a vertical asymptote at x = a

( )

y = f x 2 has a vertical asymptote at x = a

⎡
⎢
⎣
( )
⎤
⎥
⎦

If y = f x has a local maximum at x , y

1 1
( )
( )

y = ⎡⎢⎣ f x ( )
⎤
⎥
⎦
2 has a local maximum at
(
x 1, y 12 if y 1 > 0
)

y = ⎡⎢⎣ f x ( )
⎤
⎥
⎦
2 has a local minimum at
(
x 1, y 12 if y 1 ≤ 0
)

If y =f ( x has a local minimum at x 1, y 1

)
( )

y = ⎡⎢⎣ f x ( )
⎤
⎥
⎦
2 has a local minimum at
(
x 1, y 12 if y 1 ≥ 0
)

y = ⎡⎢⎣ f x ( )
⎤
⎥
⎦
2 has a local maximum at
(
x 1, y 12 if y 1 < 0
)

What happens to x-intercepts under a square

transformation?
The square transformation affects x -intercepts in different ways

If the graph y =f ( x touches the x -axis via a turning point

)

the turning point becomes flatter / more bucket-like on y = ⎡

⎢
⎣
f x
( )
⎤
⎥
⎦
2

e.g. compare y = x 2 to y = x 4
Small heights less than 1 around the turning point get smaller when squared (not
bigger)

( ., .
e.g. the point 0 1 0 01 becomes 0 1 0 0001 (i.e. flattened)
) ( ., . )

If the graph of y =f ( x cuts the x -axis

)

the x -intercept turns into a smooth minimum point

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at [Link] 22
 e.g. compare y = x − 1 to y = x − 1 2 ( )

Your notes

Examiner Tips and Tricks

=
When sketching y ⎢⎣ f x ⎥⎦ 2 make it clear to the examiner that the curve touches
⎡
( )
⎤

smoothly at an x -intercept (do not draw it as a sharp cusp, like y f x ) =| ( ) |

Worked Example
The diagram below shows the graph of y =f ( x which has a local maximum at the
)

point A .

Sketch the graph of y = ⎡

⎢
⎣
f x ( )
⎤
⎥
⎦
2.

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at [Link] 23
 Your notes

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at [Link] 24